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Rubens, Heinrich 1865, Germany - 1922, Germany

Technische Hochscule Berlin-CharlottenburgUniversität Berlin

Bose, Jagadish Chandra 1858, India - 1937, India

University of CambridgePresidency College

Nichols, Ernest Fox 1869, USA - 1924, USA

Colgate UniversityDartmouth CollegeColumbia UniversityMIT

1890

1899Point contact diode detector @ 60 GHz3J.C. BoseHe worked up to 60 GHz and constructed several devices for this frequency range (prisms, lenses,polarizers...). His metal coherer was an earlier version of the modern diodes (it presented similar I-V curves). He investigated the sensitivity to electric radiation of different metal contact

1893FIR spectroscopy of rock salt, sylvine and �uorite prisms1H. Rubens, B. W. SnowThey accomplished spectroscopy in rock salt (NaCl), sylvine (KCl) and fluorite (CaF2) in the “great wavelength” range (FIR)

1897Radiometer in the FIR rangeFirst “Residual ray”. Emission at 9 um2E. F. NicholsA radiometer for measurements in the FIR range is developed for these experiments. A wave at 9 um, reflected from a crystalline quartz due to lattice vibrations, is detected with the new radiometer. After that, Nichols and Rubens found longer wavelength emissions

1900

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“Residual rays”

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Radiometer“Primitive” diode

60 GHz to 6 THz is unexplored

1900Planck´s Radiation Law4,5,6M. Planck, H. Rubens, F. KurlbaumIn this decade the radiation from hot bodies and especially its wavelength variation becamean important concern. The most important model for this was based in the blackbody, an ideal source. Unfortunately, the experimental data did not agree with the theory. Nevertheless, Rubens and Kurlbaum, making use of a residual ray spectrometer, were able to obtain the required experimental data that allow Planck to write the Radiation Law the same day he received the data from Rubens

1904Electrical conductivity dependance on re�ectivity7E. Hagens, H. RubensThey empirically found that any pure metal at FIR regime has a reflectivity above 99%. This demostrated that any pure metal-based reflecting system has no significant losses in this frequency range

1910

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“Residual rays”

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Radiometer

The researchinterest was directed to low frequency due to Marconi´s

experiments in low-freq communications

Planck, Max 1858, Germany - 1947, Germany

University of KielUniversity of BerlinUniversity of GöttingenKaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft

1911Quartz mercury arc lamp9H. Rubens, R. W. WoodThe quartz mercury arc lamp was able to emit very long wavelength radiation (210 and 324 um). This source is still the only source capable of generating radiation at those frequencies (in the 30-50 THz range)

1910First blazed di�raction grating8R. W. WoodThe grating achieved efficiencies around 75% for the first order even beyond 3 THz. The diffraction gratings are largely used nowadays in tunable lasers

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Mercury arc lampResidual rays

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Radiometer

Tear J. D.

National Electric Light Association

1920

1927Rotational levels of gases in the FIR12 R. M. BadgerBadger studied the rotational level of gases such as hydrogen-chloride, discovering one ofthe major applications of the spectroscopy in this frequency range: the study of rotational levels.

1923Joining the FIR and microwave range: the Hertzian oscillator10J.D. Tear, E. F. NicholsA Hertzian oscillator is used to generate wavelengths down to 220 um. This generation range overlapped with the emission of the mercury arc lamp up to 420 um

1924Hertzian oscillator down to 92 um11G. ArkediewaThis Russian scientist achieve emission down to 92 um using a Hertzian oscillator

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Radiometer

Hertzian oscillatorMercury arc lampResidual rays

American researchers got more involved in this decade in IR and FIR radiation. University of Michigan and California Institute of Technology consolidated

as top FIR research centers

1930

1934Prelude of the microwave spectroscopy15V. Cleeton, N.H. WilliamsThe molecular absoprtion of the ammonia was measured using a coherent source in the microwave range (split-anode magnetron at a wavelength of 1.1 cm)

1930Materials absorption in the FIR range13C.H. CartwrightCartwright was one of the major contributors to FIR technology in this decade. He studied the absorption of 25 materials in the FIR range to find a suitable material for a detector, with high absorption in the FIR range and low in lower wavelengths

