Staying Cool:

Advanced Tech PaperRobert Bowen

Mechanical Cooling Into the future.

For My Neglected Family.

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Contents.

Part 1. Inroduction.History.How Air Conditioning Changed Architecture.The Humming Threat.Hydrothermal Cooling.Examination of Favourability of Hydrothermal Cooling in Cape Town CBD.Conclusion.

Advanced Thech Paper forMasters of Architecture

School of Architecture Planning and GeomaticsBwnrob003

Plagiarism Declaration.

Start.

Plagiarism Declaration. Preface.

I Know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is to use another’s work as though it is my own. I have used the Harvard convention for cita-tion and referencing. Each contribution/quotation in this paper of another has been referenced. This paper is my own work.

R.M Bowen4-May 2013

Aside. How a Window Unit A/C Works

I.II.

1.2.

5.11.14.

17.24.

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Staying Cool

The way and where we live today is an amalgamation of many derivatives, yet if I were to ask you to list those inventions that have had the greatest effect on society, air-conditioning would likely be rather far down your list. Cold air may not have permeated South African culture as it has elsewhere but make no mistake our lives are greatly influenced by it. This invention has changed how and where we live, the technology available to us and what we do for fun. This of course has a direct impact on architecture.This paper aims to inform the reader on the role air conditioning has played in shaping our communalities, illustrating how the world has become dependent upon it and what implications this holds in the light of global warming. As a solution it

explores the technology and spatial implications of Hydrothermal cooling –also known as lake source cooling (LSC) and seawater air conditioning (SWAC). This is the practice whereby cooling is enabled through a process of extracting heat by making use of a naturally cold body of water. It opens by briefly tracing the development of air-conditioning. This discussion opens the opportunity to explore the architectural side effects of comfort cooling. By explaining the operation of hydrothermal cooling we can begin to explore the spatial implications of its infrastructure.The closing section of the paper examines the conditions which potentially make Cape Town C.B.D. a feasible location for a district cooling facility.

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Preface.

fig. 1, Cool air, a status symbol

Introduction.

1. Graaff’s total wealth at his death is unclear but in 2007 the Graaff Trust alone amounted to over R700million(Sir David Pieter de Villiers Graaff, First baronet of De Grendel, 2011)

This paper forms one aspect of my Masters of Architecture thesis. There are another two avenues of investigation which work together with this one and inevitably will form a building. This paper investigates the technology of air-conditioning and the industrial scale district cooling plant as well as the spatial implications of such infrastructure. To contextualise how recent this technology is, the paper opens with a short historical narrative. Running tangential to this technical paper is the historical narrative which led to these investigations. It follows and mildly re-manipulates the life of Sir David Pieter de Villiers Graaff, a capitalist extraordinaire1 and pioneer of cold storage in South Africa. The third and linking aspect of my thesis is the theory paper which investigates the application of place-identity theories as a means for architects to provide meaning to industrial buildings. It does this also off a platform of historical explanation. My thesis proposes an industrial building which follows the cold storage tradition set up by Graaff but appreciates the requirements of public responsibility and offers architects an opportunity to reform the negative perception industry holds.

Preface Staying Cool

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History.

fig. 2, Willis Carrier beside the first ever electrical mechanical cooling plant.

History

It is a little known point of pride, that comfort cooling, at least in the modern sense, breathed its first cold sigh of life in Cape Town in the 1840s. Charles Piazzi Smyth, an assistant astronomer at the Colony’s Royal Observatory may have caught onto the possibility of using compressed air for the production of cold through discussion with the talented Sir John Herschel. He was inspired by the heat of a Clanwilliam summer which he described in a letter “the earth was as iron and the heavens as brass and everyone fainting from heat”. (Simons, 2000, pp 23)Upon his return to Cape Town Smyth set about creating an invention which was capable through some mechanical means to supply a house with air “considerably lower than that outside.”Despite the absence of data which would have assisted in these calculations, Smyth succeeded in creating the first ever air-conditioning unit (Simons, 2000).This charming story was made possible through a long line of investigation into thermodynamics. In 1758 Benjamin Franklyn and John Hadley investigated means of cooling through evaporation, they succeeded in driving the temperature of an object to below the freezing point of water. (Constable, 2003)

This step was picked up later in 1820 when Michael Faraday discovered that the compression and liquefaction of ammonia could drastically reduce temperature when allowed to evaporate. In 1842 John Gorrie, generally accepted as the father of refrigeration and air-conditioning, made use of this technology to create ice. The forward thinking Gorrie understood the massive potential for the technology and, despite an underperforming machine, was granted a patent in 1851. His financial backer died,however,and the commercial success of indoor climate control was put on hold. His idea of blowing air over ice into a room was applied by a group of naval engineers in their attempt to save President James A. Garfield. This event ensured the idea lived on (but unfortunately not the president). (Constable, 2003) (Green, 2012).

fig. 3,June 1938, U.S Congress recieves cool air, reported to have cost $3,5 million.

