states of consciousness textbook chapter 3. difficult to define! ◦ behaviorists rejected it...
TRANSCRIPT
Unit 3States of Consciousness
Textbook Chapter 3
Difficult to define!◦ Behaviorists rejected it completely◦ Interest in consciousness faded through 1960s◦ Technology helped revive an interest in it
Today, consciousness is defined as our awareness of ourselves and our environment◦ Active mode involves controlled, heightened
awareness such as planning and decision making◦ Passive mode involves minimal awareness and
includes states such as daydreaming and sleeping
What is Consciousness?
Naturally occurring altered states of consciousness◦ Sleep◦ Dreaming◦ Daydreaming
Artificially induced altered states of consciousness◦ Hypnosis◦ Meditation◦ Drug-altered consciousness
Altered States of Consciousness
Scientists have given various reasons for the purpose of consciousness◦ Reproductive advantage◦ Long-term planning (considering various
outcomes and consequences)◦ Reading others’ behavior and altering how we
present ourselves for survival However, how does our brain create
conscious experience?
Brain and Consciousness
Defined as the branch of psychology that examines the relationship between the brain and cognitive processes ◦ Can use fMRI to see what parts of the brain are active
when we are conscious◦ Beginning to map out neural patterns to correspond with
conscious processes Dual processing
◦ We seem to have two neural systems at work◦ One system is used for conscious processing, the other is
for unconscious processing◦ The two systems function simultaneously, though we are
only aware of the conscious one
Cognitive Neuroscience
Selective attention is the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus◦ we are bombarded with tens of
thousands of stimuli per second◦ we only focus on a small fraction of
these stimuli◦ Cocktail Party Phenomenon
Selective attention and accidents◦ Cell phones and driving?◦ Cell phones and walking!?
Selective Attention
Neisser (1979) Experiment◦ When we focus on one thing, we “miss out” on others◦ Inattentional blindness occurs when we fail to see
things because we are focused on other stimuli Change Blindness (Simons, 1996) occurs when we fail to
notice a change in a the environment when we are focused elsewhere (change deafness exists, too!)
Choice Blindness (Johansson, 2005) occurs when we fail to recognize the choice we have made moments after doing so (and choice-choice blindness…?)
In some instances, a stimulus may demand our attention (e.g. hearing our name in noisy room)
Selective Inattention
Something we don’t try to pay attention to catches our attention.
Pop out
We may not be conscious, but our brain is active
We continue to process information while we sleep
Technology has given researchers a greater understanding of brain activity during sleep
Sleep
Circadian Rhythms◦ 24-hour cycle of biological
functioning (circa-diem)◦ Humans naturally wake with sunlight
and sleep when it gets dark Stimulation of SCN (suprachiasmatic
nucleus in hypothalamus) by bright light striking retina’s photoreceptive cells
SCN triggers pineal gland to decrease melatonin
Exposure to artificial light and the circadian cycle?
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Every 90-Minutes, we cycle through 5 sleep stages several times during the night (Stages 1, 2, 3, 4, and REM)
Researchers monitor brain waves, eye movement, and facial muscle tension to study these stages
Generally, as the night progresses, we experience shorter stage 4 and 3 sleep and longer periods of REM sleep
Over a third of people report never dreaming, though they do – they just do not recall◦ When these sleepers are awakened during
REM, they can usually remember their dreams
◦ We spend 20-25% of our sleeping time in REM, dreaming away…
Sleep Stages: General Trends
Awake and alert: beta waves dominate◦ Stress, anxiety, high activity events (like
the HIGHEST gear that our brain is every in)
◦ Caffeine Awake but relaxed: alpha waves
dominate◦ Creativity, healthy immune system◦ First waves ever discovered
If we skip over Alpha Waves (i.e. alarm clock pulls us out of Delta Waves (deep sleep) and immediately creates anxiety (beta waves)), then we may see a decrease in health and creativity.