1933Cooled thermopile for FIR detection14C.H. CartwrightA detector with a responsivity one order of magnitude better than the current ones was developed

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ThermocouplesThermopilesBolometers

The detectors technology in the FIR rangeis improved in this decade

A great work in gas spectroscopy is also accomplished

Hertzian oscillatorMercury arc lampResidual rays

Golay, Marcel J. E. 1902, Switzerland - 1989, USA

Bell LaboratoriesUniversity of ChicagoUS Army Signal CorpsPerkin-Elmer

1940

1947The “Golay” detector18,19H.A. Zahl, M.J.E. Golay,In 1938, Zahl patented a “pneumatic cell detector”. One year later, he andGolay patented a “System for detecting sources of radiant energy”. In 1946, they published the “Pneumatic heat detector”. One year later, Golay individually published the “Pneumatic infra-red detector”

1942First cooled bolometer16D.H. Andrews, W.F. Bruksch, W.T. Zeigler, E.R. BlanchardThe bolometer was cooled at superconducting region (4.4 K) using liquid helium. In 1946, Andrews achieved proper operation of the bolometer at 14.3 K, where the cooling system with liquid hydrogen was more easily available

1944Klystron in a crystal harmonic generator radiates at 60 GHz17R. BeringerThe spectra of the oxygen is experimentally measured in this frequency range

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Despite the WWII, there was significant research in this decade

DC detection is substituted by AC detection using chopping

Hertzian oscillatorKlystron + crystal harmonic genMercury arc lampResidual rays

ThermocouplesCooledthermopiles andbolometersGolay cell

1950

1954Submillimeter-wave spectroscopy22C.A. Burrus, W. GordyGordy´s group became very important in this and later decades in the development of the mm and sub-mm frequency technology. They reached the sub-mm using a silicon crystal multiplier driven by a centimeter-wave klystron

1952First Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) or Carcinotron20P. Guenard, O. Doehler, B. Epsztein, R. WarneckeThis high power (mW range at 1 THz) source is demonstrated for the first time in 1952. It offers a limited electronic tunability (~10%).

1952270 GHz using magnetron harmonics21J.A. Klein, J.H.N. Loubser, A.H. Nethercot, C.H. TownesThe magnetron harmonic generation for mm-waves began to be employed in 1949. In 1952, 270 GHz is achieved with this technique

1955

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BWOHertzian oscillatorKlystron + crystal harmonic genMagnetron harmonicsMercury arc lampResidual rays

ThermocouplesCooledthermopiles andbolometersGolay cellSilicon crystal

Gordy, Walter 1909, USA - 1985, USAMary Hardin-Baylor CollegeCalifornia Institute of TechnologyMIT Radiation LaboratoryDuke University

The extension of the microwaves into the mm and sub-mm region became

very significant in this decade

The research group of Gordy at Duke University (in 1990 moved to

Ohio University) is still one of the most important groups in the sub-mm region.

One of his 75 PhD students, Dehmelt, won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1989

1955

1959First photoconductive detector in the THz domain26S.J. Fray, J.F.C. OliverThe photoconductor was made with germanium doped with antimony. A spectroscopy setup demonstrated the functionality of the detector from 50 to 118 um

1958High-power Gyrotron23,24R.Q. Twiss, Pantell, R.H.The theoretical work of Twiss will lead to the first gyrotron demonstration at microwave domain in 1959 in USA by Pantell

1959Carbon bolometer25W.S. Boyle, K.F. RogersThe new design operated cooled by liquid helium and used the core of a carbon composition resistor. This detector improved the SNR of all existing detectors

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BWOGyrotronKlystron + crystal harmonic genMagnetron harmonicsMercury arc lamp

Carbon bolometerGolay cellCooled thermopilesPhotoconductor

Pantell, Richard H. 1927, USA -

Stanford UniversityIEEE Life Fellow

Development of Fourier Trasform Spectroscopy in this decade

Solar and lunar radiation spectroscopy in the THz range is published in 195527

Richards, Paul Linford

University of California BerkeleyNational Academy of SciencesAmerican Academy of Arts andScience