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History

James Harrison, another optimistic inventor, was granted a patent for an ether vapour-compression refrigeration system in 1855. The closed system made use of a 3m wide flywheel and produced 3000kg of ice per day, which was a massive break through! However, it was only in 1902 that the first electromechanical air-conditioning unit came into being. (Constable, 2003)Willis Carrier, working at Buffalo Forge Company, began searching for ways to solve an application problem experienced by a Lithographing and Publishing Company.The device he offered up as a solution was designed to improve the printing process in a plant by controlling, not only temperature, but also humidity.Carrier inverted his knowledge of heating through steam which he’d learned at the Buffalo Forge Company.He understood that instead, blowing air over a cold coil would cause condensation, thus eliminating humidity and creating a machine which subsequently controlled the indoor environment. It was sufficiently effective to maintain paper dimension and ink alignment. Suddenly four colour printing was a reality. (Constable, 2003)Boldly, Carrier and 6 other engineers pooled their life savings to form The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America to meet ever-rising demand for controlled indoor environments. The demand at first was centred on industry, from chocolate, photographic film, explosives, to tobacco, and the elimination of fluctuations in production made the invention indispensable. It wasn’t long thereafter that air conditioning was being used to improve home comfort. The emergence of the window cooler and then whole house systemsin the 1950s by companies such as Carrier and Kelvinator ensured the global explosion of domestic comfort cooling. Escape from humidity and high temperatures was now possible and so ironically encouraged human occupation of those regions. (Constable, 2003)

How Air Conditioning Changed Architecture.

fig. 4, Right, After thought Architecture in China creates a varied facade.

Air conditioning for many of us is the cool oasis inside our cars, offices and homes activated by the flick of a switch. While it is a means of escape from the harsh summer heat, the effects of air conditioning go much further than mere atmospherics. Air conditioners have profoundly altered where and how we live, and of course the spaces in which we live.Before air conditioning, houses were much more likely to follow a vernacular that naturally kept buildings cool. Before ‘architecture’ arrived in South Africa thatch was a popular building material, readily available, it is water proof and allows for ventilation and shade. Shade always featured prominently in South African vernaculars. Early Cape buildings had thick insulating walls punctuated by shuttered openings which again allow for ventilation. The Victorians looked to the

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How Air Conditioning Changed Architecture

covered porch as a means of dealing with the hot climates in the colonies. This they coupled with large ventilation grates and high ceilings and a central corridor which cross ventilated. The need for shade also saw large eaves and overhangs become standard but as the air-conditioner became ever more popular the need for shade began to diminish. The priorities of solar orientation shifted while window openings expanded. (Arnold, 1999)(Badanes, 2012)The social implication of all this is architecturally important too. Before the domestic air conditioner was easily available it became an attraction within itself. Large stores and movie cinemas were guarantee better business on hot nights if they were equipped with climate control. In the states this has even been linked with the ’golden years’ boom Hollywood experienced at the time. The migration off ‘stoeps’ and indoors also contributed to the death of the street and public life not only here but in many warm and humid countries around the world. Combined with radio and television families were more likely to be inside than out. (Ferguson, 2006)With capitalism accepted as the global system the air conditioner promoted large

scale indoor shopping centres which allowed consumer culture to flourish within mechanically controlled environments, transforming shopping from a chore to a form of recreation. The luxuries of shopping have nowhere been more encouraged by refrigeration than the food industry where foods from around the world are now available to the consumer, now liberated from locally grown produce.

fig. 5, A/C changed how much time we spend indoors and subsequently social culture.

