1

STEREOTYPING OF MUSLIM CONVERTS: A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON CHINESE

MUALLAF

By

Razaleigh Muhamat @ Kawangit

Abstract

This article set outs to look the situation of Muslim converts stereotyping in

Malaysia which focusing on the Chinese Muslim converts. It was sure that their

Muslim culture applying becomes dilemma when they convert from their own

religion to Islām. It suggests that when these converts begin to practice Islām,

their behavior changes in line with the identity of the Malays. This is because

Islām equates to Malay in the Malaysian context. Whilst they are welcomed by

their Malay counterparts, it is nevertheless hypothesised that they was

influenced by the situation of ethnic stereotyping

1. CONCEPT OF CONVERT IN ISLAM: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The word ‘Muslim converts’ means those who are changed their previous religions to Islām and become

Muslim. In Islām, they are called ‘Muallaf’. The Encyclopedia of Islām explained that the word Muallaf

took from Arabic language ‘Al-Muallafa Qulūbuhum’ which means “those whose hearts are won over” or

“those hearts that need softening”1. The term applied to those former opponents of the rophet

Muhammad s.a.w who are said to have been reconciled to the cause of Islām by presents of or

camels from rophet Mu ammad’s share of the spoils of the battle of Ḥunayn, after Mu ammad’s forces

had defeated the Ḥawāzin confederation, and divided out at the Al-Dijrana. The list included the Meccan

Leader Abū Sufyān and his sons Muaᶜwiyya and Yazīd and various Bedouin chiefs from the tribes of

western A‘rabia. On the other hand, the actual phrase is connected with Qurān in the Sūra Al-Tauba: 60,

which means:

“Zakāt2 is for: the poor, the destitute, those who collect it, reconciling people’s hearts (Muallaf), frees

slaves, spending in the way of Allah, and travellers. It is legal obligation from Allah. Allah is all knowing,

all wise”

From the above phrase, Muallaf should be given Zakāt in purposes ‘to won’ and ‘to soften’ their

hearts to follow Islām as a way of life. To give better understanding about Muallaf especially their

categories in Islamic view, the word should be discussed together with Zakāt. This such two things

determined in Islam as including in Fiqf3 section.

1 C.E Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, W.P Heinrichs and C.H Pellat. 1993. The Encyclopedia of Islām. New Edition.

Volume VII. New York: Leiden. Page: 254

2 Zakāt or known as Islamic religious tax, one of the five basic pillars of Islam. All adult Muslims of sound mind

and body with a set level of income and assets are expected to pay Zakāt. Zakāt and will be paid yearly on certain

types of property determined by religion (Islām). Zakāt is payable, at different rates on basically five items of

income and assets which are crops, harvests, herds, gold and silver, and merchandise.

3 Fiqh refers to the study of the law in Islam and was defined in the side of jurisprudence as the knowledge of the

rights and duties whereas human beings are enabled to observe right conduct in this life and to prepare themselves

2

There are several discussion among the Islamic scholars showed that the term Muallaf also

includes non-Muslim, but only in the purpose of to get their hearts to Islām, for example, al-Qarādāwī

states that there is a group of infidels being courted in the hope that they accept Islam such as the case of

Ṣafwān. During the opening (al-futūh) of Mecca, Ṣafwān was given a period of four months by the

rophet s.a.w to consider about accepting Islām. When the battle of Ḥunayn occurred, he took part in it.

The rophet s.a.w then learnt Ṣafwān his sword and gave him a few camels, taken from a valley.

Consequently, after that incident, Ṣafwān became a good Muslim.4 The adith ṣohīh referring to the event

appears in the Sunan al-Tirmīdhi, which means:

“From Ṣafwān, son of Umayya, who said: “On the day of Hunayn war, the Prophet had given me

something. Truly, he was the person whom I hated most but he always gave me (something) until he really

became the person that I love most”

The adith mentioned above explained that Rasūlullah s.aw had transformed Ṣafwān who hated

him most at first, but through love, care and material showered on him by Rasūlullah s.a.w, his hatred

changed to love. Similarly, there is another adith ṣohīh collected by Shawkāni and cited by Ahmad with

the sanad from Anas:5

“Truly, the Prophet never asks something except for the importance of Islām unless he was definitely able

to fulfil it. Once, a man come and asked him something, he then was told to take a large part of the Zakāt,

(goats) which occupied between two mountains. So, the men went back to his people and said: My people,

all of you should embrace Islām, for Muhammad (loves) gave something as though a person was afraid of

hunger”

As a result, almost of the Islamic scholars agree the non-Muslim as a part of Muallaf as a way to

persuade them to embrace Islām. Unfortunately, they do not verify the categories clearly. Only al-Qurṭubī

mentioned three of them, which are: 6

1. Those who just embraced Islām. They need support in order to build up their confidence towards

Islām. al-Qurṭubī quoted from al-Zuhri, who was of the opinion that those included in this group were the

Jews and Christians who had newly accepted Islām, even though they were rich.

