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RICE IN NORTH EAST INDIA
Status Paper on Rice in North East India
Dr. S. V. Ngachan1 Dr. A. K. Mohanty
2 & Dr. A. Pattanayak
3
1 Director, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam-793193, Meghalaya
2 Programme Coordinator, KVK, ICAR Sikkim Centre, Ranipool, Sikkim
3 Principal Scientist & Head, Division of Plant Breeding & Genetics, ICAR Research Complex, Umiam, Meghalaya
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RICE IN NORTH EAST INDIA
Introduction
Household food and nutritional security of North-eastern states of India predominantly
depends on rice. Rice is the principal food grain crop of the North Eastern hilly ecosystem
followed by maize, occupying 3.51 million hectares which accounts for more than 80% of the
total cultivated area of the region and 7.8 per cent of the total rice area in India while its share in
national rice production is only 5.9 per cent. The total rice production of NE region is estimated
to be around 5.50 million tones with average productivity of 1.57 t/ha, which is much below the
national average of 2.08 t/ha (Pattanayak et al., 2006). During the post-green revolution period
due to introduction of improved varieties, the rice yield in NEH region has been enhanced up to
40% that plays a pivotal role in increasing the productivity (Borthakur, 1993, Dhillon et al., 2001).
Rice cultivation in the NEH region of India is exposed to different biotic and abiotic stresses that
include extreme temperatures at the time of flowering and grain filling stages thus resulting a
very dismal figure in rice productivity and production of the region which in turn reflects a lower
per capita consumption as well.
The NE region is considered to be one of the hot pockets of rice genetic resources in the
world and a potential rice-growing region with extremely diverse rice growing conditions as
compared to other parts of the country. Being the secondary centre of origin of rice, the NE
region is rich in diverse germplasm that shows the distinctness amongst the germplasm which
have been collected so far. Selection made unknowingly by various ethnic groups inhabiting at
different altitudes and climatic situations, practising different forms of cultivation might have
also contributed to some extent towards the diversity of rice crop in this region (Sarma et al.,
1988). However, Richaria and Govindaswami (1990) were of the opinion that although the
surrounding hi11 regions recognized as center of origin of rice, the genetic base of rice may have
diminished since the introduction of modern high yielding rice varieties. It is worth to mention
that the primitive rice cultivars including the wild species are the rich source of rice genetic
material to be used by modern plant breeders which contributed to the development of present
day high yielding varieties. The tribal inhabited belt is more often the centre of domestication
and genetic diversity of rice crops very often assumes importance due to some unique genetic
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rice materials being maintained by peasants and subsistence farmers which differ in numerous
characters such as plant height, duration, photo-sensitivity, grain size and shape, grain aroma,
cooking quality, tolerance to various biotic and abiotic stress situations, etc.
It is roughly estimated that during the past more than 30,000 rice cultivars were grown in
the eastern and north eastern parts of India. The north eastern region is also home to a large
number of aromatic and quality rice varieties. In fact, the whole region is considered as a
veritable treasure trove of rice germplasm with wide genetic resource of rice.
However, the NE region is lagging much behind the other advanced states as far as the
production and productivity of rice are concerned. In post green revolution period after 1960s,
consolidated research efforts have been taken up in the field of crop improvement and crop
production in rice, but the growth in production and productivity is still at minimal state.
Rice in NEH region is grown in varied ecosystems that spans over the high altitudes of
Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh; flood prone areas of the Brahmaputra and Barak valley of Assam
and also upland, steep terraces, rainfed, irrigated and deep-water, Jhum and tilla land ecologies
of the other states of the region. The increase in rice production and productivity over the past
30 years is marginal and much below the national average; most part of which are attributed to
expansion of rice area mainly in the summer season in 90’s. Rice self-sufficiency is only about 80
per cent in north-eastern India. States like Assam, Manipur and Tripura can easily produce
surplus rice. Others can improve their production potential and productivity with suitable
interventions.
Zonal information
The north-eastern hill region presents
most diverse condition for rice growing in
terms of slopes, altitudes, agro-climatic
conditions, soil types etc. The widely diverse
agro-climatic conditions along with other
physiographic conditions have led to immense
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variability among rice cultivars in the NE region.
a. Physiography of the region
The region is characterized by diverse agro climatic and geophysical features which make
the region unique in many ways (Sarkar, 1994). Physiographically the entire NE India is divided
into four well differentiated units: i) the eastern Himalayan region, ii) the eastern mountain
region, iii) the Meghalaya- Mikir tableland and iv) the Brahmaputra valley. The eastern
Himalayan zone receives heavy rainfall and hence is clothed with thick vegetation with physical
landscape of rocky surface, alpine vegetation and snow capped high peaks. The Eastern
mountainous zone are relatively low, ranging from 1000 m towards the Brahmaputra valley to
5000 m towards China. The altitudinal pattern of the NE hills varies widely. The average
elevation of Patkai range in Nagaland is 600-1410m whereas Tripura ranges from 400 - 700 m.
The narrow and deep valleys and the hills in Mizoram are deficient in water. The Meghalaya-
Karbiolong plateau covering an area of 32821 km is under the regime of heavy rainfall, feeding
the streams perennially. The plains physiographic divisions comprise the Brahmaputra valley,
the Barak valley and the terai region of North Bengal. Of the total geographical area of Eastern
Himalayan region, 35% lie in the elevation range of below 150 m, 26% between 150 - 1200 m
and 18% between 600-1200 m. The NE region is also divided into three distinct macro-
physiographic divisions, viz. (i) Lofty Himalayan Mountain, (ii) Subdued Peninsular Block and (iii)
Great Brahmaputra Alluvial Plains. These divisions have further been subdivided into eight units:
i) mountains, ii) piedmont slopes, iii) longitudinal valleys, iv) flood plains, v) river terraces, vi)
slip-off-slopes, vii) leaves and viii) filled river courses (Sarkar, 1994).
b. Climate
The Eastern Himalayan zone is broadly divided into three climatic regions (Table 1).
Table 1. Climatic regions of Eastern Himalayan zone
Climatic features Sub-regional components
Humid mesothermal warm
temperature with dry winter
Gangetic type
Brahmaputra valley, Barak valley, Terai region of
North Bengal, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland,
Mizoram, Tripura and Assam Hills (sub-regions ii, iii, IV
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and V)
Cold snow forest climate with warm
season
North eastern ArunachaI Pradesh, lower hills of
Sikkim and Darjeeling district
Cold snow forest climate with mild
warm season
Northern parts of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim
The altitudinal differences coupled with varied physiography contributes to great climatic
variations in NE India. Therefore, the climate of NE region varies from near tropical in the plains
of Assam Tripura and south Mizoram to near alpine in the northern Sikkim and Arunachal
Pradesh. The greater part of the region has, however, subtropical climate. The annual
precipitation received in the region comes largely from south-west monsoon, which sets around
middle of May and continues till the end of October. Over the past few decades of rainfall
pattern data, the average annual minimum and maximum rainfall in the region is estimated to
be 1637 mm and 6317 mm respectively.
The climate of Arunachal Pradesh is characterized by low temperature and extreme
humidity due to the presence of extensive forests and high altitude. The year can be divided into
rainy season from March to November and the cold season from November to early March, thus
resulting there is no hot season in the state. During winter, heavy fog hangs over the hills, rivers
and valleys. Climatically, the state can be divided into three zones: (a) the foot hills and first
range of hills falling in the monsoon belt, which are sub-tropical, (b) above first rang and up to
the foot of the snowline falling in the temperate zone, where climate is temperate and alpine
and (c) above snowline. The normal average maximum and minimum temperature are 28° C and
20° C respectively and relative humidity is 79.7%. The annual average rainfall varies from 750
mm to 6,250 mm.
The climate of Assam is humid subtropical nature with warm humid summer and cool
dry winter. While the eastern and southern Assam has more moisture availability, that in the
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western and central Assam is comparatively less. Although the rainfall in Assam is high but its
distribution over time and space is not uniform. The period from December to February is
virtually dry having only 65.9 mm rainfall. Among the districts, Karbianglong receives the lowest
rainfall (1152 mm) while Cachar and Lakhimpur the highest (3000 mm). The mean annual
maximum temperature varies between 23.6° C and 31.7° of C and minimum temperature varies
from 10° C - 25.2°C. The average solar radiation indicates that the radiation interception is only
36 - 38% of the sunshine hours during June to August owing to continuously overcast sky. Flood
is a regular feature affecting rice production in Assam. On an average 0.5 million ha of rice lands
are annually damaged by flood.
The climate of the hilly region of Manipur abutting Nagaland north is same as the
climate of Nagaland. The valley of Manipur constituting of about 960 km2
shows mosaics of
colour pulsating in the forests to indicate seasons. While the temperature seldom dips lower
than 5° C in winter, it rarely goes above 27° C on an average excepting hot summer days. The
state blends well with other sister states in respect of rainfall. Average rainfall is around 2375
mm and the major precipitation occurs from July to September but monsoon starts during May
and extends up to October.
The climate of Meghalaya is characterized by coolness and humidity, which is the
natural result of the great water surface and extensive forests over which evaporation and
condensation proceed and at the close proximity of the hill range excessive precipitation takes
place. From the beginning of November till the end of February, the climate remains cool and
the temperature seldom exceeds 27° C.
In Mizoram, the average maximum and minimum temperature are 30°C and 12°C
respectively with an average rainfall of 1660 mm.
The climate of Nagaland is similar to those of other hilly states of the region. The major
precipitation occurs between July- September but rainy season commences from May onwards.
Winters are coldest with an average minimum temperature ranging from 1o C to 13° C in the
entire state.
In Sikkim, the extreme variations in elevations account for extremely varied climatic
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conditions. In accordance with normal lapse, rates of temperature, the low valley bottoms with
altitude less than 600m above msl have moist tropical or humid tropical climate. The climate in
areas with 2000 m elevation, becomes cool. From this altitude onwards, low temperature
prevails till the height reaches 6000 m asl. Higher up in elevation, coolness increases
progressively till snowline is reached. The climatic conditions in this zone (above 3600 m)
changes from arctic to polar.
Tripura enjoys more or less an equitable climate. As the hilly areas are not very high,
there is little variation in climate in various parts of the state. The average maximum
temperature, minimum temperature, rainfall and humidity of Tripura from the past few years
observations was calculated to be around 34° C, 10° C, 2700 mm and 81.5% respectively.
c. Soil type/Nutrient management
As per USDA taxonomic system of classification (1973), the soils of NEH region have
been classified into 5 orders of Inceptisols, Entisols, Alfisols, Utisols and Mollisols (Samra and
Patiram, 2001). Preliminary soil survey conducted in a representative manner has indicated
presence of at least 278 soil series, which are classified, defined and mapped in systematically
by the NBSS & LUP. Soils of NEH region of India have developed in situ on many types of rocks.
The rock formations commonly found are: sandstone shale, sultone, conglomerate and
limestone. These are mostly soft rock and easily weatherable and crodable. In some places of
Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh granite, phylites, geneiss and quartizities have also been
found. The soils occurring in the region are generally classified into orders - entisols, inceptisols
and alfisols. Occurrence of ultisols has been reported in Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya from
various studies. The heterogeneity in the soil characteristics of the region is attributable to the
interacting effects of various soil forming factors.
In the hilly region, soils have developed largely on shale and to a lesser extent on slate
and sandstone of different colours. High rainfall with optimum temperature favours thick
vegetative growth, which in turn adds humus and creates favourable conditions for very deep
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weathering of rocks. Depth of soils on steep slopes in the upper part of the hills varies from
shallow to very shallow and at places moderately deep and rock exposed and, since geological
erosion precedes soil formation, soils are stable under vegetative cover. The disturbance of the
ecological balance caused widespread washing down of soil from upper reaches to foothills and
valleys. The soils are rich in organic matter and fertile. These are mostly under thick forest and
where jhum cultivation is practiced the soils loose the organic matter and suffer from erosion
hazards. Due to considerable amount of loss of bases from the soil under the influence of high
rainfall the soils become acidic The soils in the valley are mainly composed of sandy, silty, clayee
and gravel developed due to the washing down on alluvial materials from the surrounding hills.
These soils are rich in organic matter and acidic in reaction. The depth of the soils is deep to very
deep and the soils are fertile.
Stable agriculture on permanent land tenure system is practiced in this zone. In this
zone drainage is the main problem in the low lying areas and basin lands. As regards nutrient
status, the organic carbon (QC) content is rated high in most of the soils of the region except the
soils of Tripura where soils are medium in QC. The entire soil of Meghalaya are deficient in
available P. Practically all the soils of Tripura Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh and over 50% soils
of Nagaland, Sikkim and 40% soils of Mizoram are deficient in available P. The soils of South and
North districts of Tripura, Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh and 50% of soils of Tuen sung
and Kohima districts of Nagaland are rated low in available K. All the soils of Manipur,
Meghalaya, major portions of Mizoram, West district of Tripura and Kameng and Siang districts
of Arunachal Pradesh are high in available K. The soil reaction varies from acidic (pH 5.0-6.0) to
strongly acidic (pH 4.5-5.0) in the entire hilly region. The soils of Mizoram and Nagaland vary
widely infertility. In Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya, the variation is comparatively moderate
whereas the variation is low in Manipur, Tripura and Sikkim. Acid soils of the region are rich in
active Al, which diminishes plant tolerance to drought stress through impairment of root
system. Iron toxicity in rice grown in some acid soils has been reported both from hill and valley
soils in this region.
The major portions of the soils of Assam belong to Inceptisols (49.3%) followed by
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Entisols (32.3%), Alfisols (12.3%) and Ultisols (6.1 %). The texture of Assam soils varies
considerably depending on the agro climatic conditions and physiographic units. The most
typical characteristics of Assam soil are its acidity. The major parts of the soils of Assam are
acidic in nature having pH ranges 4.2 to 5.8.The soil of flood plains have slightly high pH (6.0-
6.5). The soils of hill zone have higher pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.1. The organic matter content of
Assam soils is medium to high. The available N content has been rated low to medium in three
zones whereas it is medium in the hill zone. The available PP5 content ranged from low to
medium in three zones of the Brahmaputra valley zone, medium to high in the Barak valley zone
and low in the hill zone. The available K20 content in the soils varies from low to medium in
different zones. High variability in fertility status is observed between upper and lower
Brahmaputra valley. Wide spectrum of fertility status of the region, in turn, results in vegetative
growth potentials in general and cropping pattern in agriculture pattern in particular, attributing
to inherent diversity traits of the region.
d. Rainfall and its distribution pattern
The average annual rainfall of the region ranges from 2000-4000 mm and goes as high as
11000 mm in Cherrapunjee areas. The production and productivity of the region are low as
compared to other regions. Rice is grown in hilly upland areas in the hilly states, which are not
much suitable for rice cultivation and the productivity of upland rice is much lower than that of
plains. Consequently the average productivity of the region is much below the national average.
e. Agro-climatic Zones
All the botanical zones from tropical to alpine are found in the NE region of India due to
its geographical situation, climate and altitude. The entire north-eastern hill region comprising
the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and
Tripura falls under the agro-climatic sub-Himalayan Zone 2 (Anon, 1999). On the basis of
topography, agro- meteorological parameters, soil type, crop grown etc., the region is divided
into six agro-climatic zones (Table 2) and similarly based on rainfall, terrain, soil type and crops
grown, the state of Assam is divided into six agro-climatic zones (Table 3).
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Table 2. Agro-climatic zones of NE hill region
Zone
Altitude
range
(m msl)
Areas covered Crops grown
1. Alpine 3500 Parts of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh Kharif Rice, Maize,
ginger, vegetables
2.Temperate
sub-alpine
1500-
3000
Tuensang, Zuneheboto and Mokakchung
districts of Nagaland, Western Arunachal,
Khasi hills ofMeghalaya, northeast Manipur,
parts of Sikkim and east and south of
Mizoram
Rice, small millers,
potato, 3 maize,
soybean vegetable
3.Sub-tropical
hill
1000-
1500
Tirap of Arunachal, Jaintia and Garo hills of
Meghalaya, parts of Sikkim, northeast
Mizoram, Wokha of Nagaland
Rice, maize, wheat,
mustard, soybean,
pea, ginger,
turmeric
4.Sub-tropical
plain
400-
1000
Imphal (Manipur), Some parts of East and
South Sikkim, Bagti and Longnak (Nagaland)
and Buchanchai (Mizoram)
Irrigated rice and
other crops
5.Mild
tropical hill
200-
800
South Jaintia and North Khasi hills
(Meghalaya), west Manipur, lower south
Sikkim, Dimapur and Ghaspani (Nagaland)
Jampu (Tripura), north west Mizoram
Upland rice, maize,
pulses, cotton,
wheat
6.Mild
tropical plain 0-200
Lohit, Pasighat, Singpho (Arunachal), west
Garo hills (Meghalaya), major parts of
Tripura, Dimapur (Nagaland)
Irrigated and
rainfed rice,
oilseeds, sugarcane,
jute, potato
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Table 3. Agro-climatic zones of Assam
Zone Area (km2
) Districts Crops grown
North bank plains 14,424 (18.37%) Dhemaji, North Lakhimpur,
Sonitpur and Darrang
Rice, toria, jute,
vegetables
Upper
Brahmaputra
valley
5,561 (7.08%) Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar,
Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Rice, toria, sugarcane
Central
Brahmaputra
valley
5,561 (7.08%) Nagaon and Morigaon Rice, toria, pulses,
vegetables
Lower
Brahmaputra
valley
20,222 (25.75%)
Dhubri, Bongaigaon, Kokrajhar,
Goalpara, Barpeta, Nalbari,
Kamrup
Rice, jute, vegetables,
oil seeds
Barak valley 6,962 (8.9%) Karimganj, Cachar and
Hailakandi Rice, sugarcane
Hills 15,222 (19.4%) Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Rice, maize,
plantation crops
f. Rice and cultural heritage in the state
Krishna (2004) in her paper on 'The Gendered Price of Rice in North Eastern India'
mentioned a Nagajoke to show the rice heritage of North East. The joke is about three men who
spoke different languages. They happened to meet at a crossroad and sat down to eat their
lunch. Each mentioned what he had brought and each said something different. But when they
opened their bags they found that all had rice and chilies. This joke succinctly conveys the
existence of an extraordinary socio-cultural diversity and rice together with a broad brand of
shared element in the North Eastern region as a whole.