Air-conditioning also became a status symbol, being associated with luxury cars and exclusive hotels. In the United States it was of such importance that motorist were known to drive around in extreme heat with their windows up in order to fool their neighbours, such was the prestige associated with the invention. It permeated social culture as a point of pride and conversation but also changed the way we work. ( Fergusson, 2006)‘Fully air-conditioned’ office space became a selling point and was previously inhabited by only the most prestigious companies, even today space doesn’t qualify as ‘P-grade’(previously triple A) without it. Despite this it wasn’t until various studies connected temperature controlled environments and productivity that the office boom truly took place. (Plumer, 2012)Prior to this the primary concern of office buildings was daylightsince the electric light bulb had not yet fully infiltrated the office type.This had the positive side effect of allowing easy cross ventilation. However the proliferation of both air conditioning and

fig. 6, Sealed lightwell of the Larkin Building

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the light bulb eliminated the need for cross ventilation and daylight. Buildings were free to have bigger floor plates whilst being deeper and darker. (Arnold, 1999)The Larkin Administration Building was the first fully air conditioned office space anddesigned by innovator Frank Lloyd Wright. Thankfully it did not fall victim to the temptations mentioned above, which characterised the laziness of architects and engineers in the latter part of the 19th century. It was a 5 storey building with a covered courtyard in the centre. Wright described it thus in his biography a “simple cliff of brick hermetically sealed (one of the first air conditioned buildings in the country)…” In 1936 Wright could no longer ignore the seductive advances of the technology and he designed the Johnson Wax Building with hardly any windows. (Arnold, 1999)Today, work and productivity is unaffected by uncomfortable climatic conditions. Economies have, in fact, been built upon it. Dubai, Japan and an array of Asian cities as well as the American Sunbelt would not be the economic powerhouses that they are today were it not for the ability to work tirelessly through impeding conditions. In the 1950’s according to The Economist, a study of government typists showed productivity improved by 25% and on factory floors a notable reduction in absenteeism was noted as a result of air conditioning. (Plumer, 2012)

Today mechanical climate control solves the same problem in delicate circuit board manufacture as it did in its first manifestation controlling the variations due to heat and humidity for accuracy. The tech industries upon which most globaleconomiesrely would undoubtedly not exist were it not for air conditioning which enables the functioning of electronics in hot and humid conditions.The spatial implications of air conditioning are also often overlooked. The typical domestic unit has not been much reduced over time though its form and efficiency has improved. Today companies are ever searching for more discreet indoor systems. Getting smaller and sleeker and even displaying images, the business end remains a chunky box ejecting warm air. The unpleasantness of the exhaust

fumes and general lack of a pleasing aesthetic means the business end of the unit has been placed in less public locations. This didn’t prevent the window unit from proliferating office block facades the world over. More often than not an afterthought, the A/C did very little to improve the appearance of your standard building. In larger applications the desire to remove the noise and unsightly appearance of units from public display saw them migrate to the roof. Valuable commercial properties in C.B.D.s around the world have dedicated their roofs to the hiding of services. A shame when one considers rental rates and the commercial opportunities rooftops offer.

fig. 7, ‘Cliff of a building’,Larkin exterior.

How Air Conditioning Changed Architecture

fig. 8, A/C roof arrayadvert.

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Today an A/C dependent culture has allowed humans to spread beyond their means. Harsh climates such as Las Vegas and Dubai would never be occupied as they are today without air-conditioning, at the same time this came at the degradation of local vernaculars and globalisation meant buildings anywhere could communicate the capitalist ideals which underpinned them. Many industries from food to tech are highly dependent on air conditioning. One would be hard pressed to imagine a world today without air-conditioning, our lives and cultures are dependent upon it and there is no turning back. (Cox, 2012)(Economist, 2013)

The Humming Threat.

Air conditioning has spread globally but few countries have taken to it in such a fashion as the United States of America.In 1992 Gwyn Prins, a Cambridge University professor, called “physical addiction” to cooled air America’s “most pervasive and least noticed epidemic”. This is a problem since air conditioning remains uselessly inefficient with almost 40% of its electrical input being returned as heat. This in turn contributes to the “heat island” effect in cities. According to Stan Cox the author of Losing our Cool, the amount of energy used to cool American homes has doubled in the last 12 years and accounts for nearly 20% of

electrical use. (Rosenthal, 2012)What is more the air conditioned lifestyle as popularised by the U.S. Is becoming an aspiration for developing nations much the same way as that of the car, but at a fraction of the price. The New York Times reported that growth in A/C unit sales increased annually by 20% in both China and India as their middle class populations surge. Chinese cities with air conditioning rose from 8% to 70% between 1995 and 2004 according to The Economist.Worryingly, many of the cities expected to boom in coming years lie in hot climes. These are not limited to China and India as growth in Africa and South America are forecast to further increase demand for A/C units. (Rosenthal, 2012)

