Innovative Building Materials

STONESa natural, hard substance formed from minerals and

earth material which are present in rocks.

Rock

the portion of the earth’s crust having no definite

shape and structure

IN CONSTRUCTION:

Rock –

An indefinite mixture of naturally occurring substances, mainly minerals.

Its

composition may vary in containment of minerals and organic

substances, and are never exact.

Stone –

Small piece of rock; may or may not refer to ornamental material.

To ease the understanding of this topic, Rock=Stone.

To qualify as a construction material, stone should have

the following qualities:

Strength

Hardness

Durability

Workability

Density

Appearance

Classification of Stones

1. Geological Classification

2. Physical Classification

3. Chemical Classification

Geological Classification of Stones

1. Igneous Rocks

2. Sedimentary Rocks

3. Metamorphic Rocks

1. Igneous Rocks – formed by cooling of magma

a. Plutonic Rocks – Granite

b. Hypabyssal Rocks – Dolerite

c. Volcanic Rocks - Basalt

2. Sedimentary Rocks – formed by deposition of material on

earth’s surface

a. Residual Deposits

b. Sedimentary Deposits

c. Chemical Depositsd. Organic Deposits

Gravel, Sandstone, Limestone, Gypsum, Lignite etc.

3. Metamorphic Rocks – formed by change in character of

pre-existing rocks.

a. Thermal Metamorphism

b. Cataclastic Metamorphism

c. Dynamo-thermal Metamorphism

d. Plutonic Metamorphism

GRANITE

Widely used Plutonic, Unstratified,

Silicious Ingeous rock.

Medium to coarse grained structure.

Hard and Tough

Density – 2.65 to 2.75g/cm3

Compressive Strength – 200 Mpa

Viscosity – 3-6.1019 Pa.s

Melting temperature – 1215 – 1260 0C

Uses

Flooring Tiles

Foundations

Supplants Marble due to acid rain

– used in monuments

Countertops/Platforms in Kitchen.

Basalt

SANDSTONE

class of rock of cemented silica

grains with texture ranging from

very fine to very coarse. Colors

vary from buff, red and light

brown. Porous where as 30% of

volume composed of pores

Shale

Limestone

LATERITE

Widely used Argillaceous Sedimentary Rock

Contains iron and aluminium oxides – rusty red in color.

Soft and easily broken into smaller pieces.

Brittle – Can be cut into brick-shaped blocks.

Formed in hot and wet tropical areas.

Firm and physically resistant.

Uses

Temples and Monuments.

Crushed Laterite used on road surfaces

QUARTZITE

Metamorphic Rock obtained by heating sandstone under pressure.

Contains various amounts of iron oxide (Fe2O3)

Resistant to Chemical weathering

Uses

Wall Covering

Roofing Tiles

Flooring Tiles

Stair steps

Crushed quartzite is used in road cnst.

MARBLE

Widely used Calcareous Metamorphic Rock

Physically, these are recrystallized, Hard, Compact, fine to very fine grained

metamorphosed rocks capable of taking shining polish.

Hardness - 3 to 4 on Moh's

ScaleDensity - 2.55 to 2.7 Kg/cm3

Compressive Strength - 70 to 140 N/mm2

Uses

Sculpture

Columns

Floors

Pavements

Certain Roofing Materials

SLATEFine grained, foliated, metamorphic

rock

Smooth Flats

Easily Stackable

Uses

Roofing

Floor tiles

Outdoor/Landscape tiles

Wall Cladding

Schist

FLAG STONESedimentary rocks split into layers. Consist of feldspar, quartz, arenaceous

Quarried from fissile bedding planes.

Uses

Paving slabs, Walkways, fencing,

Roofing

Used in memorial headstones, facades

Rubble/Aggregate

consists of rough fragments of broken stone that have atleast one good face for exposure in a wall.

Table 1 Common applications of selected stones.

Application Commonly used stones

Exterior wall cladding Granite, marble, limestone

Interior wall cladding Granite, marble, limestone

Interior flooring Granite, marble, slate

Stair treads and risers Granite

Kitchen counter top Granite

Bathroom counter top Granite, marble

Wall copings and balusters Granite, marble, limestone

Roofing Slate

QUARRYING

The process of taking out stones from natural rock bed.It is carried out at ground level in an exposed condition.