2. Leaders and public figures amongst them and had many friends who were non-Muslims. By

giving them a part of the Zakāt, it was hoped to be able to attract themselves and of their friends and got

them to embrace Islām as was in the case of when Abū Bakar gave Zakāt to Uday bin Ḥatīm and

Zabarqan bin Bdr. Both of them were of high social standings in their society.

3. The middleman’s who can persuade other non-Muslim to embrace and accept Islam such as an

act of war. In this matter, they received a part of the Zakāt to become such a middleman.

for the world to come. See more meaning about fiqh at: Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. 1991. Principles of Islamic

Jurisprudence. Cambridge, U.K.: Islamic Texts Society.

4 Understanding from what al-Ḳarādāwī defined about 'infidel'. See more at: Yūsuf al-Qarādāwī. 986. Fiqh al-

Zakāt. Volume I & II. Lebanon: Mu’assasat al-Risalah. Page: 595

5 Al-Shawkānī, Mu ammad bin Aᶜli. 1987. Nayl al-Awṭar (trns: Maʼammal Hamidy). Volume III. Kuala Lumpur:

Pustaka alAzhar. Pages: 120-121

6 al-Qurṭubī. 9 4. Al-Jamiᶜ i kām al-Quran. Volume 8. Misr: Dar al-Kutub Misriyya. Page: 180

3

After the death of rophet Mu ammad s.a.w, the companions put their attention on the rights in

receiving Zakāt to the Muallaf. They do not explain anymore the meaning of the group, and these were

the reasons, categorizing the Muallaf. or example, during the time of rophet Mu ammad s.a.w, Uyayna

bin Ḥisn, al-Aqraᶜ bin Ḥabīs and Aᶜbbas bin Mirdās were each given a guarantee (a letter) from the

rophet and Abū Bakr that they were given portion of the Zakāt collection. When the letter was brought

to the notice of Uᶜmar, he immediately tore the letter. He said: “The Prophet s.a.w gave you that portion

to entice you to Islām. Now Allah has exalted Islām and there are no longer any bond between you and

us. If you are still in Islām, then we accept you but if you are not, and then our tie is through the sword”7.

After that Uᶜmar read al-Qurān , Sūra al-Kahf:29, say: “It is the truth from your lord, so let whoever

wishes have īmān and whoever wishes be kāfir”.

They went back to Abū Bakr and told him what had happened and thus asked: ”Are you the

Caliph or Uᶜmar?” Abū Bakr answered: “Uᶜmar, Inshāallah”8. Abū Bakr did not refute the sayings and

actions of Uᶜmar, nor did the other companions until that matter achieved the consensus of opinion (ijmaᶜ)

them all, according to some scholars. There were no comments from Uᶜthman and Aᶜli about that portion

hitherto meant for the Muallaf taken away from them. When Abū Bakr was caliph, he kept giving the part

to Uday bin Ḥatīm and the people on his area.

After the companion era, there are a few differences of opinion among the Fiqh Scholars (Ahlu

al-fiqh), for examples, Hanafī iqh scholar is one of the opinions that the portion for Muallaf being

abrogated, they thus lost all rights after the death of rophet Mu ammad s.a.w. They based their opinion

on the ijmaᶜ of the companions of the rophet, since Abū Bakr and the other companions did not question

the action and saying of Uᶜmar.9 However according to al-Qurṭubī, the Malikī scholars have two

differences of views on this matter,10

which are the loss of Muallaf rights is due to the strength and the

expansion of Islām and the rights of the Muallaf are permanent as long as their done their work in

persuading other non-Islām to embrace Islām.

According to Shāfi‘ī, there are two opinions on the problem of giving Zakāt to the Muallaf:

1. The new converts to Islām could be given part of Zakāt because Allah has commanded Zakāt

taken from Muslims to be given back to Muslims and not to be given to people of other religion.