fig. 9,The prolific spread of air conditioning

How Air Conditioning Changed Architecture

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Part of the problem is that A/C sits in a positive feedback loop. The warmer it becomes the more likely people are to turn up their air conditioning and the warmer it subsequently becomes. While the effect of this dramatic increase in electrical demand in countries powered primarily by coal is sufficiently worrying to environmentalists another threat looms large. (Rosenthal, 2012)(Fergussen, 2006)The gasses which replaced the Ozone depleting CFCs are being produced in vast numbers unanticipated by scientists who predicted a steady decline in their production as the Montreal Protocol phases them out. HCFCs are still mildly damaging to the Ozone. The latest gasses which have been adopted by developed nations are also showing massive growth. Most popular in the US is an HFC coolant called 410a, which is labelled environmentally friendly as it spares the Ozone yet its warming effect is 2100 times that of CO2. The protocol cannot protect against these gasses since it only regulates Ozone depleting gasses. (Rosenthal, Lehren, 2012).It becomes clear that stemming the air conditioning demand is not likely. More efficient buildings will be required and more efficient means of cooling will be essential.

How a Window Unit A/C Works.

The window unit is comprised of a few essential parts.

- An evaporator: receives liquid refrigerant - Condenser: facilitates heat transfer - Expansion Valve: Regulates the quantity of refrigerant flowing into the evaporator - Compressor: An electric pump which applies pressure to the refrigerant

The interior section of an A/C unit contains the evaporator and a fan which cools air and removes humidity by blowing it over chilled coils. The condenser and exterior fan, exhaust hot air received from the compressed refrigerant coils. The expansion valve regulates the amount of compressed liquid refrigerant moving into the evaporator. Here it experiences a drop in pressure causing it to expand and reform into a gas. This results in a cooling effect as energy is required and absorbed from the air (like evaporation, it saps heat). When the gas returns to the compressor it requires an input of energy (electrical), to force it back under pressure into a liquid. The process is then repeated with the excess heat by-product exited outside and air blown over the cold coils inside.

fig. 10,The conventional window unit.

Note how indoor and outdoor air

do’t mix

How Air Conditioning Changed Architecture

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Hydrothermal Cooling.

The process of hydrothermal cooling is fairly straightforward and logical. A cold natural body of water is circulated and used to absorb heat from a separate circulation of water, this separate circulation is used to provide the cooling required in regular commercial building A/C units. This is further described by the process below which is illustrated by Ocean Thermal Energy Corporation for potential customers.The natural cold body(lake or ocean) is tapped from a depthwhich corresponds to year-round ideal chill temperatures (i.e., 5 – 8 deg C). This depth can be dependent on a range of variables from salinity to nearby industry.1. At the district cooling plant the heat is transferred from the circuit which services the A/C units of the city to cold water which is pumped and circulated from lake or ocean.This heat transfer usually takes place in a large reservoir. The seawater flows into the reservoir counter-current to the fresh chill water loop which circulates the buildings. Once the building loop is completethe warmed water is returned to the ocean.Very importantly, the fresh chill water loop never comes in direct contact with the sea or lake water. This removes concerns of contamination or silting. The circuit which serves the buildings is fresh water which can pass safely through the serviced buildings’ central air systems without harm to existing systems or air handling units/coils.

2. The blue and red lines underground represent the circuit which serves the buildings. Itabsorbs heat from typical central air conditioning systems through the existing air handling coils/units. The blue line enters the building to a small heat exchange type unit called an air handler (conventional central air conditioning system). The red line represents the chill water after it has extracted the heat from the building and returns to the chill water system back to the heat exchange facility to “dump” the heat. Once cooled it is returned to the buildings which it serves to absorb more heat.

3. These buildings represent the serviced buildings. The cold water (blue lines) travel through the typical building’s central air conditioning system,

Hydrothermal Cooling

fig. 11,Hydrothermal diagram

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Typically, this method of air conditioning will save approximately 80 – 90 % of the energy normally consumed for conventional air conditioning. Seawater District Cooling requires power only to operate the pumps. It does not consume electrical power to chill, which is a substantial cost-driver, making traditional air conditioning much more expensive and energy intensive. Overall, there are significant cost, energy and environmental benefits to sea water district cooling as compared to conventional air conditioning systems.