The Sleep Stages: Specifics
Stage 1 Sleep: slowed breathing, irregular, larger brain waves (theta waves), hallucinations, feelings of falling, paralysis, “Hyponogogia”
Stage 2 Sleep: deeper sleep, more difficult to awaken, larger theta waves, sleep spindles, sleeptalking
Stage 3 Sleep: even deeper sleep, difficult to awaken, delta waves begin
Stage 4 Sleep: very deep sleep, delta waves, sleepwalking, bedwetting
REM: rapid brain waves, dreaming, increased heart rate, cortical activity, sexual arousal, “paradoxical sleep”
In general, as sleep deepens, sleep waves increase in amplitude and decrease in frequency
Sleep Stages (Cont.)
Sleep Stages
REM is important, and when we are deprived of it, we may experience REM Rebound. The loss of muscle tone/paralysis that occurs during REM helps us avoid acting out our dreams. Sleepwalking and talking must therefore occur during nREM in most people. REM decreases with age.
Protective Value: we sleep at night, as we are not adapted for hunting/gathering in darkness. Sleeping in darkness keeps us away from dangerous nocturnal predators. Animals who need less protection sleep less.
Restorative Value: we restore and repair brain tissue and prune unused neural pathways
Memory: we recall better after a good night’s sleep (don’t pull all-nighters!!!!!!)
Creativity: the break that sleep (and dreams) provide allows us to awaken with a fresh new approach (Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz and his chemistry break through)
Growth: Pituitary releases more growth hormone during deep sleep – may explain why we spend less time in deep sleep as we age (or that we grow less because we sleep deeply less)
Why Do We Sleep?
Nearly half of all Americans are sleep deprived!
Sleep deprivation is linked with concentration difficulties, irritability, unhappiness, fatigue, illness, obesity, hypertension, and poor motor performance
William Dement’s research on sleep: “Sleep deprivation makes you stupid!”
If you need an alarm clock…if you fall asleep in class…you are sleep deprived!
People who report getting enough sleep also are more likely to report feeling satisfied with their lives!
Sleep Deprivation
1 in 10 adults; 1 in 4 older adults Inability to fall asleep or remain asleep Role of Ventrolateral Preoptic Nucleus
◦ In hypothalamus - “shut off” brain activity associated with wakefulness by releasing inhibitory NTs (example???)
◦ Degenerates with age Treatments
◦ Sleeping pills and alcohol?◦ Exercise but not before bed◦ Avoid caffeine and rich foods before bed;
milk for serotonin instead◦ Unwind before bed – dim lights, no TV-
WHY?◦ Keep regular sleep schedule with no naps-
WHY?◦ Avoid stressors – looking at clock,
ruminating, etc.◦ Hypersomnia? (excessive sleepiness, never
“refreshed”)
Sleep Disorders: Insomnia
Sudden lapse into sleep – in severe cases, REM
Usually brief – 5 minutes
Linked to lack of neurotransmitter linked to alertness, orexin, produced in hypothalamus.
Rusty the narcoleptic dog
Sleep Disorders: Narcolepsy
Temporary cessation of breathing during the night
Puts great stress on heart- arrhythmia and heart attack more likely
Irritability, fatigue- work-related/driving injuries increase
Linked with obesity Children w/ enlarged
tonsils CPAP and BiPAP;
Surgery◦ “Positive Airway
Pressure”
Sleep Disorders: Sleep Apnea
Uncontrollable screaming and arousal without the ability to be awakened
Seen only in children or adults on drugs◦ Linked to CNS overactivity; Rare
(3-6%) Occur during stage 4 sleep
typically, not REM like nightmares◦ What does this tell us about the
disorder?◦ How can you tell the difference
b/w a NM and NT?
Sleep Disorders: Night Terrors
Stage 4 sleep disorder Individuals walk and talk in
sleep and do not recall anything in the morning
Seems to run in families◦ More likely to have children w/
night terrors More common in children
◦ WHY? Linked to fatigue, anxiety,
alcohol, sedatives Sleepwalkers
(somnambulists) usually return to bed on their own◦ Don’t wake them up?
Sleep Disorders: Sleepwalking and Sleeptalking
Occurs in REM sleep and Stage 4?◦ Difference in types of dreams?