2. The polytheist (Mushrikūn) should not receive any part of the Zakāt even to attract them to Islām.

Although the Prophet s.a.w had once given part of the Zakāt to some polytheist in the Hunayn War but it

was actually from the property of ‘faiḳ’ (‘faiḳ’ is ‘ghanīma’ acquired without the use of force or struggle)

and more specifically from the Prophet s.a.w own property.11

7 Amiur Nuruddin. 1991. Al-Ijtihād Min Uᶜmar Ibn al-Khattab. Jakarta: PN Rajawali Press. Pages: 141-142

8 Ibid

9 Ibid.

10

Op.Cit, al-Qurṭubī. age: 8

11

Op.Cit, Yūsuf al-Qarādāwī, age: 67

4

Al-Nawāwī was in complete agreement with Shāfi‘ī’s opinion that in order to attract the hearts of

non-believers to Islām, faiḳ’s property or any others, could be used, but not out of the Zakāt collection.12

Meanwhile according to al-Qarādāwī, the Muallaf includes both the infidels (Kāfirūn) and the

Muslims, giving the portion of the Zakāt to them would be in order if it could attract the infidels to Islām.

He prohibition is concerning giving a part of Zakāt specifically to them. New converts, however, should

receive their as prescribed.13

There are two things not really clear from the above discussion. Firstly; the time period should

somebody who are newly embrace Islām can be called Muallaf and secondly; related with the interaction

and integration, or in other word, how the Muallaf interact and integrate with the Muslim?. If the time

period referred to the stand of what Uᶜmar act on Uyaynah bin Hisn, al-Aqra‘ bin Ḥabīs and A‘bbas bin

Mirdās, the period only two years. These based on the term which Abū Bakr has been a caliph until the

early term of U‘mar. Unfortunately, some of Islamic scholars after that followed basically on what

Prophet Muhammad s.a.w was done during his life to gave Zakāt to Muallaf (including those are non-

Muslim) as long as they can enhancing Islām. It means, they will remain called as Muallaf and will

receive Zakāt collection.

The way how Muallaf interact and integrate with ordinary Muslim probably can be seen through

the way of Islamic education or sometime the discussion can be found in the ‘daᶜwa Islāmia’14

section.

For example, according to al-Qurṭubī the reason to giving attention and guidance to Muallaf in the way of

Islām is part of daᶜwa methodology since it is obligatory for Muslims to propagate Islām, to save them

from the swords of the Muslims here on earth and the fire in the life after death. After that, al-Qurṭubī

given some impacts by giving them priority in guidance, briefly as follows:15

1. To prevent them from deeds that may spark social unrest.

2. To make them realize the wholesomeness (Shumūl) of Islām as their constant guide on the right

part.

3. To encourage them to hope for the blessing of Allah, so that their hearts are open to accept the

teaching of Islām.

4. To show them how Islām always care and love the Muallaf and that the Prophet Muhammad

s.a.w is the blessing for all and especially the new convert.

Meanwhile, according to Ibn Hishām the purpose of providing guidance to the Muallaf in the

basic knowledge of the ‘Dīn’ (religion) and instilling them with qualities of correct moral behaviour is to

encourage them to willingly embrace Islām, and to avoid evil deeds. Ibn Hishām said, that the best

12

Ibid

13 Ibid.

14 Daᶜwa is an Arabic term meaning 'invite' or 'invitation'. It is considered to be an obligation on Muslims to invite

others to understand and practice Islām as a way of life. Daᶜwa is usually referred to as the act of 'preaching Islām'.

It can apply to both Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, in the al-Qurān, Sūra Al-Nahl 16:125 states: "Invite

(all) to the Way of the Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and

most gracious: for the Lord know the best, who have strayed from His Path, and who receive guidance" . See more

at: Hirschkind, Charles. 2004. Civic Virtue and Religious Reason: An Islamic Counter-Public. USA: Hall

Publication. Pages: 8-30.

15

Op.Cit. al-Qurṭubī,.

5

example of love and guidance can be appeared from ‘Hijra’. The companions were ever willing to

sacrifice themselves, their nation, home wealth, friends and families to migrate to Yathrib (Medina). As

an example, Aᶜli bin Abī Ṭālib willingly took the place of rophet Muhammad s.a.w lying on his bed

even though he knew the pagan Ḳuraish had already designed to kill the rophet s.a.w. Abū Bakr too

constantly looked ahead to ensure that he had chosen the best way for the rophet Mu ammad s.a.w , and

at the same time look back to see no danger coming from behind in order to protect the Prophet s.a.w

whilst on their journey to Yathrib.16

2. CONCEPT OF CONVERT IN MALAYSIA: A COMPARISON

In Malaysia, the concept of convert followed in what was discussed in Islamic view above. This was

strongly reflected with the rule of Zakāt. However, in certain area which not related with the rule of

Zakāt, there are several different practices concerned with the concept and concluded in two areas:

1. The Malay Muslims call the Muallaf as ‘our brother’ (or ‘Saudara Kita’ in Malay language) and

‘new brother’ (known in Malay language as ‘Saudara Baru’). The word ‘new brother’ (Saudara Baru),

used in the Malay Muslims society in Malaysia, is to indicate and state that someone has embraced Islām.