Before discovery of farming, life in the forest was animal-like conditions as depicted in the
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folktales of the North East. Haldipur (1985) describes a Mishimi tale from Arunachal Pradesh
regarding the origin of paddy cultivation. At first there was no rice on earth and people lived on
forest roots and leaves. The God of mountain - Gallan, cared especially for birds, gave the
sparrow a grain of rice and taught it how to cultivate. Observing this the men assembled
together and decided to send a messenger to mountain God Gallan for requesting him to give
them rice also. The sparrow overheard this and knowing it was difficult for bird too small to
cultivate rice, offered to teach men provided they let it take rice from their fields. Then men
agreed. The sparrow took them to the top of a hill and told them to clear the jungle. Gallan sent
rain and the seed was sown. Ever since, sparrows feed on young crops in the rice fields. In an Adi
story about the coming of snow, a handful of grain. overflows the bamboo cooking vessel, fills
the house and covers the forests and hills, before it turns into snow (Elwin, 1970). In
khezankenoma village in the Phek district of Nagaland, a particular slab of stone is believed to
have had the power to multiply paddy spread over it for drying (Krishna, 2004).
The North Eastern region or Eastern Himalaya ranges of India fun parallel in an east-west
direction from Sikkim through Bhutan and southern China through western Arunachal pradesh.
The region abounds with enormous vegetational diversity with the ingress of Tibetan and
Malayan elements. This complex mountainous and riverine topography tested the ingenuity and
livelihood skills of settlers - men and women and also opened up communications between
people of different groups followed the river routes to and from the plains, to barter and trade
goods like salt, cotton and rice.
The cultural and ecological diversity of the North Eastern region is apparent in the
heterogeneity of rice farming systems. Paddy occupies the primary position in a composite and
varied mix of crops (other cereals, vegetables, fruits, pulses, oilseed crops, sugarcane), animal
food sources (pig, poultry, fish) and other non-food crops (cotton, spices, tobacco, bamboos and
canes). Land that is not cultivated (forests and seasonal fallows) and water courses are integral
part of the system. Rice is the major cereal (apart from maize in Sikkim). The centrality of rice is
reflected in various ceremonies. The Wanchos of Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh believe that
rituals to protect paddy in the granary will also protect other grains (Srivastava, 1973). The
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significance of rice is not only because of its place in the daily diet but also because of the
importance of rice stores (bhoral ghor in Assam) in ascribing personal status (male status
mainly). The stored rice must be grown in one's own field and not bought in the market. The
importance of rice stores is also evident in various feasts and at the same time for various
nutritional rice-based preparations and brew, called apong, zu in Arunachal Pradesh, sa},
laopani, haria in Assam, kakiad in Meghalaya, madhu in Nagaland etc. consumed in hill areas
and also in the plains of Assam.
Indigenous varieties or landraces of rice are cultivated especially in hill states in jhum lands
(slash or burn fields), pani kheti (wet rice cultivation) and dry rainfed terraced cultivation. Wet
rice (irrigated by gravity channels from the perennial hill streams) is grown on the flatter lands in
the valleys. In the hills tilling is entirely done by hand. In fact, no mechanical tools have been
used in hills. Arunachal Pradesh, however, Sherdukpen and Khampti use the plough on level
land. Recently shallow tube wells have been introduced in the Assam plains, which is otherwise
entirely dependent on the monsoon rain. Tractors and power tillers are also being used in
recent years in some parts of the region. Jhum has been consistently discouraged but in
hillsjhum is still a way of life (Table 4). 2,679,000 ha land are still under jhum cultivation in 48
districts where 6, 07,536 families are involved in jhum (Mahapatra, 1983; Anon. 1997).
Table 4. Area, families and tribes involved in jhum (shifting or slash- and-burn) cultivation
State Area
('000 ha)
District
(No.)
No. of tribal
families
involved
Number of Ethnic groups
Arunachal
Pradesh 381 10 54,000
Aka. Bangro, Dafla. adi, Miniyong.
Padam, Miri, Mishimi
Assam 467 2 58,000 Karbi, Hmar, Miri, Dafla
Manipur 360 5 70,000 Kuki, Tangkhul, Hmar; Mao.
Marang, Kabui, Kacha Naga
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MeghaIaya 730 5 52,290 Khasi, Garo, Jaintia
Mizoram 45 3 50,000 Mizo, Kuki, Hmar; Lakher
Nagaland 474 7 1,16,046 Sema, Ao. lotha, Konyak.Rengma
Tangkhul
Tripura 108 3 43,000 Tripuri,Jamatia,Kuki.Garo,Reang
Total 2565 35 4,43,336 38
Source: Mahapatra, 1983; Anon., 1997
Some tribes of North east associate rice with goddesses. The Assamese Hindus believe
that the goddess Lakhimi brought rice to earth. The Meities of Manipur have a rice goddess
known as Phoinobi (Panchani, 1987). The Adi seek the blessings of the goddess Mopin for a good
harvest. According to the belief. Mopin gave the first ancestor of the Adi seeds for cultivation
and method of sowing (Haldipur, 1985).
Rice cultivation has traditionally been in the women's domain of knowledge in the North
East. The wide array of varieties in North East India reflects the women's knowledge of seeds
and of plant breeding. Khonorna village of Nagaland near Kohima has now been promoted as a
tourist attraction for the 20 varieties of paddy being grown in its terraced fields. Agrawal (1994)
noted that some Garo women have knowledge over 300 indigenous verities of rice. It is reported
that the morphological variability of rice in the North East India is related to a very high genetic
diversity, and the 'gene-diversity-index' for the region is close to that for all Asian rices
(Glazmann, 1986 ). In other words, proportionately small geographical area of NE region of India,
there is enormous diversity of rice as in all of Asia. The rice germplasm collection from this
region, which is more than 10,000 so far, is a testimony of rich genetic diversity of rice in India's
North East.
Women carry the knowledge of different varieties with them, even when they are
displaced from their original villages due either to natural calamities or better financial
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opportunities. People of several villages in the flood-ravaged Dhemaji district of Assam are a
case in point. Another example is Hari-athpur Hajong village. The women know the classes of
rice as they perceived, such as dumahi (two-month 's short duration harvest), ahu (monsoon
harvest), sali (winter harvest), boro (summer harvest) and bao (deep water or floating rice) and
also know both tradlttonal and improved rice varieties. The women also know the quality
aspect of different rice varieties and their utilization. For example, mention may be made of
joha (fine-grained aromatic) for special occasions or for sale), bora (sticky rice, for their own
consumption in various preparation), malbhog, chakoa, etc.
Rice germplasm collection in the form of local landraces and selection of the landraces for
desirable traits represent an extraordinary rich heritage of rice germplasm in the region. This
diversity has evolved under different farming practices at varied altitudes and ecological
situations. The food gathering Idu of Mat hum and Dri valley in eastern Arunachal Pradesh
collect leafy greens, edible mushroom, berries, fruits and nuts from the forests, and supplement
these withjhum cultivation, growing two early maturing varieties of rice, Apu and Entro (ng) and
six late-maturing varieties Keochi, Ketara, Kejari, Kebora, Kememora and Kembomar
(Bhattacharjee, 1983). Many local varieties are selected for specific locations, soil conditions,
maturity duration and for other special characteristics. The glutinous rices grown by the
Khamptis locally known as Khampti rice at low altitudes of Lohit and Tirap are well known for
their softness. The rice-based Apatani farming system at a height of over 1500 m in lower
Subansiri district is world famous because of its uniqueness under irrigated wet rice eco system
and fish cultivation. Similarly, the Zabo farming system of Nagaland and high altitude Monpa
farming system are examples of efficient traditional time tested management of biophysical
resources. The women plant different varieties for different reasons. For example, Pyapi with a
black husk, Allang amo, which retains its red colour even after it is cooked, Aino ari, which can
be harvested quickly, Amo hasso and Rarre amo which are suited for different kind of soil.
According to women, that both in the hills and plains different growing seaons allow for a
staggered harvest, which is done by hand either by the women and men together or by women
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alone. Only the panicle, the grain bearing inflorescence is cut. The selection of panicle facilitates
the farmwomen to do manual harvesting more comfortably and effectively and to avoid a long
range of discontinuous variation for maturity over the entire crop maturity span in the valley
(Sharma, 2002). The widely adopted HYV s of rice are not preferred by the farmers due to their
short stature, and thus unsuitable for existing manual practice of panicle harvesting.
The combination of particular crops varies from family to family, tribe to tribe depending
upon farming systems, ecological conditions and livelihood activities of the farmers in both hills
and plains of the region. This mosaic adds up to an overall diversity that reflects a collective
wisdom that has evolved over several decades (Krishna, 2004). Throughout the region generally
the women select the seeds for sowing although the methods of selecting seeds may vary from
place to place and tribe to tribe. Years of observation and practice have given the women an
intuitive understanding of rice seeds and the ability to select viable pure strains. Some women
take utmost care to select only those sheaves that do not have different strains mixed. Some
examine the seeds minutely for size, shape and colour. Selected seeds for sowing next year are
stored in bamboo basket called locally tom in Assam, hushak in West Siang of Arunachal Pradesh
etc. Mizo women use wood ash to preserve paddy seeds in bamboo baskets and also in tin
drums, now –a- days (Krishna, 1998).
Krishna (2004) reports the gender roles in farming of West tripura, central Mizoram,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Assam and Manipur. In Tripura, husking of rice and brewing rice
beer are women's work only; jhum cutting, setting fire to jhum, fire protection are men's work
only and both women and/or men do sowing of seeds, weeding, watching over jhum,
harvesting, threshing paddy, transporting jhum products to market and sellingjhum products
(Ganguly, 1993). In Aizwal district of Mizoramjhum weeding and seed storage have to be taken
care of by women only, protectingjhum and marketing by men only and clearing forest, burning,
sowing and harvesting by women and/or men (Krishna, 1998). Amongst Nishis of Arunachal
Pradesh women's responsibilities are clearing undergrowth, sowing, weeding, harvesting,
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storing grains in baskets or granaries, preparing old plots for next season and the men will have
to do slashing and burning the forest cover, removing unburnt logs, building and fencing the
fields, searching for new plots (Mishra, 1991). The Japhuphiki (southern Angamis) of Nagaland
the role to be played by women only include work in the field, carry agricultural implements to
the fields, clear paths, sowing and weeding; by men only - demarcate plots, cutting and burning
for jhum, till soil and by both women and men is harvesting (D'souza, 2001; Mehrotta, 1992).
The farm works fixed for women and men of Tangkhul Naga of Manipur are: for women only -
tending saplings, transplanting, weeding, harvesting, husking and pounding, storage of crops
and for men only clearing forest for cultivation, ploughing, building dykes, preparing land. The
Tangkhul Naga women weekly spend 6 hours and 8.19 hours time in drying paddy seeds and
dehusking and pounding of paddy respectively against 5 hours and 0.3 hour by men (Shimary,
2004). In Tirap, Wancho girls aged three or four carry seeds, farming implements etc.
(Srivastava, 1993; 1989).
In the Brahmaputra valley in Assam considerable gender specificity has been observed in
farming tasks. The specific roles of women and men in cultivation in Assam (Jorhat district) are
assigned as for women are: irrigation, fertilizer application, sowing seeds, transplanting,
weeding, harvesting and post harvest operations while men in addition to attending these
operations, they will have to do land preparation, ploughing and spraying of pesticides. While
the women perform 80% of transplanting and harvesting, they do not participate at all in
spraying pesticides and land preparation. For the other works, women's contribution is 10-30%
of total labour. This specificity cuts across all farm sizes and has not changed (Saikia, 2004). But
less visible gender-specificity in farming tasks assigned to either men or women is also observed
among some groups.
Since the agriculture of Assam is overwhelmingly dominated by the single grain crop rice,
and since the ancient times all social and economic activities associated with rice farming found
reflection invarious aspects of Assamese culture, the culture is, therefore, sometimes called
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dhanya sanskriti meaning rice culture (Bhagabati, 1990). The most important means of
livelihood of majority of the people belonging to divergent social groups is rice farming. This
common interest of rice farming has kept the different groups of the people in constant
interaction and cooperation. The women who are the real performers of the cultural activities
associated with rice farming also mould the unity among various tribes through sharing of
common ecological setting and cultural practices (Dutta, 2004). By and large, women bear a
greater quantum of work than do men in the North East India and are of late undertake tasks
that were traditionally in the men's domain. Therefore, the rich diversity of rice in NE India has
been nurtured by women's knowledge and skills.
Rice production scenario
a. Area, production and productivity of rice
The rice production scenario of NE region shows an increasing trend starting from
35.26 lakh MT during 1980-81, 45.28 lakh MT during 1990-91, 56.93 lakh MT during 2000-01
and 67.18 lakh MT during 2008-09 with an area coverage of 30.64 lakhha, 33.26 lakh ha and
35.71 lakh ha and 35.00 lakh ha, respectively against 536.31 lakh MT (401.52 lakh ha), 745.89
lakh MT (425.96 lakh ha), 855.00 lakh MT (449.72 lakh ha) and 964.31 lakh MT (455.37lakh ha)
respectively of the country as a whole (Anon., 2002). The percentage of share of NE India in
total rice production of the country was at very alarming figure of 6.96 % (2008-09) and
productivity was 1919 kg/ha against the country figure of 2178 kg/ha (Table 4).
Table 4. Area (A), Production (P) and Productivity (Y) of rice in NE India
State 1980-81
1990-91 2000-01 2007-08 / 2008-
09
Area
Prod
n. Yield Area
Prod
n. Yield Area
Prod
n. Yield Area
Prod
n. Yield
(Iakh
ha)
(Iakh
MT)
(kg/
ha)
(Iakh
ha)
(Iakh
MT)
(kg/
ha)
(Iakh
ha)
(Iakh
MT)
(kg/
ha)
(Iakh
ha)
(Iakh
MT)
(kg/
ha)
Arunach 0.83 0.88 1058 1.22 1.42 1170 1.19 1.26 1059 1.26 2.19 129
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al 3
Assam 22.75 25.2
2 1109
24.9
0
32.7
0 1313
26.7
5 39.99 1495
24.8
4
41.74 161
4
Manipur 1.88 2.73 1448 10.5
7 2.74 1742 1.95 4.52 2320
1.68 5.79 235
7
MeghaIa
ya 0.99 1.33 1338 1.04 1.20 1155 1.08 1.91 1772
1.08 3.10 188
6
Mizora
m 0.29 0.28 976 0.51 0.64 1244 0.57 1.09 1913
0.52 0.79 885
Nagalan
d 1.02 0.91 898 1.27 1.56 1227 1.46 2.00 1411
1.73 3.95 199
4
Sikkim 0.16 0.17 1037 0.15 0.22 1440 1.47 0.32 147
6
Tripura 2.88 3.90 1356 2.74 5.01 1830 2.56 5.88 2297 2.42 9.30 258
6
NE total 30.64 35.2
6 1150
33.2
6
45.2
8 1316
35.7
1 56.93 1594
35.0
0
67.18 191
9
All India 401.5
2
536.
31 1336
425.
96
745.
89 1751
449.
72
855.0
0 1901
455.
37
964.3
1
217
8
NE% 7.63 6.57 -
186* 7.81 6.07
-
390* 7.94 6.66
-
150*
7.68 6.96 -
192
*
(Source : Min. of Cons. Affairs & PDS & Min. Of Agril/ Rajya Sabha Unstarred questions)
Table : 5 Percent decrease/increase of production of rice over the last decade
State Percent decrease/increase of production in
1990-91 over 1980-81 2000-01 over 1990-91 2008-09 over 2000-01
Arunachal 61.4 -11.27 73.80
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Assam 29.66 22.29 4.37
Manipur 0.37 64.96 28.09
Meghalaya -9.77 59.17 62.30
Mizoram 128.57 70.31 -27.52
Nagaland 71.43 28.21 97.5
Sikkim 29.41 45.45
Tripura 28.46 17.37 58.16
NE total 28.42 25.73 18.00
All India 39.08 14.63 12.78
*decrease in yield over national average
It is evident from the Table 4, that area under rice, production of rice and productivity
of rice in NE region were in increasing trend from 1980-81 to 2008-09. Area under ride was
maximum in Assam and lowest in Mizoram thus resulting a severe setback in rice production in
Mizoram and gaining a momentum in rice area from 0.15 (2000-01) to 1.47 lakh ha (2008-09) .