We spend 6 years of our lives in dreams!
Dreaming
Manifest Content – actual story line of the dreams – often reflect our experiences and preoccupations (e.g. Tetris dreams) – (vs. Freud’s Latent)
Sensory stimuli from the outside may intrude – alarm clock, smells – indicating some level of awareness even when unconscious
Only stimulus-response learning seems to occur in dreams◦ Tone + puff of air, no foreign language
To remember dreams, write them down, talk about them before going back to sleep.
Dreaming (cont.)
Freud’s Wish Fulfillment◦ Interpretation of Dreams (1900)◦ Manifest and Latent Content◦ Lacks any scientific backing
Information Processing◦ Sort out our day◦ Improve and organize memories◦ Does not explain dreams about places
we have never seen/things never experienced
◦ Correlation b/w sleep & grades Physiological Function
◦ REM sleep brain stimulation develops and preserves/prunes neural pathways
◦ Infants with developing brains spent much time in REM
◦ Gives no explanation about the meaning of dreams
◦ “Mental Housekeeping” Crick and Mitchison – “reverse learning”
Activation Synthesis◦ Hobson and McCarley’s Theory◦ REM sleep causes neural activity
that the brain weaves into stories◦ Does not explain meaning of
dreams (no meaning) Cognitive Development
◦ Dreams reflect the dreamer’s knowledge; development; affect
◦ Dreams often continue waking consciousness
◦ Problem Solving◦ Fails to address role of
physiological brain activity in dreams
◦ Rosalind Cartwright and depression
BIOLOGICAL and PSYCHOLOGICAL explanations of dreams work together, not against one another
Theories of Dreaming
Identify the Dream Theory Represented:
Lucid Dreaming
A person is aware that they are dreaming while the dream is in progress
A.k.a. conscious dream. Dreamer can actively participate in and
often manipulate the imaginary experiences in the dream environment.
Lucid dreams can be extremely real and vivid depending on a person's level of self-awareness during the lucid dream.
Do we need to dream? People deprived of REM sleep (and therefore in overall
sleep time) display irritability, fatigue, increased reaction time, hallucinations
“The Men Who Did Not Sleep”- Dement◦ Cats and REM Deprivation◦ 90 Hours- Decrease in sensory acuity, slowed reaction time,
decreased memory ability, hallucinations.◦ 201 Hours- Peter Tripp- Mental agility tests were intolerable,
visual hallucinations, conspiring doctors (could’ve been partially caused by stimulants)
◦ 11 days- Randy Gardner- decline in concentration, motivation, perception, analytical abilities, memory, motor control, reaction time, hallucinations, delusions, forgetting tasks, microsleeps
Speculation of Sleep Deprivation for those involved in: Exxon Valdez, Chernobyl, Challenger
Greek root: hypnos, meaning “sleep” Anton Mesmer (1732-1815) and
“mesmerism” as a cure Hypnosis is a systematic procedure
used to produce a heightened state of suggestibility◦ Not an “altered state”?
Not everyone can be hypnotized◦ Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales◦ Willingness to be hypnotized◦ Those with good imagination and fantasy
life, who are able to concentrate, and who have a favorable opinion of hypnosis
◦ Hypnotism as entertainment
Hypnosis
Age Regression: acting like of reliving one’s child-state◦ Hypnosis may cause hypnotized
people to feel like children, but they often still have adult abilities
◦ Memories that have been “hypnotically refreshed” are often a combination of fact and suggestion
Acting against one’s will?◦ People do not do this because they
are hypnotized◦ They may perform unlikely acts simply
because anyone in authority can induce people – hypnotized or nor – to act against one’s will
◦ Spanos article from reading
Power of Hypnosis…?