By referring to them as such, is a way to enhance Islamic brotherhood, care and love to the converts.

However, this also may alienate the converts and make them separated from the main stream of the

Muslim umma as the converts may feel that they are not one of the born Muslims. This can divide the

Muslims into born Muslims and converts. This is not good for interaction and integration, that is, to

socialize and mix freely as Muslim brothers.

2. In general, instead of the words ‘Saudara Kita’ and ‘Saudara Baru’, Malay Muslims categorized

all the converts in one category called ‘Muallaf’ which referred to those who are not from Malays. It

happen because as Malays, they do not know whether the Muallaf born as a Muslim or just embraced

Islām. Then, it invited some problems as well. or example, the word seems like there are gap between

them, and for sure it will be referred to the racism problem (further discussion regarding the problems will

be presented later in sub-heading). On the other hand, the Muallaf feel in prior complex because they

assume they are on themselves without any support from their surrounding. All this make the interaction

and integration between Malays as a majority and the Muallaf as ‘new comers’ to Islām become worst.

The problem appeared not just a simply facts and it was faced not only by Muallaf but also by other

minorities. The different are, what was happen to Muallaf considered as between Muslim, while the rest

are between different races.

However, the usage of different concept in Malaysia related with two things above connected

with the definition and the existence of both Malays and Chinese in Malaysia and will be argued after

this. In this research, the term ‘convert’ will be used in the same meaning with Muallaf. The term utilize

in bringing several denotations such as to differentiate between those who are born Chinese Muslim and

those who are embrace Islām after born as a non-Muslim. It also applied in the constitution of Malaysia17

as a person who changed his religion and some regulations especially in distributing Zakāt fund at state

religious departments in Malaysia usually refer to such term.

16

See more at: Ibn Hishām, Aᶜbd al-Mālik al-Ḥimyarī. Al-Sira al-Nabawiyya. Beirut: Dar al-Jil. Pages: 98-123.

17

The word Muallaf was used in the Administration of Islamic Law Enactment of Malaysia, 1992 and the Law

Reform (Marriage and Divorce) Act, 1976. It also used in the same meaning of Muallaf (those who are embraced

Islām and not from Malays) in Article ( ) and Article 2 (3) and (4), ederal Constitution of Malaysia.

6

3. STEREOTYPING OF MUSLIM CONVERTS

Generally, in Malaysia, cultural differences do not prevent the various ethnic groups from interacting and

integrating across ethnic boundaries. However, certain religious values do have implications for

interethnic interaction and integration. For example, it is hard to find a Muslim who would go to a temple.

Similarly most of the Chinese (non-Muslim Chinese) would seldom go to a mosque and participate in its

activities as the Malay value system different from the Chinese. Islām is monotheistic and exclusive

whereas the Chinese religious beliefs are polytheistic and rather tolerant of others. While the Muslims are

forbidden to worship idols, the Chinese do not believe so. The principles and rules stated in the al-Qurān

are uncompromising with regards to the worshipping of idols. However, the Chinese worship idols and

also their ancestors as a way for showing filial piety. Food is another hindrance for social interaction and

integration. Pork is forbidden to Muslims and all Muslims adhere to this strongly. Some Muslims also

restrict themselves to eating animals slaughtered in the name of Allah.

On the other hand, the Chinese consume pork as a traditional food item. They do not have much

restriction for their food except that a small number of them are vegetarians and some do not take beef.18

Because of this, Muslims do not go to the Chinese restaurants where pork is served. This has therefore

reduced the frequency of social interaction and integration between the Muslim Malays and non-Muslim

Chinese.