Site for quarry

1. Availability of tools, power, materials and labor.2. Availability of site – Avoiding health hazards.3. Distance of site from transportation facilities.4. Drainage of quarry pit.5. Availability of clean water.6. Economy.7. Absence of permanent structures nearby

incase of quarrying by blasting.8. Geological conditions.9. Quality of stone.10. Quantity of stone likely to be obtained.11. Structural stability.12. Check for cracks and fissures.

Methods of Quarrying

1. Quarrying with hand tools

2. Quarrying with channeling machine

3. Quarrying by blasting

Quarrying with hand tools

1. Digging or Excavating

Instruments like pick-axes, hammers, shovels, chisels, etc are used.

Useful in case of soft stones.

2. Heating

Heating the top surface by placing wood or adding fuel

Useful in taking out blocks of more or less regular shapes.

3. WedgingSteel wedges are driven through

cracks and fissures.

Adopted for costly stratified rocks

like laterite, limestone, sandstone.

Quarrying with channeling machineMachines driven by steam, compressed air and electricity.

Channels are cut around the stone block which is to be removed from rock.

The horizontal holes are drilled beneath the block

Wedges are driven into the holes and the block is then broken loose

Adopted for Marble, Limestone and soft sandstone.

Quarrying by blastingUse of explosives.

To obtain small pieces of rock.

Adopted for quarrying hard stones which have no cracks and fissures.

Tools used are; Dipper, Jumper, Priming Needle, Scraping spoon, Tamping bar.

Detonators, Explosives, and Fuses are the materials.

Saves time and labor.

Precautions to be taken seriously.

Dressing of StonesStones are cut in suitable sizes with suitable surfaces are quarrying.

- To get the desired appearance.

- To make transportation easy and economic.

- To suit building requirements.

Some of the variety of finishes are;

1. Axed finish – Dressed by axe. Ex; granite.

2. Boasted finish – Boaster chisel used to make non continuous parallel marks.

3. Dragged finish – Drag is a piece of steel with a number of teeth, rubbed on

the surface in all directions.

4. Furrowed finish – borderline of 20mm is sunk on the edges. A number of

vertical groves are projected out.

5. Hammer-dressed finish – Uneven surfaces and corners.

6. Polished finish – marble, granite.

7. Reticulated finish – net like appearance.

8. Tooled finish – parallel continuous marks are made with a chisel.

Preservations of StonesTo prevent the penetration of moisture to the stone surface.

To avoid develop objectionable color.

To retain the hardness.

1. Coal tar – creates color and spoils the beauty of stone.

2. Linseed oil – Needs to be renewed frequently. Lasts for a longer time.

3. Paint – Changes the color

4. Paraffin

5. Solution of alum and soap.

6. Solution of Barium Hydroxide or Baryta Ba(OH)2

STONE CONSTRUCTION

Panelingthin slabs of stone cut to dimension and thickness to cover back

up walls and provide finished exterior

Running Bond - a masonry

bond formed when all units

are laid in stretcher position,

with a half-unit overlap

Stack Bond - a masonry bond

formed when there is no

overlapping of all units and all

horizontal & vertical joints are

aligned

Ashlarswork requires the use of cut stone that includes broken ashlars,

regularly / irregularly coursed.

Coursed Ashlar - Ashlar masonry

laid out in courses of equal

height; blocks of various sizes

may be combined to make up

the height of the course

Random Ashlar - Ashlar masonry

laid without regular courses but

with an overall effect of

horizontal orientation

Rubbleworkrandom & no attempt to produced an orderly course either

horizontal or vertical.. Small spaces are filled with smaller stones.

Coursed Rubble - Fieldstone or

roughly dressed stone, with or

without mortar, assembled to

give a effect of courses

Fieldstone - Stone found on the

ground (i.e., not quarried) that is

a suitable size and shape for use

as drywall or rubble masonry

Questions???