The percentage increase of production of rice was recorded as 28.42% in 1990-91 over1980-81,
25.73 % in 2000-01 over 1990-91 and 18.00% in 2008-09 over 2000-01 with an increasing trend
in national rice production from 1980-81 to 2008-09, the increase being 39.08 % in 1990-91 over
1980-81, 14.63% in 2000- 01 over 1990-91 and 12.78 % in 2008-09 over 2000-01. The
productivity of rice was highest in Tripura (2586 kg/ha) followed by Manipur (2357 kg/ha) and
Nagaland (1994 kg/ha) during 2008-09. Assam registered highest production (41.74 lakh MT) in
2008-09 sharing 62.18 % of the total NE rice production (67.18 lakh MT) in 2008-09 . However,
the productivity was much less against the national average of 1336 kg/ha of 1980-8, 1751 kg/ha
of 1990-91, 1901 kg/ha of 2000-01 and 2178 kg/ha of 2008-09. The share of NE India to total
national production of rice was 6.57%, 6.07%, 6.66% and 6.96% in 1980-81, 1990-91, 2000-01
and 2008-09, respectively.
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Rice area (lakh ha), production (lakh MT) & yield (kg/ha) of NER and India
The approach adopted by various researchers earlier was to collect, evaluate and utilize
the germplasm resources available in the region and to try-out a large number of varieties
through varietal trials. Over 500 varietal trials of rice were conducted during 1975 - 80 in different
states of the region. Based on their results, promising varieties were identified for different
seasons and altitudes.
In Manipur, CH-988 a secondary selection from Chinese variety released in Jammu and
Kashmir was introduced in the early sixties for the pre-kharif season. IR24 developed by IRRl,
Manila was introduced in Manipur in the mid-seventies. Both the varieties were, however, not
released officially for the state.
Upper Shillong (l900m msl), where cold tolerance of a high order is required at
flowering and seed formation stages, was selected as site for cold tolerance breeding work.
About 1000 cultures of rice and segregating populations were screened at Upper Shillong.
Khonorullo was found to be the best followed by DuIlo-6, Ryllo Red 2, Ryllo Red 5, IR 3941-23,
Jungruh etc. About 100 crosses with local and improved lines were made at Manipur and
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Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh. From these improvement programmes 'Khonorullo' was
released for cultivation in high altitude areas of Meghalaya. 'Phourel', a tall photosensitive Indica
line selected from local collections was recommended for cultivation in the Manipur valley .
'Ngoba', a local collection from Meghalaya was identified as a new source of dwarfing.
While the screened and developed varieties provided some solutions, the need for
altitude specific varieties was identified for boosting up rice production. The ICAR Research
Complex, Umiam , therefore, concentrated on developing suitable rice varieties separately for
low (up to 800m msl), medium (800 - 1300m msl) and high (l300m msl and above) altitude areas
in an attempt to make available area specific and demand driven high yielding varieties as the
introduction of such varieties from other areas did not provide the desired dividends apparently
due to the problems associated with rice cultivation as indicated earlier.
Growth rates of area, production and yield of rice
The state wise growth rates of area, production and yield of rice in NE India revealed
that during the period 1997-98 to 2007-08, the area under rice in the region increased
marginally while per ha yield increased/decreased significantly. The area expansion as well as
yield increases caused the output to grow at an annual rate of 2.52%. The low productivity
growth rate of NE India was due to lack of technological breakthrough in most of the states of
the region.
Out of the seven states in the NE India, four states showed positive trends and three
states negative trends in growth of area under rice. But except Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland,
the growth rates of area in other states of the region were significantly low (less than 1 %). It
was due to the various restrictions imposed by the respective State Governments to the practice
of jhum cultivation since the late eighties. Rates of growth of production and yield were
observed to be positive in all the states except Meghalaya. Mizoram experienced the highest
growth rate of rice production and the least being Meghalaya.
Contribution of area and average yield to rice production
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The contribution of area in increasing rice production was appreciable in the states of
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. Average yield was the sole contributing factor in
increasing rice production in the states of Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura. In Mizoram and
Tripura, the significant yield effect offset the negative area effect. Area and average yield
contributed almost equally in increasing rice production in Assam. The highest contribution of
36% from the interaction component was observed in Nagaland. It is interesting to note that
except Mizoram, the interaction effect was positive in all the NE states. On an average, the
contribution of average yield in increasing rice production in NE India was lower than the all
India level (Table 6).
Table 6. Percentage contribution of area, yield and their interaction
State Area Production Interaction
Arunachal Pradesh 63 21 16
Assam 42 48 10
Manipur 9 80 11
Meghalaya 80 18 2
Mizoram -21 139 -18
Nagaland 43 21 36
Tripura -8 101 7
NE India 28 60 12
All India 16 71 13
In NE India, the maximum variation in rice production was observed in Mizoram (45.47% CV)
and the minimum in Meghalaya. These are the two states, which showed the highest and
lowest growth rates of rice production in the region. The variation in rice area was much smaller
than that in production both at all India and NE India levels. The maximum variation in area was
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observed in Nagaland and minimum in Meghalaya. The yield per hectare was stabilized at a very
low level in all the states except Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura where the CV was as high as
20%, 37% and 22% respectively. It revealed that the states with higher growth rate of yield per
hectare witnessed high instability in rice production as reported by Mehra (1981) and Pal and
Sirohi (1989) in their studies in instability in crop production in India in the context of new
technology.
Rice farming systems of North Eastern region
The rice farming situations in the North Eastern Hills are as follows:
1. Direct seeded, rain fed in upland (on steep slopes),
2. Direct seeded rain fed on level bench terraces,
3. Transplanted on wet terraces; and
4. Transplanted in valley lands.
1. Direct seeded, rainfed in upland (on steep slopes)
The patches of land are cleared in the hills and vegetation is burnt to make plots for rice cultivation on
steep hill slopes. The paddy seeds are directly broad casted on steep hill slopes, which germinate with
moisture availability. The crop is mainly grown as rain fed without any control on water application.
Provisions, however, are made for safe removal of excess water from the fields by providing drainage
channels along the slopes.
2. Direct seeded rainfed on level bench terraces
In some cases the rice is cultivated on dry terraces of different shapes and sizes as rain fed crop. Where
the rice is cultivated as rain fed crop on slopes, there is no careful planning and scientific design of water
conveyance and drainage systems; rather the irrigation is applied from one terrace to the other except a
few well developed system of rice farming in the region. Without favourable growth conditions, poor
inputs and heavy infestation of weeds, insects and pests attack clubbed with inefficient resources
management practices, the rice productivity in the hilly watersheds has been adversely affected resulting
in lower production and productivity.
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3. Transplanted on wet terraces
In the states of Nagaland, Sikkim and Manipur the rice is cultivated on carefully designed wet terraces.
The water coming from the upstream and highlands is tamed and made to stand behind the bunds. The
flow of water is regulated and it is carefully carried from one terrace to the other and finally drained off
in the downstream channels leading to streams or nallas. In this system of rice cultivation, there is no
control on the movement of nutrients with water (Kannan et al., 1999). Zabo farming system of Nagaland
and Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh are example of a better-managed resource systems but not the well-
managed system. Because in these systems, due to extremely high rainfall resulting into excessively high
runoff with disturbances in the soil.
4. Transplanted in narrow valley lands
The most prevalent method of rice cultivation is the transplanted rice in valley lands in which generally
the moisture regime is much higher and it is possible to grow transplanted rice in these situations.
Besides that the NE region contains many varied FS most of which are semi- subsistence
in nature. They change both within and across the physical environment depending upon the
resources available to the farmers and the needs of the family. Since rice forms the staple diet of
the people of north eastern states, farmers of the region practice a number of Indigenous rice-
based FS from time immemorial. The region is substantially rich in indigenous techniques and
systems developed by the tribal farmers using their ingenuity and skill. Research and
development efforts are, therefore, needed to work out and implement viable alternatives to
the existing traditional FS, which may be environmentally safe, sustainable productive and
acceptable to the farmers (Borthakur et al., 1983). Shifting cultivation is the main traditional FS
of the region. In addition to shifting cuItivation, some other traditional FS exist in the region.
Important among them are rice-based farming system of Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh, Zabo
FS of Nagaland, Panikheti in Nagaland, Dhan kheti in Sikkim and high altitude Monpa FS in
Kameng Himalaya.
Shifting cultivation
Shifting cultivation, locally known as jhumming, also known as slash and burn agriculture
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is the dominant land use system in humid tropics with high rainfall and steep slopes where
forest vegetation regenerates very fast. The origin of shifting cultivation could be traced back to
the Neolithic period between 13,000 -3,000 BC on the basis of archeological data, marking a
revolutionary change in human societies from food gathering to food production. This system of
cultivation is regarded as a distinct stage in the evolution of agriculture and modern land
husbandry practices-a transitional stage between nomadic hunting and gathering and sedentary
agriculture. The practice of shifting cultivation has been evolved throughthe struggle of small
human societies to supplement their hunting and food gathering in the forests by the then
newly discovered techniques of raising food crops by planting.
Shifting cultivation, is the cheif means of livelihood of tribal people in the hilly areas of
northeastern India (Satapathy and Sarma, 2002). Jhum, as practiced in the region, is a highly
complex FS with wide variation based on cropping and yieldpotential. These variants based on
ecological and cultural variations in the tribal societies are highly insulated because of
topographical barriers. However, the cycle or agricultural operanons in all these areas is
noticeably similar marked by the following successive stages:
• Selecting forested (usually secondary growth) hilly lands before December by entire village
on the basis of rotation of fields;
• Cleaning the forest tract by cutting down the jungle with dao (sickle) and axe during
December-January and leaving chopped leaves and twigs to dry till February;
• Burning the dried debris around February to mid-March before the onset of monsoon;
• Sowing seeds of various crops in a mixture using dibble sticks or sharp knives or by
broadcasting;
• Weeding, watching and protecting crops;
• Harvesting, threshing and storage;
• Abandoning the land after cultivation for a period of2 years;
• Shifting to another site;
• Return to the same site to repeat the process after 3-6 years.
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Besides the above stages of operation, the tribal people observe some religious
ceremonies with the operations; particular mention may be made of the worship and sacrifice
of pigs and chickens before sowing seeds and also of festivals celebrated after completion of
harvest. This has made shifting cultivation a way of life for the tribals of India's northeast. The
most remarkable feature of shifting cultivation is that all essential crops such as rice (Oryza
saliva), maize (Zea mays), cassava (Manihot esculenta), aroids (Colocasia sps.) sweet potato
(Ipomea batatas), ginger (Zingiber officinale), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), Cotton
(Gossypium sps.), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), cucurbits etc. grown in the same field as mixed
land use system resembling latest cafeteria system of cultivation. The ash corrects the sol acidity
in the high slopes of high rainfall zones and the admixture of ash with the soil makes it more
fertile. The large number of crop species (sometimes up to 40) over both space and time are
effectively managed due to the sequential harvesting during the year. The harvesting of grains
from jhum field is almost continuous beginning from about August to January or even February.
Weeding is the most strenuous and labour consuming part of shifting cultivation; at least four
weedings are necessary. The farmers erect watch houses either on raised platform or on tree
branches in their respective fields for watching and protecting the crops. The field is used for a
year for mixed cropping and subsequently it is either abandoned or cultivated with one or two
selected crops; occasionally some residual crops are collected from abandoned fields. Owing to
nutrient leaching, soil erosion and loss offertility after one or two years, the cultivated area is
abandoned (without necessarily changing hutment); a new place of land is then selected to
repeat the process of leaving the old one under forest fallow for years to recuperate.
The periodicity after which cultivation is again taken up in the jhum land is calledjhum
cycle. The jhum cycle now ranges from 5-10 years or even less (3-6 years). The land area remains
under effective control of village communities or clans; the system does not recognize private
ownership though the mode of land allotment varies from tribe to tribe. The average size of
jhum plot varies from 1-2 ha and the average family consists of 2 adults and 3-4 children.
According to an estimate, the area under shifting cultivation in northeastern states is about 2.6
million ha.
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Under the pure jhum economy nobody offers labour for hire and they sell or purchase
very little. Utilization of simple tools such as a chopper (dao, dibbling stick small hand hoe etc.),
absence oftilling or use of animal power, active participation of women, non-existence of
irrigation, little initial investments and minimum number of items are some other distinguishing
features of this primitive FS. According to a survey by the ICAR, the percentage of involvement
of men and women in Jhum is 45:55. Shifting cultivation supplemented by harvest of flora and
fauna from surrounding forests with several subsidiary occupations as its adjuncts forms its
complete economic system and a way of life around which the whole social, political and
cultural life of the hill people is interwoven with the result they resist any change to modern
methods of cultivation.
The jhum land in a village has a uniform period of rotation or jhum cycle depending on
land-man-ratio in the village. As the pressure on population in a village increases, the cycle gets
adjusted accordingly. One of the major problems injhum in northeastern India is the drastic
shortening ofjhum cycle from more than 20 years earlier to 4-5 years, which results in setting of
distortion. The hills are not able to recoup and regenerate and the system has started breaking
down. The critical Period ofjhum cycle depends on several factors including slope of the land,
texture of the soil, the extent of rainfall, aspect of the hill, natural vegetation and intensity of
cultivation. The length of jhum cycle reported from different states show that the critical limits
have been transgressed almost everywhere (Table 8). The jhum cycle has reached the critical
limit in parts of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Mizoram where it is as low as 2-3 years even
though the maximum ranges from 4-10 years This has adversely affected in economic yield with
gradual decline in yield over a period of time when short cycles are imposed on infertile land.
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Table 8. Distribution of cropping and fallow period in the shifting cultivation systems practiced by
different tribes in NE India
Tribe Area
Cropping
period
(years)
Fallow
period
(years)
Rainfall
category
Population
density
category
Khasi Khasi hills 1 4-5 High High
Pawi Mizoram 1 8 High Low
Lushai Mizoram 1 4-8 High Low
Lakhar Mizoram 1 8 High Low
Riang Tripura 1 7-9 High Medium
Hmar Manipur 1 5-6 High Low
Idu mismi Arunachal 1 3 High Low
Karbi Assam 1 5 Medium Medium
LothaNaga Nagaland 2 6-12 Medium Medium
Source: Sharma, 1984.
The jhum cycle plays a critical role in the natural regeneration and consequently the jhum
economy. The jhum areas, with cycles between 20 and 30 years, pass through three successions,
viz., weedy profusion, bamboo exuberance and pine predominance. If the jhum cycle is between
10 and 20 years, only two success ions are possible and bamboo becomes dominant species.
Whenjhum cycle is further reduced to less than 5 years, the succession gets arrested at the early
weedy profusion stage. The natural process of regeneration of soil fertility is abruptly
terminated even before it has begun.
The basic tenets of the traditional land laws of Khasis, Jaintias and Garos center around
shifting cultivation in which land-man relationship is primarily based on three principles: (i)
allocating principle, i.e., the village or clan chief is vested with powers to make minor
dispositions ofland among members from time to time forjhum cultivation, (ii) the allotee has
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usefructuary rights and (iii) the allottee has to cultivate with the family labour endowments. The
Apatanis of ,Arunachal Pradesh and Angamese of Nagaland have generally three types of land:
privately owned land, clan land and common village land. The Karbis of Assam practice
community ownership of land. Among the Kuki tribe of Manipur, the land formally belongs to
the village chief and the farmers pay tribute to the chief for cultivation. The chief has the right
to distribute land among the cultivators at his discretion. The Mizos had a system of hereditary
chieftainship in the villages. The lal (village chief) used to own the land. But now management of
land is vested in the village council.
The tribal people of NE hill states of India are socially and culturally attached to the system
as a whole and to various operations involved in shifting cultivation. All agricultural operations
have significance to the tribal people and are preceded or followed by some rituals varying from
tribe to tribe. Also, all the functions, celebrations and festivities of tribal people focus on various
operations underjhum system of agriculture. Shifting cultivation has a special significance in the
ethos of concerned tribal society and social relationship, cultural values, and mythical beliefs are
directly linked with it. All elements in SOcial living are geared to and integrated into the
continued operations of the culture. Tribal value orientation is one of the basic causes
underlying the continuance of shifting cultivation among the most of the tribes of the hill
regions. The different stages of shifting cultivation from sowing seeds to harvest are connected
with agricultural rites and ceremonies. These activities are integrated with the tribal beliefs and
socio-culturallife.