Hydrothermal Cooling

Cornell University Hydrothermal Cooling Plant

Case Study. extracting heat from the rooms via the air handling units and then return to the district cooling plant as warmed water via the return distribution lines (red).

4. The red pipeline coming out of the district cooling building is the seawater or lake water return which has been modestly raised in temperature to typically 12 degrees Celsius. (OTEC, 2013)

Cornell University has been an early pioneer of district cooling. In the mid-1990s their aging system required an upgrade. Instead of simply replacing the system with a contemporary equivalent the university sought a more efficient, environmentally friendly system with a longer lifespan. This of course was more costly at about $60 million, though the true cost when energy savings are accounted is a saving. The solution was to take advantage of the local geography and design a lake source cooling plant. (CUUD, 2001)The original system dated back to 1963. It was serviced by three central cooling plants which contained eight electric chillers. Of the eight, six could not be converted to non-CFC refrigerants. It was impossible to upgrade the units and not economically viable to replace them whilst meeting the growing demand for campus cooling. (CUUD, 2001)Engagement with community and stakeholders was of utmost importance to the project and opportunities for the surrounds were explored. These included the provision of long term, budget cooling to Ithaca High School and upgrading and replacement of Ithaca infrastructure including utility lines, sidewalks and streets at a fraction of the usual cost. (CUUD, 2001)Potential adverse effects of any project which manipulates natural systems should always be investigated. In this case the Environmental Impact Study was a four year study. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation gave the go-ahead but the University is required to continue a lake monitoring programme which, through an independent review, will continue to verify the safe operation on the lake. (CUUD, 2001)One concern was the effect of warmer return water to the lake which was fortunately found to be negligible on water organisms. The result is a heat effect comparable to an addition of 2-4 hours of sunlight a year. In summer months a 3% increase has been noted in phosphorous levels resulting in an increase of algal growth near the outflow exit. In all it has been touted as an environmental success. The environmental Impact Statement (EIS) claimed “no significant adverse environmental impact.”

fig. 12,Aerial View, Cornell lake souce cooling plant

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Cornell University Hydrothermal Cooling Plant Case Study 1.

The project was started in 1999 was completed in 2000 and contributed $2 million dollars to the Ithaca economy. (CUUD, 2001)The plant serves over 371 400sqm of campus space producing 30 million ton-hours of cooling a year. At peak demand 16 000tons of cooling capacity is produced. It has an efficiency of 0.75kWh/ton-hour below that of a typical district cooling plant (1.0 kWh/ton-hour) (CUUD, 2001)The plant reduced its cooling-related electricity usage by 80-90% and the campus’ overall demand by 10%. In 2001 that measured up to a reduction of over 21 million tons of CO2 emissions. (CUUD, 2001)Some of the environmental benefits include:

-A reduced energy equivalent of 2500 American homes. -A reduction in CO2 emissions by 24 million kilograms per year -A reduction in SO2 emissions by over 292 thousand kilograms per year -A reduction in NO2 emissions by over 25 000 thousand per year -The reliance on 18 thousand kilograms of CFC’s which were safely eliminated from the old system safely.

(CUUD, 2001)

Fig.15, The graph depicts KwH on the Y axis and Months on the x. The green represents savings in comparison to the old system.