Currently, there seems to be greater awareness among the ethnic groups sensitiveness towards

one another. The Chinese understand that pork is not eaten by the Malays. Because of it, most of the

organizers of social functions will prepare food which is religiously alāl for the Malays. Chinese friends

inviting Malays for meals will generally take them to the alāl food restaurants. Ten years ago, most of

big hotels in Malaysia served pork as a main item on their menus. Now, as many Malays have become

successful corporate figures and the number Malay professionals residing in the town is quits big, most of

the big hotels in Malaysia have ceased to served pork as it is costly to have two separate cold storage

areas for meat, one to cater for the Muslims and another for the non-Muslims. As a result, there are more

opportunities for interethnic interaction and integration in the big hotels amongst the wealthy Malays and

Chinese.

Moreover, in school, children of the Chinese, Malays, Indians and others have plenty of

opportunities to mingle at a young age except in independent Chinese schools, where most of the students

are Chinese and in religious school where most of the students are Muslims.19

In conclusion, the

interaction and integration between the races in Malaysia had a rose up indicators. Currently, there are

also more exchanges of invitations and choices of friends from other ethnic groups.

One of the stereotyping of a Chinese who embraces Islām is known in Malay language as ‘Masuk

Melayu’, which is known in Chinese language as ‘jip huan’ or become Malay. In the Chinese Hokkien20

dialect, this means to enter the way of ‘an uncivilized race’. As one of the identity makers of the Malays

in Islām, inevitably when a convert embraces Islām, he or she will surely learn some of the Islamic

norms. Not taking pork or taking pork is a maker of identity for the Malays and Chinese respectively.

18

The culture and practices of Malaysian Chinese can be found at: Asmah Hj. Omar. 2004. Encyclopedia of

Malaysia: Languages and Literature. Kuala Lumpur: Edition of Dedier Millet. Pages: 52-53

19

Ibid.

20

Malaysian Chinese used several dialects in their language. The Cantonese and Hokkien are the largest dialect used

by them. Other dialects are Teochew, Hainanese, Hockchiu and Highwa. Ibid.

7

Circumcision is to the Chinese a Malay identity. This is usually taken as proof of ‘masuk Melayu’ by the

Chinese21. Even though Islām is universal and even in China, many Chinese are Muslims. In Malaysia,

Islām is identified with the Malays. Similarly, the non-Muslim Chinese and Malays have different

customs not only regarding food, clothing, decorations of the houses, but also funeral rites. It is the

religious obligation of the Muslims to wash the corpse, dress it properly, pray to Allah and bury it, usually

without a coffin and with the face looking westward. For the Chinese, the corpse is usually kept in the

coffin; ‘paper money’ known as ‘heaven money’ is usually burnt and the corpse will face the sky.

Thus, it can be seen that in the colonial era and a few years after independence, there was very

little interaction and integration among the ethnic groups. As discussed before, the colonial policy was the

main factor. Besides those differences in religions, food, culture and value systems further separated the

Malays and the Chinese. The number of Chinese in Malaya who before independence intended to return

to China was high. A big number of them had dual citizenship even after independence. The national

status of a Chinese living in Malaya was a matter of considerable uncertainty during the colonial period.

All persons born in British territory of Singapore, Penang and Malacca (during the colonial period,

Singapore, Penang and Malacca put directly under colonial government and the people automatically

have British citizenship, meanwhile the remain states considered as Malaya) held British citizenship but

Chinese born in the Malay states (other than Singapore, Penang and Malacca) were not British subjects

nor were they subjects of the Sul ān (head of the states).22

They were treated by the British authorities as

British protected persons and were granted passports accordingly. Finally, after the independence, British

no longer to give British citizenship to those who are stayed in Singapore, Penang and Malacca.

It was happen as well in the side of education. The educational system was indefinite. The

Chinese generally sent their children to the Chinese schools with their syllabus adopted from mainland

China and this cultivated their nationalism towards China; Malays sent their children to Madrasa

(religious school) and Indian to Indian schools.23

There is no space for them (Malays, Chinese and Indian)

to interact and integrate as a community (Malaysian community).

As a result, to the Malays, the Chinese were foreigners. They came from China and controlled the

economy of Malaysia which the Malays feared greatly. Nowadays, the desire among the Chinese to go

back to China has become history. The young Chinese do not have any memories of their fathers and

forefathers who harboured the hope to go back to China. None of them would like to return to China as

living is hard over there.24

However, the races stereotyping in Malaysia should be look as well from the

angle of ethnic situation. Then, it can be cleared why it was happen.

Malaysia’s strategic location has made it the target of cultural impacts and influences from

countries such as China, India, Indonesia, the Middle East and those in Europe. Malaysia is a 'melting pot'

of the culture of the great world.25

During the pre-colonial era and before the coming of Islām, Malaysia

21

M. Kamal Hassan and Ghazali Basri. 2005. The Encyclopedia of Malaysia. Volume 10: Religion and Beliefs.

Singapore. Page: 110

22

Ibid.