Hypnotherapists try to help clients heal themselves◦ Posthypnotic suggestions: suggestion made to
hypnotized client that influence client’s later behavior◦ Posthypnotic amnesia: client told they will not remember
anything that happened while they were hypnotized◦ Hypnotherapy as a supplement to therapy has been
shown to be helpful – particularly in managing obesity, but not for drugs, smoking or alcohol
Hypnosis has been successful in pain management◦ Hypnotized people can endure things from ice baths to
surgery without anesthesia!◦ Hypnosis can be used for pain management in lieu of
addictive pain killers◦ In Europe, the surgical use of hypnosis is on the rise
Hypnosis as Therapy
Role Theory◦ Hypnotized individuals are playing a role◦ If they trust the hypnotist, they will behave
accordingly – as expected Dissociation Theory
◦ A dissociation is a split in consciousness which allows thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously but separately
◦ The hypnotized individual gives some control over these processes to the hypnotist
◦ Automatic writing: subject writes one thing and discusses an unrelated thing at same time
State Theory◦ Hypnosis is a special state of consciousness◦ Specific, distinct changes in mental processes take
place during hypnosis Combining theories?
The Hypnotized State
Techniques that attempt to focus attention and promote relaxation
Deliberate attempt to alter consciousness
Concentrative Meditation attempts to focus all attention on ONE thing: a word, a sound, etc. so that the same information is cycled through the nervous system repeatedly.◦ Zen: Focused breathing (Buddhism)◦ Transcendental : Repetition of a mantra
(Maharishi Mahesh Yogi)◦ Sufi: Frenzied dancing and prayer (e.g.
whirling dervishes) Alpha waves predominate- EFFECTS?!? Can be used for relaxation, suppression
of sympathetic nervous system
Meditation
Drugs and Consciousness Psychoactive drugs are
chemicals that influence the brain, alter consciousness, and produce psychological changes
Recreational Use involves the self-administration of drugs in ways that deviate from medical or social norms
Drug Abuse – pattern of use that diminishes fulfillment of responsibilities at home, work, or school
Results of Substance Abuse Tolerance refers to a person’s progressively
decreasing responsiveness to a drug, leading to increased amounts required to produce the same effect
Reverse Tolerance- Happens with certain substances- In the immediate short term, the substance will have more of an effect
Withdrawal, the unpleasant physiological symptoms (head ache, nausea, tremors) that follow discontinued use may occur, indicating that…
Physical Dependence has occurred Psychological dependence may also prompt the
individual to continue using the drug Addiction results when continued use is necessary
to prevent withdrawal
Do Now: Jayden is a graduate student who began
drinking alcohol in college. When he first started drinking, 3-4 shots of vodka would cause him to display signs of intoxication. Now, however, he has to drink at least a half of a bottle of alcohol to feel the effects. When he ceases to drink, Jayden experiences tremors, sweating, and slight nausea. It has come to the point where he has been slacking on his graduate studies and missing class. What are some effects of drug use that Jayden is experiencing? Is he dependent?
Dependence(4 of the following 7 symptoms) Developing a
tolerance Experiencing
withdrawal Using substance for a
longer period or in greater quantities than intended
Presence of a desire or repeated attempts to cut back on use
Spending a lot of time using/obtaining the substance
Reduction or cessation of usual activities Continued use despite awareness of drug’s
harmful effects
Depressantsaka “Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs”
Depress the functioning of the CNS, reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Withdrawal: tremors, nausea, sweating, restlessness, irritability, anxiety, possibly death (stroke, heart attack)….Why???
Long term: Addiction, Tolerance
Depressants: Alcohol◦ Increases Serotonin, GABA, Dopamine, causing:
mild euphoria, relaxation, lowered inhibitions (misperceived as stimulant)
Slowed neural processing (don’t drive!) Perception, motor processes, judgment, visual
acuity, cognitive functioning are impaired Memory disruption (“black outs”)** Withdrawal: Delirium Tremens- Death by heart
attack??