fig. 13,Interior 1, Cornell LSC Plant

fig. 14,Interior 2, Cornell LSC Plant

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A Comfortable Feeling

Examination of favourability of Conditions for Hydrothermal

Cooling in Cape Town.The Cornell University case study above displays how district cooling holds much promise for a more sustainable means of indoor climate control. It is however important to keep in mind the particular requirements of such a plant. In an effort to consider the potential for such a plant in the Cape Town CBD this section will attempt to consider some of the variables which should be considered.The first aspect one should consider is access to a natural cold body of water. Cape Town CBD does have access to a cold water source. Surface Temperatures beyond the harbour drop to a region (12 degrees Celsius) near optimal for application. With an ocean shelf depth of 100m it is expected the depths will hold ideal temperatures. This is based on diving reports for the region which record temperatures 2 – 4 degrees less than surface temperatures at depths of approximately 25m below the surface. (Gooddive, 2010) In order to reach the prime location between depths and distance a pipe would have to extend beyond the high water mark and across the harbour. This was noted as a listed activity by Joshua Conrad Architects during their investigation of ocean cooling for the waterfront BP building. (Conrad, 2013) This implies the need for an environmental impact assessment. The distance however is favourable since the CBD is located close to the ocean source with sufficiently low temperatures at surface level to warrant exploration, should colder temperatures be required, one would have to extend beyond our continental shelf a much more costly affair, this could be mitigated by circulating water faster through the system faster. Cape Town experiences a Mediterranean climate which is characterised by warm to hot summers. Furthermore the Cape Town CBD suffers from the heat island effect. It is also expected that in line with global climate change trends Cape Town summers will become longer and warmer. (Jack, 2011) The installation of the infra structure associated with a hydrothermal plant could pose a challenge. The Cornell Plant services an area of 371 400sqm its distribution pipes are a diameter of 107cm. The Cape Town CBD has reportedly 784,920m² of commercial and 380, 000 of commercial space² (Fleming A, 2012) Research into the demand and projected growth for Cape Town would be required to devise an optimal arrangement, but a 160cm pipe could be buried below the city surface linking the heat exchange building with the ocean, though it would cause much disruption. From the plant to various distribution nodes smaller pipes can be

Fig.16 Cornell Plant water wells, which help maintain constant pressure through the system.

Fig.17

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used. Calculations would need to be made in order to obtain a balance between pipe diameters, pipes in parallel in relation to plant capacity. (Multiple smaller plants initiated over a certain time period may prove more affordable)Suspending pipes above the surface would reduce costs; this would have major spatial implications. Thinner pipes could link onto existing infrastructure such as the freeways but larger pipes would need to be carefully integrated into the city fabric, providing both obstacles and opportunities which would require careful design work.The majority of commercial buildings within the CBD were built not long after the Foreshore reclamation project in the 1940s. Many were designed for use with air conditioning. These systems are now reaching the ends of their 50 to 60 year life cycle. Those that have already been updated with contemporary chillers can easily receive district cooling connection.1 (OTEC, 2013)(CUUD, 2001)As a major city in the developing world, Cape Town with a large youth population(Fleming A, 2012) will likely accelerate its current growth of 4.06%.( Fleming A, 2012) It is likely that the expanding middle class will follow trends similar to that of BRICS neighbours India and China. In such a case electrical demand for air conditioning on the already strained South African electricity grid will be pushed to the limit. (DoE, 2011a)(DoE, 2012b)All this while demand for P-Grade (Previously known as AAA) office space as well as A and B grade continues to increase in the city centre. (Fermer, 2013) Air conditioning plays a major role in the grading system of spaces, and as the market place shifts, demand for ‘green’ buildings is likely to increase. This implies a trade

Fig.18, This data captured by ROFFS depicts water temeratures and currents. note the favourable ‘cold’ dark blue in the Cape Town region and up the west coast.The blue line represents the charted path of the research vessle.

1 - This poses a challenge for the City’s older buildings, with heritage difficulties, inserting air conditioning becomes too costly but without it, it rental income is greatly diminished since it doesn’t satisfy basic rental grading requirements.

2 - An ocean thermal energy plant is a form of energy generation that reverses the process of an air conditioner. It makes use temperature difference to generate electricity; it requires large areas for massive electricity gains however.

off between air conditioning and sustainability, however lower electrical rates as a result of hydrothermal cooling can potentially mediate this. (SOAPA, 2012)This demand will not be mitigated as the historically low cost of energy in South Africa is set to rise dramatically in the short to medium term(Eskom, 2012) resulting in the inefficient and dated air-conditioning units becoming liabilities to those wishing to let. This condition is compounded by the lack of energy security the grid currently offers. (DoE, 2011a)(DoE, 2011b)(Eskom, 2012)The potential income from such a service is favourable too, the Ocean Thermal Energy Corporation has competed projects around the world. Their current major contact requires the construction and operation of 2 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Plants2 and the provision and operation of hydrothermal cooling to a vast number of hotels in the Bahamas. The expected revenues are $2.5 Billion. (OTEC, 2012) That such profit can be made offers insight to the wastefulness of current systems. In the Cape Town context the large energy savings of Hydrothermal District cooling plants offer favourable conditions to both the City as well as the private sector, both as service provider and client.