23

Asmah Hj. Omar. 2004. Op.Cit.

24

M. Kamal Hassan and Ghazali Basri. 2005. Op.Cit.

25

See more about Malaysia or Malaya as a 'melting pot' at: Shuid, Mahdi and Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi. 2001. Malaysian

Studies. Kuala Lumpur: Longman. Pages: 29-31

8

or Malaya it was known then, was very much under the influence of Indian culture.26

Till today, the

Hindu influences are evident in the language, literature and customs. For example a couple who just

married mostly in all races will be called ‘Raja’ from the word Sanskrit which means ‘free to do

anything’.

While Hinduism has had an influence, the most important influence on Malaysian history is

Islām. Islām was introduced by the Indian and Arab merchants to the local people. When the Malacca

Ṣultān became Muslim after 4 , Malacca became the centre of Islām and from it, the religion spread to

other regions. Now, it is obviously a very important religion and is the official religion of all the states of

Malaysia and is the religion of all the Malays in Malaysia.27

A big numbers of Indian Muslims, a few

converted Chinese Muslims, as well as some native people are also Muslims. The influence of Islam can

be seen in the existence of the mosques throughout the countries, the various customs related to Islām, the

ways of clothing of the Muslims and the holidays of the Islamic festivals.

Meanwhile, in the colonial era, Christianity was introduced to Malaysia. Missionaries followed

the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511 and also later when Malacca fell to the Dutch in 1641.

The British finally extended full territorial rights to the whole of Malaya.28

Presently, there are churches

belonging to both the Catholic and Protestant denominations throughout the country. The influences of

Christianity can be seen in the various schools, hospitals and orphanage homes set up by the missionaries.

Besides that, Christmas is a national holiday for Malaysia.

Unfortunately, during the British colonial era, the Malays were the most neglected ethnic group in

Malaya. The Malays were not given much chance to work and they stayed in the rural areas. The Malays

also did not have much chance of a good education as they did not like to go to the Christian missionary

schools. Furthermore, the colonial government had no intention of advancing the Malay ethnic group

economically. The British exploited the ethnic situation in Malaya. They wanted the natives to remain a

backward ethnic group so that they would not think of ruling their own country. The natives were

stereotyped as a backward and lazy people and were not given much chance in education or other fields.29

Luckily, since independence, Malaysia has undergone rapid changes and development in the

various fields of activities. The policy of the government is to unite all the ethnic groups so that they can

make this country their home. It has always been the policy of the government to maintain and strengthen

goodwill, understanding and friendship among people of all races so that they ultimately will be able to

regard themselves as members of one nation and as one people. This takes time but it must be the

unshakeable determination of all of Malaysian to move ahead toward the goal.

However, the problem in Malaysia is that it is a melting pot of some of the most important

cultural traditions in human history. Here, the culture of China, India, the Middle East, Europe and

indigenous polynesian Malay culture have come together.30

Thus, the challenge is to harmonize the

various cultures and this is not an easy task. The three main ethnic groups of Malaysia, Malay, Chinese

26

Ibid.

27

M. Kamal Hassan and Ghazali Basri. 2005. Op.Cit

28

Ibid. 29

Ibid. Pages: 200-204

30

Shuid, Mahdi and Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi. 2001. Op.Cit.

9

and Indian are not only physically different from one another but also differ in a sociological sense. They

have differences in customs, languages and religions. On the other hand, non-Malays Muslims who

conform to Islamic norms are generally accepted as Malays. There is no colour prejudice at all. It appears

that the main barrier to interethnic marriage is related to religions and customs.

In the recent past, the implementation of Malay as a official language as well as the medium of

instruction in the schools and universities in Malaysia has enable more young people to speak Malay.

Besides, there are now more books published in Malay. The Main Malay newspaper has become the most

circulated newspaper as many Chinese also read the Malay paper. The Malay language has indeed

become the common language used for interethnic communication.31

After the Second World War, there were a few isolated outbreaks of interethnic violence. The

racial riot at May 13, 1969 or known as May 13 incident32

could have easily got out of control.