However, shifting cultivation is a predatory system of agriculture involving indiscriminate
cutting and burning offorests, improper land use leading to resource degradation, ecological
imbalance as well as adverse socio-economic effects. The system was excellent at one point of
time with larger jhum cycle and no population pressure but the unsuitability of shifting
cultivation begins with the reduction in shifting cycle, accelerating both on-site and off-site
degradation due to erosion runoff, nutrient losses, loss of biodiversity, and deterioration in
watershed hydrology. Loss of valuable wild life, wild plants of diverse gene pool, rare orchids,
grasses and edible vegetation useful for animal nutrition have been reported from shifting
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cultivation areas. With the denudation of forests, an important source of livelihood of the
community, which is complementary to the traditionaljhum disappears. The process of soil
erosion begins when shifting cultivators enter into the plots; their movement on slopes causes
loss of soil aggregates, forest litter, and earthworm casting etc. to slide down the hill. Studies
conducted by ICAR on shifting cultivation on steep slopes (44-53% slopes) have indicated soil
loss of 41 t/ha and the corresponding nutrient losses are 703 kg/ha of organic carbon, 146 kg/ha
of phosphorus and 7 kg/ha of potash.
The soil erosion from hill slopes (60-79%) under first year, second year and
abandonedjhum was estimated to be 147, 170 and 30 t/ha/ year respectively. Second year
cropping in the same piece of land is more hazardous as compared to first year of cropping.
Consequently the total production from this cultivation is very low; the rice yields in Khasi Hills
(Meghalaya), Garo Hills (Meghalaya), Khonsa (Arunachal) and Siang (Arunachal) are reported to
be 128,504,408, and 832 kg/ha respectively (Anon., 1980).
Despite such hazards, shifting cultivation is a part of social, economic, cultural and
religious life of the tribals of NE India. Unless economically viable, socially acceptable,
sustainable and eco-friendly system offarming is provided to the communities, it would be
difficult to abolish the practice of shifting cultivation altogether. The issues involved with the
problem of shifting cultivation are very complex and multifaceted. An important characteristic
of shifting cultivation is the community action and participation in the entire economic activity
in the relevant area. Rao et al. (1990) while studying the attitude and awareness of farmers of
West Garo Hills ofMeghalaya towards shifting cultivation reported that farmers were not averse
to modem agricultural practices despite their strong attachment to shifting cultivation. This
supports the observation that there is no such inherent inhibition - sociological or otherwise -
among the hill tribes against adopting new and improved techniques of agriculture provided
they are convinced of its utility and benefits (Saikia and Bora, 1981). The immediate prospects
for security of livelihood and not necessarily the search for a better standard ofliving particularly
explained the predilection forjhumming over terrace cultivation in certain situations and they
can accept those alternatives that could be organized with traditional skills and resources Kar.
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1981). Rao et al. (1990) indicated that the tribal farmers, in general, had favourable attitude
towards both shifting cultivation and modem agricultural practices. This, however, appears, to
be a contradiction. Adoption of modem agricultural practices is limited to wet rice cuItivation
(WRC) and their favourable opinion is based on their experience on WRC. In case of progressive
villages, the proportion of WRC area (valley lands) in the operational holdings was higher than
that in less progressive villages (Rao and Reddy, 1988). Shifting cultivation is a time tested
practice involving minimum risk, remarkably dynamic in accommodating the growing needs of
tribal farmers and amenable for minor adjustments required from time to time in terms of land
allocation among crops and among tribal households due to changes in population pressure.
Hence they held favourable opinion in both the cases. Majority of tribal farmers are aware of
changes in their environment and they perceive lack of sufficient forest and vegetative cover as
the main reason for these changes for the worst.
Rice-based Apatani FS
Arunachal Pradesh, endowed with high geographical, socio- economic, cultural and
edapho-climatic diversities, is spread over a total area of 83,743 km2 . Out of the net cropped
area of 1.7 lakh ha, 60% still falls underjhumming and rest under upland terraces, wet land
terraces, valley lands and plains, where rice bowls a major share of 62.5% followed by maize
and millets. So far, only 9.4% of the cultivated area is irrigated. Despite high work participation
(57.65% against national average of24.0%) of the rural people, average rice yield in the state is
only 1.15 t/ha, which is very low (Chaudhary et al, 1990). Low solar energy interception, high
rainfall, unfavourable water regime, unleveled land, low plant density and negligible use of
improved tools and implements, fertilizers and plant protection chemicals are some of the
important constraints of low yield. The introduction of rice cultivation in valley land has,
however, increased the rice yield considerably. A much superior rice based FS is, however, in
practice since time immemorial in the plateau of Apatani, where they have brought cultivation
on irrigated fields to a high degree of efficiency (Chaudhary et al., 1993).
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Apatani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh inhabits the Apatani plateau, occupying a stretch of
26 km2 areas in the central core of the lower Subansiri district. The valley lies midway between
Panior and Kamla river at an altitude of approximately 1524 m. Steep mountain tops with
altitude up to 2438 m enclose the valley from all sides. The valley has been appropriately called
'the rice bowl oftheApatanis', who practice wet rice cultivation (WRC) in this valley with efficient
management. The area is laid out in highly cultivated artificially irrigated terraces, well watered
by the Kale river, a sluggish stream 40-60 feet in breadth with low alluvial banks. The valley was
dotted with isolated hillocks and low pine clad spurs run here and there into the valley
(Chaudhary, 1973). The farmers practice rice cultivation integrated with fish culture in terraces
and finger millet cropping on risers over 1736 ha area where 968 ha is under rain fed upland
andjhum. Maximum holding size varies between 0.02 ha to 3.00 ha. The climate is cool (9.1-
19.3°C) humid (73% RH), rainfall- 235 cm; temperature during rice cultivation varieS between
11.2-27.8°C and rainfall during rice ranges from 5.7-273.0 cm The soil of the valley is humic black
and reddish (Dutta Choudhuy 1981). According to Mukherjee et al. (1989), the soil ofthe valley,
up lifted terraces and river terraces have been developed on alluvial and colluvial materials
washed down the hills. High and well distributed rainfall coupled with thick vegetative cover
have resulted in deep weathering of rocks and given rise to very deep soils which are well
drained, dark greyish brown to very dark brown. The surface texture (25-67 cm) is loam. The soil
pH 5.1-5.6, OC 1.25-2.87, P 19-32 kg/ha and K 300-665 kg/ha have been reported in the soil of
the plateau (DAO, lower Subansiri).
The FS of Apatani valley deserves a special significance, where agriculture from subsistence
is raised to a surplus level and the small valley is developed into a veritable rice bowl. A well-
developed and traditionally old system of terraced rice cultivation with maximum land utilization
is practiced. Only indigenous rice varieties having very long duration of 190-278 days with an
average of 228 days from seed to seed are grown. Nursery is raised in the month of February in
exclusively marked fields for nursery only. Nursery duration ranges from 60-80 days. Beds are
prepared wet and sown with dry seeds @750-800 kg/ha. land preparation starts in the month of
Apri I. Leveling of terraces is done with the help of indigenous wooden tools known as 'sambya'
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and ‘mideing' while digging of fish channels are done with the help of a wooden cobra with
flattened tip called 'hiita'. Single rice seedling transplanting at a spacing of20-24 cm is practiced.
Risers are used for finger millet cultivation through transplanted seedlings. Paddy-cum- fish
culture is a vital component where mainly common carp followed by grass and silver carp are
grown at a stocking density of 175-2500 numbers/ha with an average of 1750 fingerlings/ha
gaining weight from 130-400 g/fish in 4 months. The period of different operations and their
manpower requirement in Apatani FS is given in Table 3.
All local rice varieties have short, bold grains with glutinous kernels. Most of the varieties
have high shattering character, hence Panicle harvesting and sometimes spontaneous threshing
(grain extraction from panicle) in the field itselfis practiced. Yield of varieties under AFS is shown
in Table 9.
Table 9. Operation and manpower requirement in Apatani fanum system (AFS)
Operation Period Man days
required
Mode of
operation
Fencing February-March 4 Community
Maintenance of channels January-July 3 Community
Maintenance of raisers January-February 31 Individual
Nursery raising F ebruary_ March 18 Individual
Manuring February-April 15 Individual
Land preparation April-May 28 Individual
Transplanting April-May 40 Individual
Weeding April-September 41 Individual
Fish culture May-September 7 Individual
Bird scaring and supervision September-October 15 Individual
Harvesting, threshing October-November 115 Individual
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andtransport
Drying and storage October-November 11 Individual
Table 10. Agronomic traits of varieties grown inAFS
Variety
Seedling
age
(days)
Duration
(seed to
seed)
Ear
bearing
tillers!
m2 (nos.)
Grains/
panicle
grain
(nos.)
1000
weight(g)
Grain
yield
(t/ha)
lmpoare 63 211 152 145 24.2 5.4
Impohath 35 246 142 156 22.5 5.0
Emo red 67 247 138 4.6
EmoEerkhe 67 260 135 107 26.4 3.8
EmoElang 77 261 139 162 25.7 5.8
Owe lmpo 67 278 145 133 24.7 4.7
Pyat Pyani 70 249 151 53 22.6 4.2
Pyat Kogya 63 204 139 87 26.0 3.2
Pyat Pyapu 70 249 156 5.7
Pyat Pyare 44 190 147 76 23.3 2.6
Ji Pyat 72 249 99 91 26.1 4.3
Pyaling
Pyakhe 63 199 171 96 26.1 4.3
Pyaping
Tababam 70 238 97 228 21.3 4.7
Pyaping
pyapu 60 229 152 105 24.6 3.9
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A well-developed and traditionally old system of terraced cultivation is practiced in the
AFS. The terraces in the main valley are quite broad, perfectly leveled and provided with strong
bunds. These bunds are made of soil and supported by bamboo or wooden chips from lower
terrace at base. Terraces are made with traditional trial and error method with major emphasis
on perfect leveling having no consideration of size and shape and thus no two terraces are
identical. It is recorded that proper technical consideration is being given in making bunds up to
proper size and shape (generally 0.6-1.4 m in breadth and 0.2-0.6 m in height) so as to resist the
highest possible water pressure to fulfill the expected water requirement of the plots. Perfect
leveling of plots and well managed irrigation-cum-drainage systems reduce the soil erosion to
negligible limit. The layout of terraces, irrigation and drainage structures are ideal examples of
coordination of efforts and perfection of technique has classified the soil of Apatani valley as IT e
(Mukherjee et al., 1989).
The Apatanis have developed a remarkable system of water management and irrigation.
Every stream rising from the surrounding hills is tapped soon after it emerges from the forest,
channelised at the rim of the valley and diverted by network of primary, secondary and tertiary
channels. A short distance above the terraces occurs the first diversion from the stream. Usually
only little water is deflected here in feeder channels, while the stream continues its course, the
feeder channel branching off at angles leads water through the series of terraces so that by
blocking or opening the connecting ducts, any field can be flooded or drained out as and when
required.
The crop section of main channels ranged from 1.0-1.7 m in width and 0.38-0.65 m in
depth. These channels are generally pitched with boUlders at the entry, which checks erosion of
channels due to very high flow of water. The most important aspect of right water management
in low land rice fields is to keep water layer on the soil surface at the Permissible depth. The
Apatani farmers drain off water from the rice fields twice during tillering - once during flowering
and finally at
maturity, since drainage at tillering or flowering stage is reported to increase yield by 15-20% in
rice (Singh, 1986).
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Nutrient and fertility management of the terraces of AFS is done mainly through the
recycling of agricultural wastes. Approximately 9.6- t/ha paddy straw is allowed to decompose in
the wet terraces and finally incorporated atthe time ofland preparation. Burning of un
decomposed straw during January-February is also in practice, especially on dry terraces.
Burning is reported to increase available K, 0 and exchangeable calcium significantly (Borthakur
et ai, 1983). Pig and poultry droppings, rice husks, kitchen wastes, ash and weeds removed
during weeding are also recycled in the terraces every year for improving the fertility. After the
rice crop is harvested cattles are allowed for free grazing in the fields from December to
February and thus the cow dung is also recycled. Since entire rainwater of the surrounding hills
is tapped for irrigation, nutrients of dung and even forest humus are also partly utilized through
irrigation water.
Paddy -cum-fish culture was introduced in AFS in 1965-66. Roy (1986) reported growth up
to 450 g/fish in 3-4 months, giving a yield of 225 kg/ha. A well-marked division of labour is
generally followed for various operations in the AFS. Men generally takes care ofhard works like
building terraces, irrigation channels, fencing, removing earth and planting trees while women
look after nurseries, transplanting seedlings, weeding, fish management, harvesting, threshing,
drying and storage. Community cooperation in the Apatani society is very strong and, therefore,
some of the operations are done on community basis (Chowdhury, 1973 b). Pest and disease
problems in the rice fields are generally very low. Blast is the main disease. Severity of leaf blast
incidence varies from 0.1 -40.0% at vegetative stage while neck blast incidence ranges from 2-
13% at reproductive stage. Amongst insects, grasshoppers and root weevils are observed.
However, their populations remain at low level as grasshoppers and root weevils eat by local
people and birds respectively.
Apatani farmers are extremely cautious of their environment and ecology. Apart from
conserving the soil from erosion, farmers have taen up plantation of Terminalia myrinalia,
Altingia excelsa, Michelia sp., Magnolia sp., pines and bamboos. Thus the entire hills
surrounding the valley and uplands surrounding the villages are fully kept as conserved forest.
This helps in conserving the ecology and maintaining the flow of natural streams. The AFS
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confmes its dependence on local resources only. Most of the important tools used in the AFS
viz., sampya, hiita, dammu, nideing hiita etc. are made of wood. Fish retaining nets and fish
catching baskets are made of bamboos. Use of modern tools, implements, fertilizers etc. is still
not in vogue in AFS. Land tenure system, pressure on land, geographical location, ampIe rainfall,
availability of natural streams and certain edific factors help in the success of AFS. Based on FS
performance of Lightfoot et al. (1993), AFS is highly productive (due to scientific gravitational
irrigation and drainage and utilization of terrace riserslbunds, high yield of rice, introduction of
paddy- cum-fish culture as subsidiary source of income), sustainable (availability of natural
water streams, diversity of rice varieties, biological pest control), stable (unique confinement of
local inhabitants without migration, use oflocal resources) and equitable (a well-marked division
of labour within the family and community, community understanding). However, despite the
AFS is highly economical and ecologically sound, it has certain disadvantages. The main
disadvantages are:
• Introduction of HYV s will be quite difficult
• Varieties with low biomass may not be accepted
• No plant protection measures can be followed due to paddy- cum-fish culture
• Community decision for improvement from the present system
• Low cropping intensity (rice-fallow system only)
• Eroding of social cementing force and urbanization
• Social turbulence and imbalance due to various interventions of development.
The Adi rice cultivation practices
In Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh, Adi tribe with its sub. group, Gal/ong, Minyong,
Boris, Pailibo, Ramos, Bokar etc. accounts a great majority and rice is the staple food of these
tribes. Bali is the most important landrace grown by theAdi tribe, which is highly adapted and
possesses multiple resistences to disease and pest. The Adi farmers follow monocropping of rice
in wetlands/lowlands and mixed cropping of rice with maize, millets and many other crops
injhum cultivation. Cereals, especially rice constitutes the major component of the crop mixture
(Sarangi and Dey, 2005). Sequential harvesting of crops is an effective way of managing up to
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35-40 crop species. Successive harvest of cereals creates additional space for the remaining
crops, which also receive humus and nutrients (Mishra et al., 2004). In jhum rice cultivation
jhum clearing in February-March, seed sowing in April, weeding in May-June and harvesting in
July/august is done. Apart from jhum rice cultivation Adis practice WRC also in lowland/valley
land areas where standing water is available. All the agricultural operations from land
preparation (by digging with spade) to harvest have been performed manually. In WRC, two
types of cultivation are in vogue: kharif and mipun rice cultivation. Performance of some
varieties is presented in Table 71.
Zabo FS of Nagaland
Zabo is an indigenous FS practiced in Nagaland, which has a combination of forest,
agriculture and animal husbandry with well- founded conservation base, soil erosion control,
water resources development' and management and preservation of. The system is also called
by 'ruza'. The place of origin of Zabo FS seems to be Kikruma village located at an altitude of
1,270 m in Phek districtof Nagaland inhabited by Chakesang tribe. Rice is the staple food of the
Chakesang tribe. The whole of Kikruma village is on a flat ridge bounded on the south by the
Seidzu river and on the north by the Khuzha river. However, tapping of water from these two
seasonal rivers to irrigate the cultivated areas on the ridges is out of question as the ridge is
higher than the river level by several hundred meters. Besides, the banks of these two rivers are
so steep that construction of terraces or irrigation channels across the slope is difficult. The
situation might have compelled the people to evolve a system for farming for their livelihood
since time immemorial, which is called Zabo' meaning impounding water. The soil is silty clay
loam of greyish brown colour and sticky. The soil is high in organic content and available nitrogen,
low in phosphates and very low in available potash. The soil is acidic in nature (pH 6.27) with
very low calcium carbonate content. Jhumming is widely practiced by the farmers with jhum
cycle of about 7 years.