Depressants: Alcohol
◦ Behavioral tolerance?- Vogel-Sprott◦ Promiscuity/Driving and alcohol?◦ Highly physically and psychologically addictive◦ ~14 million Americans abuse alcohol (NIAAA)
1 in 13 adults, or 7% of adult population◦ Men are 3x more likely to become alcoholics
than women◦ Brain shrinkage; Memory disruption; Korsakoff’s
Syndrome- B1 deficiency Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
◦We will return to this in “development” unit
Depressants: Barbiturates
Sleeping pills and Tranquilizers◦ Bind to GABA (inh.) receptors and block Glutamate (Exc.)◦ Calming, sedative effect – reduce inhibitions◦ e.g. Nembutal (Exorcism of Emily Rose)
Depressants: Benzodiazepine Like Barbiturates, they enhance the effects
of GABA (inhibitory neurotransmitter) Used to treat anxiety, insomnia, agitation,
seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal
Tolerance and physical dependence result after time
• Ex: Diazepam (Valium), Lorazepam, Xanax
Depressants: Propofol Increases effects of GABA Blocks Sodium Channel (Think back to
neural firing!) Short term: mild euphoria, hallucinations,
and disinhibition; Used as sedative for anesthesia
In conclusion….
What are some reasons for why people use depressants?
How do they work? (Mechanisms and effects) Why are they so dangerous? Alcohol poisoning kills 79,000/year (
College Stats) Some celebrities who have overdosed at
least partially as a result of depressants:
Marilyn Monroe:Acute Barbiturate Poisoning (Nembutal)
Jimi Hendrix: Acute Barbiturate Poisoning
Elvis Presley:Sedatives
Anna Nicole Smith: Clonazepam, Lorazepam, Diazepam, Sleeping pills
Heath Ledger:Diazepam
Stimulants
Increase central nervous system activity and speed up body functions; arousal response
Stimulants: Meth
Methamphetamine (Speed)◦ Euphoria, triggers release of dopamine◦ Irritability, insomnia, seizures, depression,
violence, psychosis◦ HIGHLY addictive
Stimulants: Nicotine
◦ Euphoria, triggers epinephrine and norepinephrine release
◦ Suppresses hunger and increases alertness◦ Stimulates release of dopamine: highly addictive!◦ Withdrawal leads to insomnia, anxiety, irritability and
weight gain◦ Philip Morris- “Death saves $$”◦ Depression, divorce, disabilities
Stimulants- Caffeine
Caffeine◦ Wakefulness, increased metabolism (3-4 hours)◦ Withdrawal leads to fatigue and headaches
Stimulants- Cocaine
Fast euphoria – fast crash Blocks _________ reuptake (pleasure) HIGHLY addictive Withdrawal leads to fatigue, irritability,
increased appetite, depression Blow (Johnny Depp)
Stimulants- Ecstasy
Ecstasy (MDMA)◦ Stimulant and mild hallucinogen◦ Triggers release of serotonin and prevents its
reabsorption◦ Destroys serotonin-producing neurons –
permanent depression◦ Suppresses immune system
Romeo and Juliet (4:30) Ecstasy and Death article
Though Ecstasy may not be as deadly in the long run as alcohol, cocaine or heroin use, the drug "has the potential to cause death," said Washington state toxicologist Barry Logan. "Some people are more sensitive to it than others.“
Marissa Ann Napier was one of them.
Doctors who treated her and the medical examiner who performed her autopsy think the Ecstasy in Marissa's system -- .87 milligrams of MDMA per liter -- caused seizures. The convulsions in turn caused labored and irregular breathing, which eventually caused her oxygen-starved brain to shut down.
Marissa was brain dead, though her heart was just barely beating, when she arrived at Harborview, said Shawn Skerrett, the doctor who treated her there.
She was unconscious and breathing ineffectively, Skerrett said. Her pupils had become fixed and dilated. A pink frothy foam was coming out the side of her mouth, consistent with pulmonary edema, or lungs that are filled with water.
"This was a horrible case, and not one you easily forget," said Skerrett.
Though Marissa's friends later told sheriff's deputies that she also had taken hallucinogenic mushrooms at the party, medical examiners found only caffeine and MDMA in her system.