Fortunately, the ethnic leaders had mobilized opinion against violence and ethnic hostility. At the time of

the riot, the Chinese were envious of the political position of the Malays while the latter were envious of

the economic position of the former. The Chinese firmly believed that their wealth was due to their

industriousness, thriftiness and adaptability to modern ways. The Malays believed that they were 'the sons

of the soil' and they ought to control the country. They perceived that the Chinese were brought in by

foreign rule and they should have any political stake or economic power in the country.33

However, after independence, new development took place. Polarisation of population among the

various ethnic groups was fuelled by political and economic competition besides differences in languages,

customs and religions and demand for education of individual ethnic groups like the ‘Merdeka University’

(means Independence University) for the Chinese. This led to mistrust among the various ethnic groups.

Finally after the 1969 election, another ethnic conflict broke out. Since then, Parliament has passed an act

forbidding the people from discussing sensitive issues such as the position of the Ṣultān (states and

Islamic leader in Malaysia), the rights of Bumiputera34

, the official language and the official religion of

the country. The government also implemented a new policy called New Economic Policy (NEP)35

to

31

See more related with the implementation of Malay language at: Asmah Hj. Omar. 1989. The Malay spelling

Reform. Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society. Volume 11. Pages: 9-13

32

The 'May 13 Incident' is a term for the Malay-Chinese riots which was started in Kuala Lumpur on 13th

of May,

1969. The riot also happens in two other states in Malaysia which are Selangor and Perak. Luckily, the remain of the

states are not involving with the riot. Local journalist reported that 196 people were killed within one and half month

of the riot. Then, the government declared 'National Emergency' and suspended the Parliament started from the date

of the riot until 1st of January, 1971. See more about this riot at: Hwang, In-Won. 2003. Personalized Politics: The

Malaysian State under Mahathir. Hong Kong: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Pages: 78-100

33

Ibid.

34

Bumiputera (was taken from Sanskrit, 'Bhumiputra'; means 'son of the soil'), is an official definition widely used

in Malaysia, embracing ethnic Malays as well as other indigenous ethnic groups such as the Orang Asli in

Peninsular Malaysia and the tribal peoples in Sabah and Sarawak. Economic policies designed to favour

Bumiputeras (including affirmative action in public education) were implemented in the 1970s in order to defuse

inter-ethnic tensions following the May 13 incident in 1969. See more about this term in: Hwang, In-Won, Ibid.

35

NEP stands for 'New Economic Policy' or DEB for 'Dasaqr Ekonomi Negara in Malay language is a socio-

economic restructuring programme launched by the Malaysian government in 1971. It was ended in 1990 and

changed with the new policy known as NDP (National Development Policy) in 1991. The NEP or DEB and NDP

both have a same objective which is targeted a 30% share of the economy for the Bumiputera especially for the

Malays. See more about both policies at: Goh, Cheng Teik. 1994. Op.Cit. Pages: 64-78

10

bridge the economic gap between the Malays and the Chinese. The two biggest ethnic groups, the Malays

and the Chinese have their own values, norms and practices different from each other.36

On the other hand, during and after the Japanese occupation (1945-1947), some Chinese joined

the Malayan Communist Party (MCP). Although only a small number of Chinese become members of

MCP, the Chinese were generally stereotyped as communists by the Malays at that time.37

Political and

economic competition between the Malays and Chinese, the economic differences between the two ethnic

groups and differences in the value system, culture, languages and the long period of mistrust developed

eventually into major communal conflict (on May 13 incident). After that, especially after a new

economic policy was introduced to eradicate poverty of all ethnic groups and than to attempt to give the

Malays 30% of the management and share of the economy. The Malay language also was made the

medium of instruction in all schools and even in the universities later. Many states government authorities

also encouraged Malays to participate in commercial corporations lead by the government.38

There were

also great structural changes. The public sectors especially the police, navy and air force have become

staffed mostly by Malays. Most of the academicians and administrative staff of the Universities are also

Malays. The number of medical practitioners, lawyers, accountants, engineers and other professional

people from the Malay ethnic group has also been increasing rapidly.

As a result, there are also more Malays in the towns than in the past. There has also been more

interaction and integration between the Malays and the Chinese, right from primary schools and

secondary schools and universities compared to the colonial era.39

Besides schools and universities, there

have been much more interaction and integration in many places and many sectors and obviously there

have also been more visits from one ethnic to another. Political leaders also take the opportunity to have

‘open house’40

since it encourages social interaction and integration among various ethnic groups.