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Table 11. Performance of local landraces of Siang under upland condition
Landrace Location Yield
(t/ha)
Days to
mature
Resistance
to blast
Yabar West Siang 3.1 131 MR
Yaupumik Upper Subansiri 3.0 132 MS
Pluamo Tirap 2.9 131 MS
Yamuk West Siang 2.8 128 MR
Lemuk Mukte West Siang 2.7 140 MR
Pinint Upper Subansiri 2.7 131 MS
Yaling East Siang 2.7 136 S
Bali West Siang 2.6 133 MR
Hibar Hirpu Upper Subansiri 2.5 131 MS
Bee Upper Subansiri 2.5 131 MR
Yasing East Siang 2.4 136 MR
Pehi East Siang 2.3 137 MS
Lite Upper Subansiri 2.3 133 R
Buing Upper Subansiri 2.1 131 MS
Niyoni Tirap 2.0 134 MR
Source: Anon., 2000
R:Resistant; MR:Moderately resistant; MS: Moderately susceptible; S: Susceptible
The Zabo FS comprises of protected forest land on hilltop, well planned water harvesting tank at
the middle and cattle yard and rice fields towards foothills. In case, a suitable location for water
storage is not available, the run off water from the upper catchment is taken directly to rice
fields which act as water source for rice crop. Special technique for seepage controlling the plots
is followed, which include thorough puddling and use of paddy husks on shoulder bunds. This
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system of farming is common on individually owned land of about 2.5 ha area. The various
components of Zabo FS are described as follows:
a. Forest land: The catchment area (about 1.5 ha or more) is kept under natural vegetation on
upstream side of the pond to serve as water sources for the period during monsoon. Normally
cutting or burning of trees does not disturb this area. Slope of the catchment area is generally
100% or more.
b. Water harvesting system: Adjacent to the catchment area (middle hil1 slope), water
harvesting ponds are dug out towards down streamside with formation of earthen
embankment. The size of the pond is usually kept as 24 x 10 x2 m'. Silt retention tanks are
constructed at several points before the run off water enters into the pond. The water
harvesting system occupies about 0.2 ha area. Silt retention tanks are cleared annually as a part
of maintenance of the water harvesting system.
c. Cattle shed: It is a common practices of every farm family to maintain an enclosure
fenced with ordinary woods and branches of bamboo for open cattle yard, which is
managed by a group of farmers by stocking cattle on rotation basis, preferably a little
below the water harvesting pond. Buffaloes are the common animals available with
the farmers, and 20-30 numbers are kept in one yard for 10-15 days. Washing
of the cattle yard is done with run-off water, which goes afterwards to the rice fields for
manuring. When there is an overflowing of water, it finds way through diversion
passing through the cattle yard and washes down the manures to the field below. Split
bamboo channels are used to carry such dungs and urine from the cattle yard to the
central point of the field from where it spreads in the entire field.
d. Agriculture land: Rice field are located in a lower elevation than thewater-harvesting
pond. The area of the rice fields varies between 0.2-0.5 ha. Use of green manure like
Albizia lebbeck and mekhonu tree leaves, application of cow dung and diversion of run
off through open cattle yard are the usual methods of manuring rice crop. Chemical
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ferti1izers are not at all used. Rice fields are thoroughly rammed at the time of
puddling following different methods, viz., treading by human and cattle. Ramming by
wooden sticks etc. to create a hard pan so as to avoid percolation losses. Seepage
losses through shoulder bunds are checked with the use of paddy husks on the
upstream side. Only one rice variety, Tanyekmugah is grown. This is a local tall variety
of 180 days duration.
The seed rate is 60 kg/ha and transplanting time is June. The variety is grown at a
spacing of 12 x 12 cm and two irrigations from the storage point (as supplement)
maintaining 10 cm water depth in terraces are applied. The yield of the rice variety is
about 3-4 tlha. Most of the farmers practice paddy-cum-fish culture technique as in
Apatani FS and derive about 50-60 kg of fish per ha as an additional output.
In Zabo FS, all the agricultural operations like hoeing, puddling, ramming in rice fields are
done manually with small hand tools, wooden sticks etc., which are time consuming and labour
intensive. Sometimes, the farmers may get lower yield from the only one rice variety they
commonly grow, even under excellent land, water and local resources management systems. By
and large the Zabo FS is a organic farming without using any chemical fertilizers and plant
protection chemicals. Practicing line transplanting and use of paddy weeder may reduce the
high cost in weeding and intercultural operations. On the whole, the Zabo FS comprises of
inherent and traditional agricultural and forestry land use, in built water harvesting system with
well-founded conservation bases.
Panikheti
Angami and Chakhesang tribes ofNagaland have developed a system of irrigating
terraced fields for growing rice known as panikheti (Gokhle et al, 1984). This system has
reflected the skill and ingenuity of the local farmers who have constructed these terraces
manually with their indigenous tools for growing of rice. Bench terrace cultivation or panikheti in
Nagaland presents an excellent example of developing bench terracing for rice cultivation by
using steep slopes (up to 100% or more) and rocky lands with availability of very small quantity
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of soil.
The topsoil is maintained in the terraced bed while constructing terraces annually.
Disposal of excess water and application of irrigation water is managed by allowing water to
flow from one terrace to another by providing opening in the ridge bund. In the terraced fields,
agricultural operations start in December and January with digging of field with the help of
spade. While digging, soils turn on residue of rice plant. Puddling starts in the month of April.
After that water is allowed to enter into the terrace. By the first week of June, the terraces will
be full of water. In the same month, seedlings are transplanted from nurseries in puddle lands.
By the end of September, the paddy plants are bunched together. This prevents the plants from
being damaged by the winds or by the weight of grains. This also reduces the loss of grains
during harvest and makes the harvest easier. The components of the system are:
Terraces: The terraces are constructed and supported with strong bunds of width varying
from 0.5-1.2 m and height from 0.2-1.4 m (from the lower to upper field level) depending on
slope of the land and size of the terrace. The leveling of terraces is done by cut and fills method.
When the terrace is leveled, the removed topsoil is spread uniformly over the surface of the
terrace. Terracing makes possible the use of land intensively over the years by reducing the loss
of run-off and soil. The terrace fields are properly prepared for rice cultivation.
Fish culture: A small pond is dug out in the middle ofthe terrace for fish culture. When all
the water is drained out after the harvest of rice crop, the fish grow in the pond. Mostly
common carp is reared in the ponds. The fish culture gives additional income to the farmers.
Water management: This is the most important aspect of panikheti
or rice cultivation on terraces. All care is taken to regulate the flow of water into the fields. The
water brought down from the higher hills is diverted to the rice fields from the main channels
and sub-channels. Maintaining 10-15 cm deep water in all the terraces is very significant. This
helps in increasing phosphorus availability to the crop. The water runs down from one terrace to
another through wedge type openings in the earthen bunds. To maintain desired water level in a
particular terrace, an appropriate size stone is kept at the opening in the bund.
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Land management: The construction of terraces on hill slopes not only ensures standing water
in the fields but also checks soil erosion and loss of soil fertility due to washing away of top soil.
The leaves of trees from the forest and decomposed cow dung and husks are sometimes used
for increasing the soil fertility. Stubbles of previous crop and dry leaves are burnt in the terraces.
All the farm operations are done manually. Azolla is also grown in the terraces. All weeds, crop
stubbles etc. are incorporated in the fields to retain soil fertility.
Three types of terraced fields are found in Kohima district of nagaland viz., i). Dzutse -
water supply to these fields is regular throughout the year. Water not needed in one terrace is
conveyed to another terrace through channels; ii). Khuso - water supply is through channels
from streams and iii). Vakhra - fields are similar to khuso but involvement of labour is more.
Dhankheti
With the improvement ofliving standard of the people of Sikkim, food habits were
changed and they could no longer relish the upland rice- 'Ghaiya' and started WRC. Initially the
people were not interested for terrace cultivation but they were forced by then British
Government. the bench terraces are made on hill slopes up to 80% or even more. the bench
terraces are watered through perennial seasonal springs tapped from higher elevation. The
water from spring is collected into very small rivulet commonly known as 'kholsa' and when this
kholsa is sufficiently big is known as 'khola '. The water from kholsa and khola are taken in
channels to irrigate rice-transplanted terraces under the gravity from higher elevation In short
distance water flows in one direction and in long distance from both the directions. There is
complete harmony and cooperation among users of water to maintain the drainage channels.
On the irrigated terraces rice seedlings, raised in nurseries, are transplanted and fields
remain almost submerged throughout the growing seaon and drain out through a single outlet
of the field. Natural courses Of water are frequently not disturbed to drain out the excess water.
surface flow of water from one terrace to another is managed in such a way that suspended soil
particles remain in the adjoining areas only. water from terraces and diversion ditches is safely
drained to the vegetative slopes and sever damages to roads, fields and plantation crops.
The channels remain covered with the stone plates passing throUgh paths. Terrace wall is the
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main factor determining terrace stability or degradation. Terrace wall failures and considerable
erosion from the terrace slopes occur during high magnitude of rainstorms in monsoon (June -
September). Swelling and bulge development are the characteristics of retaining walls prior to
failure. Shortage of labour is a constraint to maintain proper and constant repair of terrace wall
slides. Following cropping systems exist in Sikkim on the irrigated terraced lands (Patiram et al.,
2001).
ο Rice - wheat
ο Rice - mustard
ο Rice - potato
ο Rice - fallow
ο Maize - rice - mustard
ο Maize - rice - fallow
In Sikkim, farmers intercrop rice with traditional varieties of soybean, rice bean and black
gram on bunds. Most of the area is under cultivation of local rice varieties, which yield 1-2 tlha.
The popular local rice varieties are: Attey, Masseey, Sikre, Krishnabhog, Kalshanti, Bhuidhan,
Darmali, Tasrey and Dutkatti.
High altitude farming in Kameng Himalaya
Farming in high altitude belt (above 2500 m) is a challenging task. The management of
biophysical resources by the Buddhist Monpa of Senge village of Kameng district of Arunachal
Pradesh is a casi point (Sarma, 1993). The Buddhist Monpas ofSenge village practiced settled
subsistence hoe fanning by giving up the practice of shifting cultivation after realizing its
detrimental impact on environment. Both kharif and rabi crops are raised by Monpa farmers on
the natural hill slopes without terracing it. Sheep droppings and oak leaves serve as manures in
the khariffields, while human wastes and litter are sprayed during rabi season. Yearly rotation of
maize and finger millet fields, minimum tilling with hoe and inter and mixed cropping in these
fields are part and parcel of their strategy to maintain soil fertility for sustainable farming.
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Farming systems of West Garo Hills of Meghalaya
Goswami (1996) did an economic appraisal of indigenous hill farming systems (FS) in West
Garo hills district ofMeghalaya to identify the existing fanning systems and their transition flow
to modern system of agriculture. Four types of indigenous farming systems were reported to
have existed in West Garo Hill district of Meghalaya such as traditional FS, marginally modern
FS, semi-modern FS and modern FS.
FS I (traditional): This FS was found to have three components:
ο Settled cultivation in the valley lands between the two hills, bullock ploughing under
rainfed condition, various types of agricultural crops are grown
ο Shifting cultivation in the hill slopes. A single crop of rice or maize and mixed crops of rice
+ maize + cotton + tapioca +ginger are grown.
ο Rearing of livestock like cattle, pig, goat and poultry
FS II (marginally modern) : The components of this FS are:
ο Settled cultivation in the valley lands between the two hills, bullock ploughing under
rainfed condition, various types of agricultural crops are grown
ο Shifting cultivation in the hill slopes. A single crop of rice or maize and mixed crops of rice
+ maize + cotton + tapioca +ginger are grown.
ο Rearing oflivestock like cattle, pig, goat and poultry
ο Growing of horticultural crops like areca nut, banana, orange and pineapple in hill slopes
FS III (semi-modern): Five components are found to have existed in this FS
ο Settled cultivation in the valley lands between the two hills
bullock ploughing under rainfed condition, various types of
agricultural crops are grown
ο Shifting cultivation in the hill slopes. A single crop of rice or
maize and mixed crops of rice + maize + cotton + tapioca
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+ginger are grown.
ο Rearing of livestock like cattle, pig, goat and poultry
ο Horticultural plantation
ο Cultivation of annual and seasonal crops like cereals, pulses,
oilseeds and vegetable with improved technology on the
terraces on hill slopes made by the Government
FS IV (modern): The components of this FS are as follows:
ο Settled cultivation in the valley lands between the two hills,
bullock ploughing under rainfed condition, various types of
agricultural crops are grown
ο Rearing of livestock like cattle, pig, goat and poultry
ο Horticultural plantation
ο Cultivation of annual and seasonal crops like cereals, pulses,
oilseeds and vegetable with improved technology on the
terraces on hill slopes made by the Government
ο Plantation crops like rubber
ο Plantation of quick growing leguminous trees and bamboos
on the hill slopes
ο Cultivation of annual fodders on the hill slopes
In the valley lands between the hills, rice is predominantly grown. Here the agriculture
system followed is like that of plains. Bullock power is used for ploughing the land. Jhum mixture
is the predominant crop component occupying 29.50% of the gross cropped area. It is grown in
the hill slopes by almost all the farm households. Next to jhum mixture, autumn rice occupies a
larger scale of 19.94% of gross cropped area followed by winter rice,jhum rice and spring rice: In
the valley and terraced lands, rice is the principal crop as it accounts for 52.88% (all rices) of the
total cropped area. Major portion of the gross cropped area (55.62%) is injhum land, followed by
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valley land (26.16%) and terraced land (26.16%). Of the total production, major share is
fromjhum (38.64%), followed by terrace (32.42%) and valley land (28.94%) indicating the
dominance ofjhum in the agriculture of the district.
Apatani rice farming system of Arunachal
Pradesh
Zabo – rice farming system of nagaland
Panikheti – an indigenous rice farming
system of Nagaland
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Promising local cultivars of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam
Promising local cultivars of Manipur and Meghalaya
Promising local cultivars of Mizoram and Nagaland
Rice-based cropping systems followed in NE india
The agricultural practice in the region are broadly of two distinct type viz., settled
farming practiced in the plains, valley/foot hills, terraced slopes and shifting cultivation in the hill
slopes. Depending upon the system of farming, food habits and climatic conditions, several
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crops are grown in the region. Some of the frequently practiced cropping systems of shifting
cultivation areas are collated in Table 12.
Table 12. Dominant rice based cropping system of NEH Region
Agro climatic zone Cropping system
High hills
Lower hills
Foot hills
Plain area
Rice-potato/vegetable
Rice/maize-mustard
Rice-wheat
Rice-wheat+mustard
Rice - potato
Rice- potato
Rice- vegetable
Rice-groundnut, rice-rice- cowpea, Rice-wheat rice,
Rice-pulses, rice-linseed.
Rice growing seasons
The rice grown in the region thus can be classified into six classes primarily.These are Ahu or
autumn rice, Sailor Kharif rice also called winter rice, Boro or spring/summer rice, Asra or shallow water
rice, Bao or deep water floating rice or hill rice. The hill rice can also be furthersubdivided into mid
altitude rice and high altitude rice. The various classes of rice along with the season of cultivation are
indicated in Table 6.
Table 13. Categories of rice growing season
Class Season of cultivaton Remark
Ahu
(Autumn Rice)
Early :February to May Normal :
Mar-April to Jun-July
Late : May to August
Transplanted with irrigation Rainfed-
direct sown
Transplanted - Rainfed or irrigated.
Sali (kharif) Normal:July-Aug. to Nov.-Dec
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(Winter rice) Late : Aug-Sept. to Dec.-Jan
Boro (spring/summer rice)
Nov.-Dec. to April-May In water stagnated areas or with
irrigation
Asra (Shallow water rice) Mar.-April to Nov.-Dec. In 1-2 M deep water
Bao (Deep water/floating
rice)
Mar.-April to Nov.-Dec. In 2-5 M deep water
Hill Rice Mid Hill April-May -Sept.-Oct.
High Hill June-July-Nov.-Dec.
Economics of rice production
Economic comparisons are made not only between new and traditional varieties, but also
between farms with different resource situations and cropping patterns. The optimum level of
fertilizer use depends upon the location, variety and season. During this period of rapid change
in rice varieties and rice production techniques, it particularly avoids 'blanket recommendations'
for fertilizer use. The use of pesticides for the control of pest and diseases is important and will
undoubtedly increase in importance with the increased use of fertilizer following the
introduction of improved rice varieties. The profitability of rice production is a subject of
interest. One of the most useful measures of profit is the return above variable cost. Variable
cost includes such item as seed, fertilizers, chemicals, hired labours, harvesters; share of the
crop yield. It does not include the cost of the land, operator and the family labour. The key
factors influencing returns per farm are technology, farm size and cropping pattern. The
production function analysis indicates the level of use of scarce resources, the stage of
technology adoption and also the factors determining farm productivity.
The marketable surplus of rice in terms of percentage of the value of the total marketable
surplus of the optimum plans of the identified FS is shown in Table 14. Marketable surplus of
rice was found to be highest in semi-modern FS followed by traditional FS under all the three
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plans whereas plan I recorded the highest marketable surplus followed by plan III.