Examination of favourability of Conditions for Hydrothermal Cooling in Cape Town

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Conclusion

The air conditioning unit, in its short existence has had profound effects on the way we live. Its impact society profoundly and will continue to be so. Social changes directly influence architecture. In this way the a/c unit may be seen to have inadvertently affected the society for who architects design as well as the designs they produce. While not as prolific in South Africa as in the United States the status and luxury associated with climate control is sure to be massively appealing to the growing middle class. As such it can be expected that South Africa will follow other emerging markets in demand for air conditioning.Cornell University has shown hydrothermal cooling to be an environmentally friendly means of cooling. With the impending increases to energy costs in South Africa it offers an economically viable alternative to current systems despite the large capital investment required. The long term life span of hydrothermal cooling makes it a desirable venture for large corporations which could offer it as a service. Cornell University has also shown how public participation during the initiation presented opportunities to the city to improve facilities through its installation at a fraction of the cost.Energy costs are set to rise dramatically in coming years. These expenses will have dramatic effects on the rental Market of office spaces in the Cape Town CBD. Given the 2015 implementation of a carbon tax in S.A, shifting away from coal based electricity will likely have significant positive implications for users of alternative types of energy or energy consumption. (Budget review 2012, national treasury) Demand for a cheaper form of cooling will incentivise building owners who wish to maintain their letting rating to consider hydrothermal cooling.Cape Town offers a suitable location for the use of such a plant since demand for mechanical cooling and temperature are set to increase. The coastal shelf lies at a depth of 100m; it is likely waters at this depth will be sufficiently cold for operation. This requires further investigation however as this assumption is made based on

the average 10 degree Celsius temperatures recorded at shallow depths of 25m by Cape Town dive sites Other obstacles lie in the form of environmental impact assessments which can be time consuming. Hydrothermal cooling plants are not damaging to the environment and the results EIA will likely result favourably. All considered it would make good financial and environmental sense to further investigate hydrothermal cooling as a means of providing the Cape Town C.B.D with air conditioning.

3 - The increases in Eskom day time electricity usage has been attributed by Eskom system operators, to increased use of air conditioning(Burton, 2013)

Should such a plant be commissioned, it would be advantageous to the project as a whole to consult with architects. The scale and spatial implications of such a project presents various challenges. These challenges offer architects opportunities which could be exploited in order to negate the negative impacts,

while creating unexpected positives.

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Personal Correspondence

Burton, J, 2013, Personal Correspondence, Energy Research Centre, University of Cape TownPeer, T, 2013, Personal Correspondence, University of Cornell, Energy Plant ManagerFermor, N, 2013, Personal Correspondence, Retail Broker JHI, Cape Town

SourcesAlter, L, 2012, Air Conditioning is like Driving: It’s Convenient and our Society is Built around It. Treehugger, 27 June 2012, Accessed 2 May 2013, Available: http://www.treehugger.com/urban-design/air-conditioning- driving-it-convenient-and-our-society-built-around-it.htmlArnold, D, 1999, The Evolution of Modern Office Buildings and Air Conditioning, Ashrae Journal, Accessed 2 May 2013, https://www.ashrae.org/File%20 Library/docLib/Public/200362710169_326.pdfBadanes, S, 2012, We’ve Forgotten Natural Cooling, The New York Times, 21 June 2012, Accessed 2 May, Available: http://www.nytimes.com/ roomfordebate/2012/06/21/should-air-conditioning-go-global-or-be- rationed-away/air-conditioning-made-architects-lazyConstable, G, 2003, A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives. Joseph Henry Press, U.S.A pp. 109 – 120Cox, S, 2012, Cooling a Warming Planet: A Global Air Conditioning Surge, Environment 360, 10 July 2012, Accessed 2 May 2012, Available: http://e360.yale.edu/feature/cooling_a_warming_planet_a_global_air_ conditioning_surge/2550/Department of Energy, Medium Term risk Mitigation plan for South Africa, 2010 Accessed 2 May 2013 Available: www.energy.gov.zaEskom, 2012 Multi Year Price Determination 2010/11 – 2012/13, Accessed 2 May 2013, Available: www.eskom.co.za/c/53/tariffs-and-charges/