Finally, because of the introduction of the Malay language as a medium of instruction in schools

and universities, the young Chinese can all speak Malay. Thus the Malay language as a unifying force has

been successful. With the prolonged impressive economic growth of Malaysia, as well as the very low

unemployment rate, the ethnic competition for economic welfare has been much reduced. However,

personal interaction among the various ethnic groups in Malaysia is restrained by the different religions of

the people. or example, as Islām is a religion with strict rule, the Malay being the Muslim will not like to

enter a house where a dog is present. Many Chinese families unfortunately rear dogs as pets and for

security reasons.

On the other hand, some of the food originally belonging to one ethnic group has become neutral

in ethnic identity. For example, ‘Nasi Lemak’ (Coconut Rice) is a very well-known Malay food but now it

is a food commonly taken by all ethnic groups in Malaysia. Similarly, ‘Yong Tau Fu’, ‘Mee’, ‘Bee Hun’

and ‘Kuew Tiaw’ are originally Chinese food but are now accepted by all ethnic groups. Further more,

certain social behaviours are still a sign of particular ethnic identity. For example, wearing ‘Songkok’ (the

36

Hwang, In-Won. 2003. Op.Cit.

37

Kernial Singh Sandhu. 1964. The Saga of the 'Squatter' in Malaya. Journal of South East Asian History. Page:

72

38

Goh, Cheng Teik. 1994. Op.Cit. 39

Shuid, Mahdi, Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi. 2001. Op.Cit.

40

'Open house' or known in Malay language as 'rumah terbuka' is an Malaysian concept whereby people celebrating

various holidays will invite friends from all races for drop by for festive snacks and fellowship.

11

information about this thing will come later) is a sign of Malay identity and is unbecoming for the

Chinese to wear it. Using chopsticks for taking food may not be acceptable to some Malays.

Thus, it appears that the two ethnic groups of Malays and Chinese have similar values in certain

aspects but different in others. Their main differences are the way of life including the religion aspect. For

examples, in religion aspect, the worshipping of the death is forbidden in Islām while it is virtue to the

Chinese. On the other hand, both the Malays and Chinese visit the graveyard to clear the grass growing

around the tomb. The Malays used to read the verses of al-Qurān and offer prayers to Allah for the peace

of the death during the Eᶜid festival41

while the Chinese used to bring offerings like steamed cake with

roasted pork to offer the death during the ‘Cheng Ming’ festival.42

They also burn candles and incense

while worshipping the death in the cemetery during this festival. These acts are strictly forbidden by

Islām.43

However, Malays as an ethnic group have great powers of absorption. Even as early as during

British period there were some Chinese who had converted to Islām and integrated into the Malay group.

They are called Chinese ‘Peranakan’44

. Other example is about the Malacca state sultanate was Hindu

initially but when their descendents embraced Islām, they too were integrated into the Malay group and

become known as the Malacca Islamic sultanate. The Malays also had absorbed the Javanese (people who

came from Java island, Indonesia), the Indian Muslims, the Aᶜrab Muslims and the Orang Asli (native

people) Muslims. All these groups have been integrated into the Malay race.45

The Chinese in Malaysia being an ethnic group with their own distinctive culture, languages,

beliefs and value system should be measured their interaction and integration into the Malay community.

Then, Malaysia will be known as the most harmonies country in the South East Asia region. With an

impressive economic growth of an average of 9% per year46

and full employment for the past five years, it

is less likely an ethnic conflict would occur in Malaysia now.

However, the ethnic relationship through historical background above cause an policy

enforcement in 97 known as ‘ 97 National Culture olicy’ in Malaysia. Even though, the policy still

on disputing agreement but the content was encouraged Malaysian to have better interaction and

integration.

41

'Eᶜid' festival is a celebration just after a month of fasting called Rama ān. It was celebrated by all Muslim.

42

'Cheng Ming' festival celebrates by Malaysian Chinese by worshipping the death in the cemetery.

43

Shuid, Mahdi and Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi. 2001. Op.Cit.

44

Chinese Peranakan or also known as 'Baba-Nyonya' Chinese are term used for the descendents of the very early

immigrants to the Straits of Malacca (the Straits of Malacca represent three states in Malaysia which are Malacca,

Penang and Singapore. Unfortunately, Singapore was asked by the first Prime Minister of Malaysia to set up own

their country because of the political reasons in 1963). Chinese Peranakan now remains their own religion and

belief but they practices mostly Malays culture in their way of life. They are a good example for the 'assimilation'

between Chinese and Malays. See more at: Khoo, Joo Ee. 1998. The Straits Chinese: A Culture History. Kuala

Lumpur: The Pepin Press. Pages: 21-35

45

Khoo, Joo Ee. 1998. Ibid.

46

Ibid.

12

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