Table 14. Marketable surplus of rice (%)
Optimum
plan
Farming system Mean
Traditional Marginally
modern
Semi-
modern
Modern
I 16.60 4.46 8.36 6.06 8.87
II 0.72 1.01 7.48 6.07 3.82
III 6.47 4.37 12.52 0.99 6.09
Mean 7.93 3.28 9.45 4.37
Recommended package of practices
Production technology for rainfed upland rice
Soil tillage
ο The land after harvest of the previous crop should be opened preferably with a mould
board plough. Premonsoon showers in April and May help to break the clods.
ο To control weeds to some extent, one or two summer ploughings should be given
whenever possible.
ο Deep tillage and fine tilth should be ensured at the time of final land preparation for
sowing.
Soil and water conservation
ο Soil conservation measures such as bunding and contour terracing should be adopted.
Rain water, especially surface run-off, in a micro and macro-watershed on a community
basis in sloppy lands should be stored for giving one or two life saving irrigations at
critical stages of crop growth in the event of terminal drought.
ο Adequate amount of compost or FYM (5t/ha) should be applied to improve the soil
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structure and to increase water retention and soil fertility.
Selection of varieties
Rice varieties in duration range of 90-110 days with yield potential of 3-4 t/ha should be
selected.
Varieties for rainfed upland rice
Variety Duration
type
Grain Feature yield (t/ha) Average
Kayalni 11 62 LB Intermediate tall 2.0
Heera 68 LB Resistant to GM, blast 305
Sattari 75 SB Early maturing mutant 3.0
Kalinga 11 85 LB Intermediate tall 3.5
Vanaprabha 85 LS Intermediate tall 3.0
Neela 90 LS Resistant to GM, blast,BPH 3.0
Poorva 90 MB Fine grain 3.0
Subhadra 90 LS Drought tolerant 3.0
Tara 100 LB Resistant to GM, GLH 3.5
Annada 105 SB High yielding 4.0
Govind 110 LS Tolerant to BLB, blast, BS 4.0
TTB 4-7 115 LB 4.0
Soil amelioration
Lime or paper mill sludge @ ¼th
lime requirement (about 1.5-2.0 t/ha) should be used in
strongly acid soils once in 2-3 years for decreasing aluminium toxic city, phosphate deficiency
and phosphate fixation and for increasing rice yield.
Sowing
• Seeds should be sown when the land is dry, well in advance of the onset of monsoon.
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Sowing should be ensured around late May to early June.
• Sowing should be done before rains or when 30-60 mm rainfall has been received.
Sowing at a time when rainfall 120 mm or more was found to be detrimental in getting
desirable crop stand and yield (Rao, 1983).
• Seeds should be sown deep in lines 20 cm apart, with a seed drill or behind the country
plough.
• A seed rate of 60-80 kg /ha should be used depending upon the test weight of the seeds.
Weed control
Weed infestation is one of the major factors that limit the production of upland rice.
Weeds need to be controlled before the crop is 3-week old or earlier, through hand weeding,
mechanical weeding or weedicide application. For chemical weed control, liquid formulations
like butachlor etc. @ 1.5 kg ai dissolved in 800-1000 1 of water should be sprayed within first
week of sowing seeds. The success and good production of rainfed upland rice depends upon
effective weed control.
Fertilizer application
• If soil test information is not available 20-30 kg/ha each of Phosphorus (125-187 kg single
superphosphate) and potash (33-49 kg muriate of potash) should be applied. In the hilly
terrains with high rainfall having high P-fixing capacity, the phosphate rate may be
doubled.
• Early application of nitrogen in short duration varieties I essential to get higher yield. For
varieties maturing in 85-115 days, 2/3 of fertilizer nitrogen should be applied at seeding
and the remaining 1/3 within three weeks after germination of rice seeds and after
weeding. In basal application, diammonium phosphate may be applied since ammonium
form of nitrogen is better than nitrate or sometimes urea.
Plant protection
• Varities tolerant to insects and diseases (termites, mealy bug, stem borer, gundhi bug,
brown spot, leaf blast, neck blast) should be selected (Table ).
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• Seeds should be treated with Bavistin or Thiram @2-3 g Ikg of seeds.
• Need based chemical control measures should be adopted to protect the crop from
insects and diseases.
Harvesting and post harvest operations
• The crop should be harvested when four fifth of the grams m the panicles is ripe. This
condition of the is attained at about 25-30 days after flowering.
• Improved sickles should be used for higher labour efficiency in harvesting.
• Paddle thresher or power thresher may be used for threshing paddy.
• The grains should be dried properly under shade.
• The grains should be stored in rat proof improved storage bins or structures. . .
Production technologies for boro rice
Boro rice
Land selection: Low lying typical boro areas or irrigation command areas.
Seed selection: Healthy seeds should be selected after putting in plain water.
Seed treatment: After selection, the seeds should be soaked directly for 24 hours in
fungicidal suspension ofDithane M-45 or Captaf or [email protected] g/I of water or [email protected] g/l of
water. Seeds may be agitated for 5 minutes for thorough mixing after putting in a closed
container with Mancozeb (Dithane M 45) or Captan (captaf) or Captafol (Foltaf) @ 2.5 g/kg of
seeds or with Carbendazim (Bavistin) @ 2.og/kg of seeds.
Seed bed preparation: Beds should be 125 cm wide and 10 m long with 30 gap in
between two beds. Six to eight such beds are required for transplanting 1 bigha of land.
Seed rate: 650 to 1000 g pre-germinated seeds are required for each bed and seed
requirement for transplanting one ha of main field is 40-45 kg.
Age of seedlings: 5-6 leaf stage is suitable for planting.
Field preparation: The field should be ploughed 3-4 times followed by laddering. Level
ing should be done properly to retain water uniformly in the field.
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Fertility management:
Area Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash
Low lying area 0 0 0
Periphery of low lying area 40 kg/ha 20 kg/ha 20 kg/ha
Irrigated area 60 kg/ha 30 kg/ha 30 kg/ha
Time of application: In marshy area whole quantity 0 P and K should be top dressed at
21-25 DAT. For irrigated area, 1I3rd
N as basal and l/3rd at the time of tillering and the remaining
part at panicle initiation stage are to be applied. P should also be incorporated into the soil at
active tillering stage at 25-35 DAT along with second dose of N.
Transplanting Variety Number of
seedling/hill
Depth of
planting (cm)
Spacing (row x plant-
cm)
Mahsuri 2 5 25 x20
Boro I 2 5 25 x20
Boro2 2 5 25 x20
Krishna 2 5 20 x20
kallinga 3 3 5 20x20
Gap filling: The dead hills are to be replanted within 7-10 days of transplanting.
Water management: Irrigation water is to be applied to maintain 2-5 cm of standing
water in the field after 2-3 days of transplanting up to 7-10 days before harvest.
Interculture: Two weedings are to be given preferably at 20 and 40DAT.
Plant protection
In seed bed: As soon as one or two blast spots are seen, the beds should be sprayed
with Bavistin @1 gllofwater or Hinosan @l ml/l of water. In root-knot nematode and stem borer
endemic areas, Fradon 3 G @3 g/sq m or Thimet l0 G or Basudin 10 g@ 1 g/sq m are to be
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applied at 5 DAS. If nematode is not a problem, Monocrotophos @ 0.12 ml/ 10 sq m may be
sprayed for effective control of most insects at 5-7 DAS. After washing the roots of the uprooted
seedlings, the root portion is to be dipped in 0.02% solution of Chlorpyriphos (1 mill of water)
along with 1% urea for 3 hours as a protective measure against stem borer, gall midge and
hoppers.
In field insect pests infestation at different stages
After transplantation
Discoloured edge of
the leaf after unfold to
yellowing or whitish in
patches
Whorl
maggot Hills are
damaged up
to30DAT
Chlorpyriphos 20EC 2.5 ml/l of water
Leaf tissues Hispa scrap
in white parallel lines
Hispa
1 damaged
leaf/hill
Chlorpyriphos20EC
Monocrotophos40EC
Carbafuran 3 G
2.5 ml/l of
water
3.0 ml/l of
water30 kg/ha
Presence of dead heart Stem borer 5% dead
hearts
Chlorpyriphos 20EC
Monocrotophos
40EC
Carbafuran 3 G
2.5 mill of
water
3.0 mil of water
30 kg/ha
Yellowing and
withering of plants
Leaf and
plant
hoppers
10 insects/
hill
Chlorpyriphos 20EC
Monocrotophos40EC
2.5 mill of
water
2.0 mill of
water
Presence of silver
shoots Gall midge
5% silver
shoots
Monocrotophos
40EC Carbafuran 3 G
As stated
respective
insecticides
Active tillering stage
Presence of tubular
case by cutting the tips
of the leaves; leaf
Case worm 1-2 cases/
hill
Quinosphos25EC
Monocrotophos40EC
3.7 mill of
water
3.0 mill of
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tissues crapped in
white patches
water
Leaves are folded along
margins by webbing
them together
Leaf folder
More than
onedamaged
Leaf/hill
Quinosphos 25EC
Monocrotophos40EC
3.7 mill of
water
3.0 mill of
water
Presence of silver
shoots Gall midge
5% silver
shoots
Monocrotophos
40EC Carbafuran 3 G
As stated for
the respective
insecticides
Leaf tissues Hispa 1 damaged
Leaf/hill Chlorpyriphos 20EC
2.5 mIll of
water
Scrap in white parallel
lines
Monocrotophos40EC
Carbafuran 3 G
3.0 mill of
water
30 kg/ha
Presence of dead heart Stem borer 5% dead
hearts
Chlorpyriphos 20EC
Monocrotophos40EC
Carbafuran 3 G
2.5 ml/I of
water
3.0mUl of
water
30 kg/ha
Boot leaf to heading
stage
Presence of partially or
completely chaffy
grains in the panicle
Rice bug 1-2 bugs/
sqm Malathion 5% dust 20 kg/ha
Presence of white ear
head Stem borer
1 moth/ sq
m
Chlorpyriphos 20EC
Monocrotophos40EC
Quinalphos25EC
2.5 rnl/l of
water
3.0mUl of
water
3.7 ml/ha
Larvae climb and cut
the ear head
Ear cutting
caterpillar 1 larva/hill
Chlorpyriphos 20EC
Quinalphos 25EC
2.5 rnl/l of
water
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3.7 ml/ha
Presence of shed grains
or panicle at the base
of the plant
Climbing
cutworm 1larval/ hill
Chlorpyriphos20EC
Monocrotophos40EC
Quinalphos25EC
2.5 ml/l of water
3.0mUl of
water
3.7 ml!ha
Diseases
Blast
Spraying schedule to be followed as soon as spots on leaf are seen with Hinoson 50Ec
@0.1 % or Dithane M-4 @0.2% or Blitox 50 @0.4%. Spraying should be continued at an interval
of 10-15 days till the disease is controlled.
Sheath blight
To control the disease, Bavistin @0.05% is to be sprayed. Two sprayings are required,
the first at the disease and the second after the first spray.
Production technologies of Ahu rice
Land selection and preparation
Low lying areas having sufficient soil moisture even during January and February should
be selected. The land should be prepared by 3-4 ploughings followed by laddering. Proper
leveling has to be done so as to retain water uniformly in the field.
Fertility management
Compost or FYM @ lOt/ha are to be applied during initial ploughing. Fertilizer schedule
is as follows:
Nutrient requirement (kg/ha) Form Quantity (kg/ha)
For dwarf variety
N40 Urea 88
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P20 SSP 125
K20 MOP 33
For tall variety
N20 Urea 44
P 10 SSP 62
K 10 MOP 16
In absence of SSP, DAP can be applied in proportion to the quantities of N and P as
suggested. Full dose of phosphatic fertilizers is to be applied at the time of final ploughing. Half
of nitrogenous and potassic fertilizers have to be applied during 15-20 days after germination or
after first weeding. The second top dressing with the remaining quantities of N and P fertilizers
should be applied during 40- 45 days after germination or after second weeding, but not later
than panicle initiation stage.
Sowing time: The optimum time of sowing is middle of February.
Seed selection: As in Boro rice.
Seed treatment: As in Boro rice
Seed rate and sowing: Sowing is done in lines with an inter row spacing of20 cm. Seeds
are to be sown @ 75 kglha. For broadcast crop seed rate of 85-105 kg/ha is to be used.
Interculture: Weeding should preferably be done with wheel hoe, dry land weeder or
bindha followed by laddering at 3-4 weeks DAS. The second weeding should be done at 2-3
weeks after first weeding. Weeding should precede fertilizer application. Pre-emergence
herbicide Butachlor @ 2 .0 kg a.i /ha at 2-3 DAS or post-emergence herbicide 2, 4-D @ 0.8 kg
a.i/ha at 2-3 leaf stage of dicot weeds and sledges or 25-30 days after emergence of rice should
be applied.
Water management: As in Boro rice.
Plant protection
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Insect pest: As in Boro rice.
Root knot nematode: Carbafuran (Furadon 3 G) @ 3 g/sq. m or Phorate (Thimet lOG) @
1 g/sq m or Diazinon (Basudin lOG) @ 1 g/sq m is to be applied 5-7 DAS .
Diseases: As in Boro rice.
Landraces and varieties of rice of NE india
Some landraces, breeding lines and varieties of NE India are mentioned below:
LANDRACES
Arunachal Pradesh
Ashy, Panola, Choking, Susannah, Pangram, Bade, Jaiyango, Latung, Oiti, Deko, Local
black, Keieng, Lhamang, Mipun, Ahusdhan, Satya, Channadhan, Mahen, Charimpok,Tagin,
Katimahiya, Lahi, Phomang, Lengman, Halodhor, Akhodimio, Ningmaibasa, Nunmum,
Phomgman, Khodmio, Lambadhan, Mamkinkeng, Kharangchang, Chhalayaang, Khopsang,
Chihachock, Biharichameli, Samkungchameli, Lamachameli, Chameli, Chamtong, Khichang,
Kudumoni, Chakechungcham, Chakhicham, Sasaing, Chamtongli Betkhuit, Parong, Sakhi, Taisa,
Simoi, Chaliin, Sanyak, Chadown- Betguti, Yaling, Deku, Pankajichha, Chha, Chhai, Simoichha,
Tinmahinadhan, Joyadhan, Chachan, Basmotoi, Koduchechamali, Kodomungchameli
Chakhichameli, Khutarachameli, Betguti, Chameli, Boradhan, Pikhasichang, Khetichameli,
Khasenchamel~, Khuchekchameli, Kayamong, NamiNilhari, Khamtilahi, Mimiti, Tie~t: Mirap,
Mimagitchak, Minildoka, Khusho, Jorang, Khomo, RatSt Chomcha, Khroscha, Khatu, Khamang,
Mesong, Tabor, Kanchalmang, Emo Empo, Khawji, Payo, Namyi, Sangkhaw, Chamic, Frow,
Manpa. Amdang, Ahu, Kerpu, Punghng, Chuksingpa, Amiong, IC 25681, Maidang-ahu, Champhal,
Arnte-boro, Oiky, Keling, Chanka, Dajum, Bang-napdai, Nemo, Nipun, Pangra-balongba, Pyat
pyani, Miyo, Yayo, Khawnowjoma, Amo, Khaw-makhew, Seti, Impo-Elang, Ke-boro, Maibung,
Johala, Khownamtoek, Jingmik, Chomju, Bali, Yabor, Pyapon, Kamplungmang, Moping, Mahjang,
Penin, K, Khopsan, Amyong, Gyapung, Dazum, Kyummang, Immo-Eukhe, Pyare, Poppy, Anker,
Asiamkel, Daro, Impare,Ningkriahu, Khatu, Khamang, Kerpu, Jarti, Impohath, Immo Elang, Pyat
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Kogya, Ji Pyat, Pyping, Pyakhe, Pyping, Tababum, Pyping, Pyaphu, Daro, Tulu Amte Kimin,
Kamplungmag, Khaw, Makhew, Soiki, Moping, Palman, Neuly, Tyng, Makhomali, Pungngahu.
Assam
Rongali, Bondhubora, Gumini borodhan, Amrujoha, Kolajoha, Dhaliboro, Boro 1,
Seetabhog, Tulsibhog, Begonbishi, Hatibandha, Ikaraguti, Pokikola, Balam, Gomiri, Kolabora,
Panimuri Tarabali, Hatidatia, Suagmoni, Rangadoria, Kalajoha, Pokhanibora, Dumai, Koi Muruli,
Galem, Nilagi, Bardhan, Badal Sali, Betguti Sali, Kola Sali, Halodhar, Lawdubi Sali, Ekhara Sali,
Bogi Sali, Kula Sali, Ronga Sali, Jiton Sali, Bomi Sali, Badshabhog, Solpona, Kalomdani, Muga Sali,
Madari Sali, Japok Sali, Dholamuta, Monohar Sali, Bonjoha, Chakoa, Bangal Sali, Kansi
Sali,Kolijoha, Saheb Sali, Konjoha, Keteki joha, Moina Sali, Ampakhi, Manikimadhuri, Gandhi
Bora, Ghew Bora, Chakoa Bora, Nol Bora, KolongiBao, Basikolom, Maimansingiabao, Kakoa Bao,
Negheri Bao, Bira bhonga, Kati Boro,Ketura, Komoldhan, Moinagiri, Horusali, Khamtisali, Silsali,
Toraboli, Hatimulsali, Bonjoha
Manipur
Keisangba, Tondonba, Chingmorangphou, Tompuing, Bhousak, Khangola, Charongphou,
Hemant, Desa, Khongjaiphou, Morangphou, Koraiphou, Makhomubi, Jouchou, Changman,
Sulamphou, Taothalbi, Chakhao (black), Chakhao (white), Manipuri, Langmabi, Maophou,
Manipuri (small), Makhemeil, Manipuri yellow, Lethati, Chakou, Miakrilha, Changkohpal,
Mazha, Changhosam, Napdai, Changat, Phaichang, Eyroya, Hate, Nhpgai, Kohheng, Bang-
Napdai Changpalman, Charhor, Changngatpal, Langmanbi, Chana, Chao' Djiikero, Buh Bam
Kohn, Changhasan, Kolchang, Langmei, Assam Tan, Bangmai, Khhangman, Taingod, Napdai
Hangme, Makhom, Meill Changman, Maonap, Magulong, Kahinghih, Farmba,
Hnapdai,Saitralbu, Tangna, Nahpgei, Longhha.