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Rosnthal E, 2012, The Cost of Cool, The New York Times, 18 August, accessed 2 May 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/19/sunday-review/air- conditioning-is-an-environmental-quandary.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 Cornell, 2001, Lake Source Cooling at Cornell Operations Report, Cornell University Utilities Department, Ithaca, Accessed 2 May 2013, Available: www.utilities.cornell.edu/lsc Unknown, 2010, Cape Town Dive Guide, GoodDive, Accessed 2 May 2013, http:// www.gooddive.com/south-africa-diving/cape-town-diving.htmUnknown, 2010, The History of Air Conditioning, Ra-Jac Sales and Services, Accessed, 2 May 2013, Available www.air-conditioners-and-heaters.comEconomist, 2013, No Sweat: Artificial Cooling Makes Places Cool but at a Worryingly High, Economist Jan 5 2013, Accessed 2 May 2013 Available from: http://www.economist.com/news/international/21569017-artificial- cooling-makes-hot-places-bearablebut-worryingly-high-cost-no-sweatUnknown, 2013, Ocean Thermal Energy Corporation, Accessed, 2 May 2013, Available http://www.otecorporation.com/seawater_district_cooling.html

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Fig 1 - carrier Vintage Air Conditioner advert, print ad, viewed 4 May 2013 http://www.flickr.com/photos/retroarama/6006572595/sizes/l/in/pool- 76406699@N00/Fig 2 - Carrier Poses proudly before first chiller, carrier Foundation photograph, viewed 4 may 2013 http://www.wired.com/thisdayintech/2009/07/dayintech_0717/ Fig 3 - Library of Congress photograph,viewed 4 May 2013, http://grist.org/news/on-the-110th-birthday-of-air-conditioning-stay-cool/Fig 4 - Air conditioning in china, Switchboard- Natural resources defense council photograph, Viewed 4 may 2013 http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/plehner/in_china_air_conditioning_ is_e.html Fig 5 - Liberating Climate control, Getty images Photograph, viewed 4 May 2013 http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142405270230356770457751678 1107829966.htmlFig 6 - Interior of larkin Building, 1903 Photograph, Viewed 4 May 2013 http://blog.naver.com/PostView.nhn?blogId=purecong&log No=40105568544Fig.7 - Seneca Street side of the Larkin Administration Building, Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society Photograph, Viewed 4 may 2013, http://wnyheritagepress.org/photos_week_2011/larkin_demolition/lar kin%20demolition.htm Fig. 8 - A/C roof array advert,Air-Plus Refrigeration photograph, Viewed 4 may 2013 http://airplusrefrigeration.com/residentialAirConditioning.htm

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Fig. 9 - edited by Author, comprised of Photographs, Viewed 4 may 2013, RachelR_NZ, http://www.airconco.com/news/invasion-of-the-air-condition ers-189.html Saureman, L, Buenos Aires, http://www.flickr.com/photos/leobard/39230940/ Wolf, M, Architecture of Density, 2012 http://photomichaelwolf.com/#architecture-of-densitiy/1 kei Ho, H, 2012, hong kong, http://www.hangkeiho.co.uk/portfolio/the-air-conditioning-of-social-mobili ty/Fig. 10 - Diagram of workings of an window unit air conditioner Graphic, Accessed 4 May 2013 http://air-conditioning-hvac.knoji.com/how-to-tune-up-your-window-air-con ditioner/Fig. 11 - Unknown, 2013, Ocean Thermal Energy Corporation, Accessed, 2 May 2013, Graphic, Available http://www.otecorporation.com/seawater_district_cooli ng.htmlFig. 12- Aerial View of Cornell LSC Plant Photograph, Edited by Author, Personal Correspondence, Peer, T, 2013, Personal Correspondence, University of Cornell, Energy Plant ManagerFig. 13- Interior View 1 of Cornell LSC Plant Photograph, Edited by Author, Personal Correspondence, Peer, T, 2013, Personal Correspondence, University of Cornell, Energy Plant ManagerFig. 14- Interior View 2 of Cornell LSC Plant Photograph, Edited by Author, Personal Correspondence, Peer, T, 2013, Personal Correspondence, University of Cornell, Energy Plant Manager

Fig. 16- Cornell LSC Water Wells and lake Water pumps photograph, Cornell, 2001, Lake Source Cooling at Cornell Operations Report, Cornell University Utilities Department, Ithaca, Accessed 2 May 2013, Available: www.utilities.cornell.edu/lsc Fig. 17- Cornell LSC Explanatory diagram graphic, Cornell, 2001, Lake Source Cooling at Cornell Operations Report, Cornell University Utilities Department, Ithaca, Accessed 2 May 2013, Available: www.utilities.cornell.edu/lsc Fig.18- Oceanographic Analysis December 5th 2006, Graph, ROFFS, Accessed 4 May 2013 http://www.roffs.com/oil-and-gas/pascagoula-to-qatar-rig-tow/

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