Hallucinogens
Drugs that alter perceptions of reality and distort sensory and perceptual experiences
Hallucinogens: LSDlysergic acid diethylamide Albert Hofmann (Bicycle Day), Timothy Leary Gov’t experimentation- “Truth Serum”- KK Hours of mild euphoria, hallucinations, sensory
distortion, and “mind expansion” Non-addictive, but can produce “bad trips” and
flashbacks Can result in psychosis, memory loss, paranoia,
panic attacks, nightmares and aggression Association with Counterculture/Beatniks- KK, JK, TL Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds
“Turn on, Tune in, Drop out”;
Question Authority
Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters
RN- TL is “the most dangerous man in America”
Marijuana THC, the active ingredient in
marijuana, produces symptoms such as◦ Mild hallucinations◦ Euphoria◦ Enhanced sense of well-being◦ Relaxation◦ Distortion of time◦ Memory disruption◦ Brain shrinkage◦ Intensified sensory
experiences(munchies) ALSO a stimulant at higher
doses/depressant at lower doses Some users may experience
anxiety and paranoia Marijuana use and the frontal lobe
development?
PCP (“angel dust”)(Phencyclidine)
◦Loss of contact with reality
◦aggression, insensitivity to pain
◦Binds to potassium channels in brain and muscle-activating neurons
Aaron Hernandez on PCP?
Narcotics
Used to relieve pain and induce sleep – also called opiates
Opium, morphine, heroin Laudanum- combo of opiates and
alcohol for headaches? Oxycodone Stimulate endorphin receptors to
produce euphoric numbness Highly addictive Tolerance and the lethal dose Withdrawal symptoms include
chills, sweating, anxiety, diarrhea, spasms
Biological Influences◦ Hereditary tendencies: twin and adoptive studies◦ Dopamine deficiencies may provoke usage◦ Self medicating for biologically-based disorders?
Psychological Influences◦ Feeling life is meaningless◦ People under stress or experiencing depression
Social Influences◦ Peer pressure◦ Teenage rebellion and thrill-seeking◦ Seeking social networks with similar interests can
perpetuate usage or help to quit
Influences on Drug Use
Altered state of consciousness
Temporal lobe seizures
Oxygen deprivation induced “tunnel vision”
“hallucinatory activity of the brain?”
No way to really know…
Near Death Experiences
Drugs that alter perceptions of reality and distort sensory and perceptual experiences
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)◦ Derived from fungus ergot◦ Abbie Hoffman, Albert Hofmann, Timothy Leary◦ Hours of mild euphoria, hallucinations, sensory
distortion, and “mind expansion”◦ Non-addictive, but can produce “bad trips” and
flashbacks PCP (“angel dust”)
◦ Loss of contact with reality, aggression, insensitivity to pain
◦ Binds to potassium channels in brain and muscle-activating neurons
◦ High psychological dependence Marijuana (THC)
◦ Several hours of euphoria, relaxation, hallucinations◦ ALSO a stimulant at higher doses/depressant at lower
doses◦ Low physical addiction/moderate psychological addiction◦ Impairs motor skills and perception, may trigger
paranoia, disrupts memory, shrinks brain, intensifies sensory experiences (like taste – “munchies”)
Hallucinogens
Increase central nervous system activity and speed up body functions; arousal response
Methamphetamine (Speed)◦ Euphoria, triggers release of
dopamine (long-term deficiency)◦ Irritability, insomnia, seizures,
depression, violence, psychosis◦ HIGHLY addictive
Nicotine◦ Euphoria, triggers epinephrine
and norepinephrine release◦ Suppresses hunger and increases
alertness◦ Stimulates release of dopamine:
highly addictive!◦ Withdrawal leads to insomnia,
anxiety, irritability and weight gain
◦ Philip Morris- “Death saves $$”◦ Depression, divorce, disabilities
Caffeine◦ Wakefulness, increased
metabolism (3-4 hours)◦ Withdrawal leads to fatigue and
headaches Cocaine
◦ Fast euphoria – fast crash◦ Blocks dopamine reuptake◦ HIGHLY addictive◦ Withdrawal leads to fatigue,
irritability, increased appetite, depression
Ecstasy (MDMA)◦ Stimulant and mild
hallucinogen◦ Triggers release of serotonin
and prevents its reabsorption◦ Destroys serotonin-producing
neurons – permanent depression
◦ Suppresses immune system
Stimulants