Meghalaya
Kbalum, Manipur, Bhoiwag, Manisang, Longsong, Laispah, Shroi, Frow, Ryllowhite, Abor
red Ryllo Red, Meghalaya, Batlong, Mawkher, Leihkhyriemkho, Laispahaba, Leihkhyriem, Sohem,
Tharoh, Leiukho, Lespahnoh, Leihpasyi, Sohemiao, Kpapnah, Kpalum, Nangjugu Lyngsi, Tongla,
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Maikutsuk, Abor A, Tura, Darjeeling, Umsning, Assam, Malaria, Sohkurleh, Dullo, Thernru,
Lyngsi, Kab asawrit, Rachhangtu, Hillock, Mirikrak, Nonglwai, Ryllo white, Khonorullo, Kba
Thugmaw, Kuki, Mynri
Mizoram
Tangate, Zichum, Batetype, Ugemap,Taisanghar, Thlanchhuab, Matani, Kangpui, Idaw,
America, Mizo, Buhtial, Taiklawngh, Farate, Mizo (big), Maibasa, Maibring, Rungteinn, Buhtui,
Bahbite, Releng, Buhskhi, Ringteii, Bangbow, Taikouwn, Nagatai, Taikawnpui, Veipheitai
Taifarete, Lengpui, Kawinglawntawi, Thawkmawh, Relengwi, Rungfei, Maibasapui, Mawbuh,
Farel, Maotai, Tai, Rungtai, Birichuk, Kawnlong Taikarlang, Lawngtlai, Lawngtalawai, Chinairi,
MP 2, LP 8, Horipui, Baitarisno, Pawnbuh, Sihletma, Ngarempaoo, Mang, Champhai, Tui,
Rangoon, Manbuh, Bu, Fazaitai, Trai, Traivuban,Buhchi, Idaw, Boban, Buhbantharam, Buhpui,
Puthalama, Mangbuh, Zorambuh, Fangsang, Fangsin, Zotawuh, Buhbawn, Tialte, Zerusalem,
Ngokawi, Rengkoi, Americabuh, Nonglwai, Majhera, LT 4, LT 2, LT 3, LP 9, LT 9, LP 6, LP 5,
Bapnah, Lakang, LP 7, Lumum, Heijong, Midokru, Mantai, Chinairi, Manusal, Leiletbuh,
Maibiring, Thalnchhuah, Buhte, Kangpui, Taisanghar, Farete, Pumphir, Phulbuh, Taibialbuh,
Maibiring
Nagaland
Nagaland Sinsatsu, Henigido, Akatan, Kemehyasopa, Kemenhya, Ngoba, Mikotchuwakelu,
Mikudep, Sarang, Sarengma, Misarengma, Khulong, Misokmil, Mitonging, Yaribatsuk, Moyatsuk,
Maikutsuk, Pangnakla, Geartsuk, Mamen, Yirnontsuk, Makuktanakla, Meserong, Kiyirtsuk,
Maikumapuk, Nagaland special.
Sikkim
Sannodhan, Lambadhan, Sunidhan, Sunodhan, Motodhan, Jharodhan, Sundari, Galodhan,
Paukhidhan, Dhan 1, Laxmidhan, Koetodhan, Palidhan, Dosaradhan, Setino, Khanato, Putodhan,
Manglidhan, Nampokdhan, Mehadhan, Galaidhan, Mangthan, Sundoriodhan, Pakidhan,
Latodhan, Bhayodhan, Bihundhan, Didhan, Dukadhan,Ahodhan, Parodhan, Rajodhan, Batodhan,
Samidhan, Pedhonilo, Pithodhan, Sikkadhan, Sunntadhan, Sekiteli, Lahudhan, Addy, Thapachini,
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RICE IN NORTH EAST INDIA
Nardikalma, Chirakey, Kalakalas, Ramlakni, Dutkalani, Laskansal, Bhasamanik, Jhapaka
Tripura
Mepfbaw, Bungpet, Rangagellong, Chunglei, Nobdumli, Leitan, Sahoksan, Noining, Changman,
Dulakmorong, Anning, Billrong, Ningsi, Maicassak, Biralbinni, Khawai, Bagonbejon, Bamkoilua, Paijong,
Kalisatiya, Chanmouri, Rangoonbuh, Binni, Sonamukhi, Meli, Jhummalati, Bethi, Sarendyama, Maidani,
Charui, Karnram, Billrong, Dulakanrong, Garomaloti
BREEDING LINES
Arunachal Pradesb
AR 73, AR 11-125-1-1, AR 11-929-1-3, AR 87
Assam
TTB 17-1, TTB 15-1, D 208-2, M 37-2, D 51-1, M 135-3, AS 189, AS 363, AS 789, AS 24-1,
ASC 1520-85,AS 12-2, AS 786, B 21, BSI, B 144, B 157, B 32, B 156, B 153, B 52
Manipur
RCM6, RCM5
Meghalaya
RCPL 1-7C, RCPL 10C, RCPL 1-87-4, RCPL 3-5, RCPL 4-12, RCPL 3-8, RCPL 4-18, RCPL 3-4,
RCPL 1-14, RCPL 3-6, RCPL 1-4p, RCPL 1-13, RCPL 4-2, RCPL 4-16, RCPL 1-8, RCPL 1-6, RCPL
1· 5p, RCPL 4-7, RCPL 1-12, RCPL 3-2, RCPL 1-129, RCPL 7-5
Tripura
TRC 64-10-1, TRC 8776, TRC 87-251,TRC 87-252, TRC 10,
TRC 64-104, TRC 96-122
VARIETIES
Assam
Ahu (Photoperiod insensitive varieties)
Kala Dumai
(Kmj D 138-6)
Lal Dumai
(Kmj D 204-1)
Kmj. M 36-30 Koimurali
(Kmj M 142)
Dholajali
(Kmj M 175-1)
Chengri 1
(Kmj C 148-1)
Chengri 2
(Kmj C 203-5)
Basmati
(Kmj As 3)
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Basantabahar
(Kmj As 24-1)
Kasalath
(Kmj As 2)
Jaria
(Kmj As 46)
Rangadaria
(TTBAs 86
Fapori
(TTB As 25)
Farma
(TTBAs 35)
Garemahu
(TTBAs 20-1)
Dubaichenga
(TTBAs 48)
([Developed through pure line selection]
Aus Hybrid I (Kasalath x Basmati)
Ahu Cross
(Rangadaria x Dacca No. 6)
[Developed through hybridization]
Sali (Photoperiod sensitive and tall)
Latisali
(Kmj S 22)
Nagrasali
(Kmj S 156)
Prasadbhog
(Kmj S 61)
Badshabhog
(Kmj S 155)
Dhepisali
(Kmj S 161)
Ahomsali
(TTB SL 70)
Fulgai (TTB S 114) Latamaguri
(TTB S 115)
Bengolijoha
(TTB SJ 226)
Gomiribora
(TTB S B 279)
Laudumra
(TTB S 126)
Jahori
(TTB SL 240)
Kanaimuluk
(TTB SL 533)
Lakhimijoha (TTB SL
311)
Kalamadani
(TTB SL 202)
TTB S 36
[Developed through pure line selection]
Vijoysali
(Latisali x Georzesali)
Kerrsali (Nagrasali x Mainasali) Sali Hybrid 3
(Nagarasali x Dhepisali)
Swarnasali
(Latisali X Guachari)
Sali Hybrid 5
(Vijoysali X Kerrsali)
Handiquesali
(Vijoysali x Kerrsali )
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RICE IN NORTH EAST INDIA
Monoharsali
(Latisali x Guachari)
Andrewsali
(Latamaguri x Lakhimijoha)
Sali Hybrid
(Latamaguri x Lakhimijoha)
TTB SC 406-93
(Latamaguri X Lakhimijoha)
[Developed through hybridization)
Asra and Bao (Photoperiod sensitive and tall)
Sailbadal
(KmjAr1)
Laki
(Kmj Ar 2)
Birpak
(Kmj Ar 28)
Dholabadal
(Kmj Ar 108-1)
Bagdar
(Hbj Aman I A-13-20)
Godalaki
(Hbj Aman IIA-I92)
Gowai
(Hbj Aman IllA-38-13)
Dudhlaki
(Hbj Aman IV A-185)
Dholaaman
(Hbj Aman V A-51-I)
Nagheribao
(EB 1)
Kolongibao
(EB 2)
Kekoabao (EB 3) Padmapani
Developed through pure line selection
AsraHybrid
(Salibadol x
Latisali)
AsraHybrid
(Salibadal x
Birpak)
Lachit
(CRM 13-3241 x Kalinga IT)
Chilarai Gopinath Luit, Kapilee
(IR 24 x CR 44-118-1) (Pusa 221 x IR 36) (Heera x Annada)
M:adhab Kmj 1-19-1, Rongdoi
(IR8xCh63) Kmj 1-17-2 (rasadbhogxIR8)
(Monoharsali x IR 8)
Ranjit.Bahadur; Kushal, Moniram, Piolee Barak
(Pankaj x Mahsuri) (Pankaj x Mahsuri)
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Hybrid 14 Longai Satyaranjan
(indica x ( Pusa 2-21 x (lET 9711 x
japonica) China 63) lET 11162)
Basundhara Rongilee, Bhogali Aghoni
(lET 8711 x (Ghewbora x (Gandhibora x
lET 11161) Kmj 1-52-22) Kmj 1-52-2)
Paresh Ketekijoha Panindra, Padmanath
(Ghewbora x (Savitry x (Pankaj x
Kmj 1-52-2) Badshabhog) Jagannath)
Jyoti Prasad, Bishnu Prasad Joymati
(K 343-29-1-1 x Suweon 334) (Joya x Mahsuri)
[Developed through hybridization]
Boro
B 111-17 (Hbj Boro
1)
Hbj Boro V
B 43-11
(Hbj Boro IT)
Saliboro
(HBJ Boro Ill)
(B 16-3
(Hbj Boro IV)
[Developed through pure line selection; source: Pathak, 2001]
Rice varieties developed/identified by ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region
Khonorullo, NEH Megha Rice 1 , NEH Megha Rice 2 , Ngoba, RC Manipbou 4, RC Manipbou 5,
RC Manipbou 6, RC Manipbou 7, TRC-Borodhan-1, Bhalum1 & 2, Lumpnah 1, Sahsarang1,
Lungniaphou
Medicinal value of rice
• Biochemical characterizations of north eastern rice germplasm were done by several
workers at ICAR Research Complex, Manipur University and Gauhati University. At ICAR
Complex, Umiam, Premila Devi and Patnaik (2008) analyzed a group of medicinal rice
genotypes endosperm constituents. Devi and Pattanayak (2008) also studied some
biochemical parameters and etno-pharmacological uses of some medicinal rice
genotypes of Manipur.
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• Medicinal rice diversity in NEH region of India: Some rice varieties and cultivars are
being used for medicinal purposes in this part of India (Table 7).
• Table 7. Ethno-pharmacological uses of uses of rice in north eastern hill region of India
Disease Predominant
cultivar of rice used
State Preparation Mode of application
Dysentery Sticky rice cultivars
e.g., Moirangphou,
Phouren, Chahou
amubi, Chahou
poireiton.
Manipur Rice kernel is
roasted on pan
and powdered
with pine resin
The powder is given
orally
Muscular
sprain
Sticky rice varieties Manipur Sticky rice is
cooked. Wood
charcoal is
powdered and
smashed with
the coked rice
The paste resulting
from this mixture is
applied on the area,
covered with banana
leaf and bound to fix
and left overnight
Dog bite Any local cultivar Manipur Raw polished
rice is chewed
Chewed rice is applied
on the bitten area.
Then one silver coin is
placed on it for
sometime
Reduced
eye sight
Any local cultivar Manipur Rice husk is
rubbed with ripe
banana, the
resulting paste is
strained through
muslin cloth
The filtrate is soaked in
cotton and applied on
the eyelids
Mouth
ulcer
Chahou amubi,
Moirangphou and
sticky cultivars
Manipur Chewing Raw milled rice is
chewed
Hypersens
itivity of
teeth
Chahou amubi,
Moirangphou and
sticky cultivars
Manipur Chewing Raw milled rice is
chewed
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Easy
labour
and
healthy
baby
Chahou poireiton Manipur Cooked rice Cooked rice is included
in the diet
Scanty
lactation
Chahou amubi Manipur Cooked rice Cooked rice is given
orally with sugar
Dandruff Sticky cultivars Manipur Rice water Rice water is boiled
with some herbs.
Filtered and filtrate is
applied, leaved for few
minutes and rinsed
with water
Skin
allergy
Luwai Meghalay
a
Raw rice powder Raw rice powder is
applied on the area
Tonsillitis Local cultivars Meghalay
a
Wine prepared
from rice
powder
The wine is given orally
• Some medicinal cultivars are already collected and quality study is being done. Notably
some of them are high iron, high methionine and high calcium. Some of them possess
antibacterial activities against some pathogenic bacteria.
Indigenous traditional knowledge on rice cultivation in North East India
The ITK is developed through wisdom and experience of farming community from time
immemorial. The traditional technologies are eco-friendly as these are free from use of
chemicals. This is an imperative need for sustainable agriculture. ITK is largely location specific
and there has been good scope to include ITK as an integral part of integrated crop
management. Rautray, (2002) discussed in details the ITK prevalent on rice in eastern and NE
India.
Selection of seed
The farmers select the bold grains for seed purpose. Fields having healthy crop growth
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are selected for selecting seeds. Second selection done in the threshing floor. While threshing
manually, the bold seeds that are easily shattered by the first two beatings are considered. This
process is effective in separating out the partially filled and diseased grains. The seeds selected
by this process possess more vigour.
Storage of seeds
Rice seeds stored in straw bin (locally known as tom in Assam) for next year sowing
poses better viability than the seeds stored in gunny bags. Several layers of paddy straw
covering the seeds act as barrier for circulation of atmospheric air into it. Thus the atmospheric
air with high humidity does not enter into the seed mass. The microenvironment with low
humidity helps in decreasing the pest activity and hence maintains seed viability for a longer
period.
Sowing time
Farmers sow deep and semi-deep water rice when the mole cricket (Gyllotapa africana)
starts creating sound. The insect makes its presence in the month of April in Assam indicating
the early advancement of monsoon and early sowing of bao rice (deep water rice) which
concedes with the real situation. The insect creates high pitch sound during its flight from trees
to trees. This biological change is very much perceptible due to frequent high pitch sound and
usually occurs during May.
Double transplanting of rice seedlings
Double transplanting is a method for seedling multiplication under seedling scarcity
situation. This situation usually arises when the established crop is damaged in field by flood. For
lower Assam situation, photoperiod sensitive rice varieties flowering in the last week of October
are ideal. Seeds of suitable varieties are sown in nursery in the month of June and transplanted
at one-month age in the second nursery. The second nursery should be in shallow low land,
where the risk of damaging the seedlings from flood is free. As the objective is to multiply the
seedlings, the transplanted seedlings in second nursery are uprooted. Hills are spitted into small
ones, each containing two tillers. Such small hills are transplanted in the main field. Even in
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absence of flood, seedlings raised through double transplanted technique and used at about
two-months stage perform better than the normal seedlings transplanted at one-month stage.
Double transplanting is thus desirable as contingent measure in flood prone low lands of Assam.
Water management
Frequent croaking by frog indicates happening of rainfall and accordingly farmers
schedule their irrigation and drainage practices.
In Boro season, low temperature in the northeastern region severely restricts growth
and subsequently leads to death of rice seedling in nursery. In order to partly overcome this
problem, farmers irrigate the rice fields in the afternoon and drain away the cold water in the
rooming. Water is having high specific heat (1 cal/g/°C) as compared to soil. Hence, it absorbs
more solar energy during daytime as compared to soil. Due to high specific heat, water gets
cooled slowly and thus keeps the plants warmer during night. By morning, water gets cooled and
its drainage helps exposure of soil to direct sunlight and fast warming up.
Mixed sowing
Farmers in Assam follow the practice of mixed sowing of ahu (pre-autumn upland rice)
and bao (semi-deep and deep water rice) rice in flood prone rainfed lowlands. This provides an
insurance against the total crop failure in the event of aberrant rainfall in terms of time of
occurrence with respect to crop growth stage, or total amount and its distribution, finally
leading to drought or flood. In the years of early season deficit rainfall and slow rate of water
accumulation in field, the drought tolerant ahu rice becomes successful and the bao crop fails.
However, if there is early season flood, then the flood tolerant bao crop becomes successful.
Hence, mixed cropping of ahu and bao provides a minimum assured yield in the event of
abnormal rainfall situation.
Rice-cum-fish-culture
In northeastern region water stagnates in the low-lying rice fields for prolonged period
providing favourable habitat for fish farming. Farmers, therefore, adopt rice-cum-fish-culture to
utilize the natural resource of stagnating water. This system is also practiced in Apatani valley in
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Arunachal Pradesh since time immemorial (Melkania, 2001; Choudhary et al., 1993). The paddy
fields with one or two feet standing water, locally known as pani kheti are used for this system.
Rice-cum- fish-culture provides ample scope to increase fish production.
Control of stink bug/gundhi bug
Stinkbug or gundhibug (Leptocorisa varicornis Fab. And L. acuta Thun.) is of economic
importance from flowering to milking stages of rice crop. Both nymphs and adults of stink bug
suck the milky sap of tender rice grains. Affected grains in the panicle turn into white chaffy. The
insect is active from May to October coinciding with high atmospheric temperature and
humidity. This destructive pest usually appears in the rice field at the time of panicle emergence.
Weeds, volunteer rice and wild rice act as collateral host for this pest. Round the year rice
cultivation in lower Assam also favours their perpetuation. In Assam, boro
(November/December- April/May), early ahu (January/ February - April/May), ahu (March/April-
June/July) and Sali (May/ June – October/November) season rice are affected by this pest.
Trapping, repelling and encouraging predatory birds are traditional technologies of farmers to
control this pest without involving monetary insects.
Control of stinkbugs by trapping with rotten crabs or eels (Amphipuous cuchia) by
hanging dead crabs or eels (after breaking the shell) in rice fields with the help of threads
attached to bamboo sticks. Stink bugs are attracted by the rotten smell of these trapping
materials and feed on these. At this point, it is easy to kill the pest mechanically with the help of
a net or by fire. The rotten eels attract more number of bugs than the rotten crabs and the
former can act as trap material for 8 - 10 days as compared to 5 - 6 days .of the latter. Eight to
ten traps when used m the beginning 0f flowering (before the pest population build up) will be
effective in managing the bug population. Fresh water crabs and eels are available in the entire
Brahmaputra valley. Stinkbugs are repelled away with the smell and odour emending from the
peels of grape fruit (Citus paradisica). The bugs are active on rice panicles at milking stage. When
the peels of grape fruit are kept in the rice field at flowering or milking stage, the bugs repel
away. Grape fruits are plenty during this period making this technology feasible.
Birds like sky lark (gurkha baduli) are effective predators to control stinkbug. Providing
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supports like bamboo or wooden sticks at canopy level encourages the presence of these birds
in rice field. The predatory birds sit on these supports and eat away both the nymphs and adults
of stink bug. These birds do not feed on rice grains. Depending on pest pressure, 20-30 such
supports per acre are sufficient for effective management of stinkbug. However, the population
of this beneficial bird has of late been drastically reduced.
In Arunachal Pradesh (West Siang, East Siang, Lower Subansiri and Upper Subansiri
districts), as soon as the pest appears in the field during flowering local farmers fix several short
woodenlbamboo sticks randomly at certain intervals at rice fields (both lowland and upland
conditions). Then dead frogs/crabs are placed on the top of each stick. As the dead frogs/crabs
get rotten and start to emit foul smell, adult gundhibugs are attracted by this foul smell and
gather in mass on the rotten frogs/crabs. Sometimes farmers also seen to tie pieces of salted
fish with each stick. The reasoning behind this local practice is that until or unless emitting of
this foul smell stops, adult gundhibugs remain busy in large numbers with these rotten
frogs/crabs/fishes kept on sticks for at least 5-6 days. In the mean time, milk stage of rice florets
turn into thick dough stage. Naturally gundhibugs then do not prefer to feed on rice florets and
damage to rice grains is automatically reduced (Singh and Bag, 2002).
Growing dhaincha
Farmers believe that growing dhaincha plants on the field border is beneficial. They also
put the twigs of trees at few points in the field. The twigs provide habitats for natural enemies
like spider, dragonfly etc. Dhaincha is also a nitrogen fixer in symbiosis with rhizobium.
Scaring away of sparrows
Sparrows are very common pest in rice fields at maturity of thecrop in the northeastern
region. These little birds move in groups and cause sufficient yield loss by eating away
the grains. Fanners scare away by them keeping the black-coloured pseudostems of
arum (Colocassia sps) above the canopy level at the crop maturity stage. The
pseudostems are given the shape ofthe head of the snake by sharpening with a knife
and then these are mounted on bamboo sticks. The structures are erected in rice fields
at some interval so that the dark coloured- pseudostems remain about 5 cm above the
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canopy level. This mimics the head of snake and hence sparrows are scared away.
Farmers of Arunachal Pradesh employ a bow shaped noose trap for trapping the birds
damaging paddy. One end of the bow is made into a small triangle by means of cane or
bamboo strips. Onthe other end of the bow is fixed a string with a wooden spike. In
order to set the trap, the bow is given tension by fixing the wooden spike lightly inside
the triangle forming a noose on which the bait is placed. As a bird attracted by the bait,
sits on the noose, its weight presses the wooden spike and releases the bow, which
shoots up and strangles the bird in between the string and side of the triangle. This trap
is very effective for killing small birds. The trap is usually fixed on the branches of trees.
Grain storage and rat trap
Grains are stored with the leaves of neem (Azadirechta indica) or tulsi (Ocimum
basilicumi. After spreading the leaves from top of the storage structures, it is closed. The smell
of these leaves keeps the insects away from the structures. Fanners believe that the wood ash is
effective in controlling pests in stored grains. It is specifically used in seed small storage. The ash
is mixed with grains based on the extent of infestation, quantity of grains and storage structures.
Nahu (granary), an Adi traditional system of storing rice is a highly scientific storage
system in Arunachal Pradesh. A cluster of nahu storage system can be seen at the one corner of
village of Adi tribes. The nahu constructed in one corner of the village away from living houses so
that if there is accident of'fire in the living houses of the village, granary (nahu) is not affected.
Capacity of a single nahu varies from few quintals to 200 q depending upon the size and richness
of the family. The locally available took leaf iLivistona jenkinsianai, bamboo, wooden planks and
cane are used for construction of nahu. Foot of each plank is put on stone to avoid its contact
with moist soil. To stop rats to enter the nahu, rectangular or round wooden container is put in
each foot of the standing system. The grains are stored by making airtight compartments made
up of bamboo mats.
Nishi tribe of Arunachal pradesh also uses rat traps called gurung. the trap is made up
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oftauk(thin bamboo) with long internodes. They put the trap nearby hole in the house or paddy
field. In this trap, neck of rat gets tied, when it enters the trap and dies. The rats are also used
for food depending upon their size.
In Meghalaya, the Garos use grain storage structures made up of thatch grass, bamboo
and wooden poles. They fit inverted tin container in the foot of the structures to prevent rat
damage. This simple technique keeps away rats very effectively.
Some other ITK practiced by farmers of NE India (Sanna et al.,2002) are:
• To check multiplication of stem borers, which lay eggs on top portion of leaves, farmers
cut top portion of Sali rice seedlings before transplanting.
• To frighten birds and animals, fanners keep human status model made of thatch in rice
fields.
• For control of paddy leaf roller, farmers in West Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh cut
bamboo shoots into pieces and spray in rice fields after soaking in water overnight.
• To reduce excessive vegetative growth, the practice of allowing grazing animals in
standing bao rice fields during tillering stage is seen in many areas of Assam.
• To reduce growth of weeds, farmers in West Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh and
Kohima distrct of Nagaland apply common salt-water solution in upland rice crop.
Constraints in rice production
These constraints are briefly discussed below:
(i) Abiotic Stress :
Problem soil, low temperature and low sunshine hour and high rainfall pattern are
major abiotic constraints. Soils in the region are usually rich in organic matter and are acidic to
strongly acidic in reaction. It is now well documented that soil acidity leads to deficiency of some
essential plant nutrients as well as creates elemental toxicity thereby adversely affecting the
crop growth. The optimum pH congenial for nutrient availability to crop plants remain non-
existent in acid soils. It is indicated that 95% of soils of NE staes excepting Nagaland (77%) are
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acidic in reaction. Soils in the region are rich in total nitrogen due to presence of high amount of
organic matter. The content of organic matter and all forms of N and C:N ratio tend to increase
with elevation. The soils are deficient in available phosphorous due to high content of
exchangeable aluminium. High aluminium causes severe toxicity under upland condition. Under
lowland condition iron toxicity is common in the hill states.
Low temperature prevailing for considerable period of time, particularly in the hilly
areas, limits the total period of time available for rice crop and thus limits multiple cropping. In
high altitude areas of Meghalaya, it has been found that delaying transplanting after 20th
June
leads to yield reduction up to 60%. Studies have shown that as the temperature decreases in
hilly areas, translocation of soluble sugar and phosphorus to the developing grains gets
adversely affected resulting in chaffy grains. In addition, areas affected by low temperature, the
absorption of phosphorus also gets reduced. Rice grown in high altitude areas of Meghalaya,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Sikkim suffers from low temperature both at vegetative as
well as at reproductive phase while in mid-altitude areas of Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh,
Mizoram and Sikkim, the crop suffers from low temperature at reproductive phase only. Pre-
kharif crop of Manipur as well as boro rice grown in the low altitude areas of the region
experiences low temperature at vegetative phase.
The entire region experiences maximum cloudiness during monsoon. Average sunshine
hour in the region is the lowest in the country and ranges from 2 - 3 hours/day during monsoon
season and 6 - 8 hours/day during rest of the year. Fog accumulation at higher altitudes during
winter months reduces availability of solar radiation to the crop during growing period.
Major part of the region receives high rainfall (2000mm) of which 70 -90% is received
during pre-monsoon to monsoon period (April - October). High rainfall causes very high humidity
during growth stage of rice leading to increased incidence of disease and pests.
High rainfall also reduces fertility, increases incidence of grain discolouration and
damages mature grains. Although there is plenty of rain in the area during monsoon, short
periods of drought are common. In addition, rice crop in upper terraces face water scarcity due
to low water retention capacity. Flood is one of the major problems during the main kharif
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season in plain and low altitude areas of Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura. In addition, occasional
heavy rainfall causes complete submergence of the crop for several days in wet terraces.
(ii) Biotic Stress:
Major biotic factors that influence rice production in the northeastern hills are-
diseases, insect pests, rodents and weeds. Rice blast is endemic and major disease of the region.
Leaf and neck blast are common and both together cause yield loss ranging from 40 - 46%. Of
late, sheath blight has emerged as an important disease and is well distributed in Manipur and
Nagaland. Brown spot and bacterial leaf blight are other important diseases at low and mid-
altitude areas of Meghalaya and Nagaland, respectively. Sheath rot is assuming greater
importance in high altitude areas. Leaf scald and grain discoloration are also widespread in the
entire NEH region. Leaf scald generally appears at the maturity stage of the rice crop and,
therefore, does not cause severe damage. Grain discoloration, which causes reduced
germination, decay of seedlings and lowers quality, is a major problem in both upland and
lowland rice.
Stem borer and gundhi bug are major insect pests of the region. Areas adjoining
Bangladesh and Assam are infested by rice hispa and gall midge. In addition, root aphid and root
weevil are serious problems of upland rice. At higher altitudes of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya
and agaland, gundhi bug and thrips cause major damage.
Rodents cause severe damage to paddy from nursery to harvested grains in storage. In
the EH region, damage to standing crop of paddy range from 4.6 - 16.8% in lowland and 3.9 -
12.9% in upland. The problem is severe in Mizoram, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh.
In high rainfall area like NEH region, weed is a great problem especially in upland rice
where puddling is not possible. Under upland condition, weeds often emerge along with the
crop and compete with the main crop for moisture, nutrient, light and space. This is one of the
reasons why farmers prefer to grow tall local cultivars, which show fast initial growth. It has
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been found that in upland, the yield of rice is directly proportional to the percentage of weed
control. Grasses, sedges and broad-leaf weeds thrive in upland situation. Some of the common
weeds of upland are Digitaria sanguinalis, Eleusine indica, Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon,
Ageratum conyzoides, Euphorbia hirta, etc. Under lowland situation, direct seeded crop faces
the same weed problem as the upland crop, however, at the later stages both direct seeded and
transplanted crop face problem of aquatic weeds. Some common weeds of lowland are
Echinocola colona, E. crusgalli, Cyperus iria, C. pilosus, Ludwigia octovalvis, Commelina
benghalensis.
(iii) Technological Constraints :
Among the various constraints under this group, location specific high yielding varieties
(HYVs) and their adoption are most important. Only about 20% of the rice growing area in the
region is under modern varieties. Because of wide variation in agroclimatic conditions varietal
requirements are highly specific and a good number of HYVs are needed to fulfill requirement.
The second major constraint is availability of quality seeds in sufficient quantity. As the seed
requirement of any individual variety is low, it is uneconomical for national agencies to produce
seeds of these varieties. A sound and coordinated seed production programme is absent in
almost all states of the region. Seed storage facilities available in the region are inadequate and
not properly equipped to protect against high humidity.
Non-availability of improved farm tools and machineries suitable for the terrain of the
region within purchasing power of the small and marginal farmers is another constraint which
limits rice production in the region. About 49% of the women work force in the region is
involved in rice farming and related agricultural production systems. Traditional farm tools and
rnachineries are rather primitive and heavy for women workers.
Higher yield cannot be attained in any crop without proper crop management even if
other inputs such as fertilizer, water and plant protection measures are used adequately. Proper
crop geometry, seed rate, timely sowing, transplanting and timely harvesting are important
aspects, which deserve consideration. Widespread practice of subsistence agriculture does not
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allow the farmers to go for proper crop management. As a result, rice is invariably grown under
poor management.
Strategies and modern techniques to enhance rice production in NER
Out of the present deficiency of 1.6 million tones of food grains in the region, 1.0
million tonne deficiency is in rice alone. Main strategy to increase rice production should be
through:
• Developing altitude specific varieties and packages in a participatory mode involving
farmers in selection process of such varieties to achieve an average production of 2.2
tfha from the present level of l.8 t/ha from 3.5 million ha of rice area i.e. a gain of 1.4
million tones.
• Introducing double cropping in at least 25 - 30% of valley land areas of l.5 million ha. i.e.
a gain of l.12 million tones.
• Promoting irrigation facilities by tapping both surface and ground water resources.
Present irrigation potential is only 0.88 mhm which needs to be increased to at least 1.6
mhm by tapping the water resources of 42.5 mhm in the region.
• Breeder seed production for the developed varieties by the concerned institute/
universities, easy access to such seeds need to be ensured. Encouragement and training
to youth groups and SHGs for seed production and delivery.
• In addition to the above, rice varieties for the shifting cultivation areas should be
developed to achieve an yield of 1.2 t/ha from the present level of 0.7 t/ha i.e. a gain of
0.8 million tones of rice particularly of glutinous type.
• Protection and characterization of existing and new germplasm and appending the
information to already available database for sharing the information at regional and
national level as well as for future use. This is needed to develop a statewise bioresource
inventory by the year 2015 and categorise risk level of various germplasm.
• Molecular characterization of important germplasm for protection of IPR issues and to
find out gene flow pattern in highly endangered species of agricultural importance.
Page | 80
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Rice Knowledge Management Portal (RKMP)
Directorate of Rice Research,
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Ph: 91-40-24591218, 295 Fax: 91-40-24591217
RICE IN NORTH EAST INDIA
• Establishment of a community rice bio-parks to provide information to general public
about conservation needs, judicious and diversified utilization and open up avenues for
employment.
• Demarcation of around 50% jhum areas for organic rice production based on the
availability of infrastructure like road, power, storage facilities, marketing, credit facilities
and government support.
• Initially 25% of jhum land per annum may be brought under organic cultivation for three
years and remaining 25% in equal proportion in next 2 years. In this way 50% of jhum
areas will be covered by 2020. This would result in 15-20% increase in production with
20-30% increase in farm income by 2025.
Page | 81
For more Information contact: Visit Rice Knowledge Management Portal http://www.rkmp.co.in
Rice Knowledge Management Portal (RKMP)
Directorate of Rice Research,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030. Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Ph: 91-40-24591218, 295 Fax: 91-40-24591217
RICE IN NORTH EAST INDIA
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For more Information contact: Visit Rice Knowledge Management Portal http://www.rkmp.co.in
Rice Knowledge Management Portal (RKMP)
Directorate of Rice Research,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030. Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Ph: 91-40-24591218, 295 Fax: 91-40-24591217
RICE IN NORTH EAST INDIA
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