1960

1965Honeycomb Schottky diode30D.T. Young, J.C. IrvinThe semiconductor development is rapidly growing. Young and Irvin designed a honeycomb structure for a Schottky diode. The diode was able to downconvert 58.3 GHz signals with 6 dBof conversion loss

1963Dispersive Fourier-Transform Spectroscopy28J.E. Chamberlain, J.E. Gibbs, H.A. GebbieThis is the first demostration of the DFTS. The DFTS uses the transmission and reflection coefficients of solids, liquids and gases (obtained by direct measurements of amplitude and phase) to obtain their optical coefficients

1964First THz laser29A. Crocker, H.A. Gebbie, M.F. KimmittThis first THz laser was based in a water vapor laser

Gen

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The number of publications, research groups and conferences at FIR range

increases significantly

Detectors are largely improved: pyroelectric detectors, new bolometer

designs (n-InSb electron32, Ge33), the Ge:Ga photoconductor34, and a Josephson

effect-based detector35

Schottky diodesBolometersGolay cellPhotoconductorPyroelectric detector

BWOGyrotronKlystron + crystal harmonic genMagnetron harmonicsMercury arc lamp

1969Time Domain Spectroscopy31A.M. NicolsonAlso in this decade the TDS is demonstrated for the first time in the THz regime

1970

1971First THz TDS results38K.H. Yang, P.L. Richards, Y.R. ShenThese first TDS results were accomplished using as harmonic generator a Nd:glass laser in a EO LiNbO3 crystal. Pulses of 2 ps were produced

1970Optically pumped THz Gas laser36T.Y. Chang, T.J. BridgesA Q-switched CO2 laser was used to pump a CH3F laser. Lines at 452, 496 and 541 um were generated. The THz gas laser will be a very important and largely used high power (100 mW range) generator

1970Interestellar CO measured using a heterodyne 115 GHz receiver37R.W. Wilson, K.B. Jefferts, A.A. PenziasHeterodyne receivers using Schottky diodes become very popular, especially in Astronomy. Also Schottky diodes are used as harmonic mixers in the generation with a klystron as source. The CO transition was detected from nine gallactic sources, including the Orion nebula

Gen

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High altitude observatories, and advances in both generators and receivers

(especially heterodyne receivers) has as a consequence a large amount

of astronomical research in the THz region

THz Gas laserBWOGyrotronSHGSchottly diodes

Schottly diodesBolometersGolay cellPhotoconductorPyroelectric detector

Mixe

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Schottly diodes

1975

1975FIR imaging become popularD.H. Barker, D.T. Hodges, T.S. HartwickThe FIR imaging applications begin to grow. At the time, astronomy is the main (and almost unique) application, but industrial, militar and medical applications began to be suggested

1979First Superconductor-Insulator-Superconductor (SIS) mixer40G.J. Dolan, T.G. Phillips, D.P. WoodyDemonstration of SIS mixing at 115 GHz is achieved. This first SIS maked use of superconducting Pb in 1 um2 area juntions

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Schottky diodes experimented a great development. They are largely used in

generation as harmonic mixers for frequency multiplication, and in detection

as both direct detectors and mixers for heterodyne detectors

Gunn and IMPATT diodes are developed in this decade

THz Gas laserBWOGyrotronSHGSchottly diodes forfrequency mult.

Schottly diodesBolometersGolay cellPhotoconductorPyroelectric detector

Mixe

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Schottly diodesSIS mixers

39

1980

1989First Hot Electron Bolometer (HEB) mixer43E.M. Gershenzon, M.E. Gershenzon, G.N. Goltsman, A.M. Lyulkin, A.D. Semenov, A.V. SergeevThe HEB was able to work as thermal detector in a wide range in the IR and THz domain, but the significant advantage is that is also able to work as mixer

1984First Free Electron Laser41L.R. Elias, J. Hu, G. RamianIt covered from 0.3 to 0.77 THz with 10 kW of peak power. This kind of sources are room-building size. Several FELs were installed in this decade in several countries

1984Photoconductive switch42D.H. Auston, K.P. Cheung, P.R. SmithIt was known in this decade that an ultra-short optical pulse colliding a photoconductor or a EO crystal can generate THz pulses. The highest frequency of the THz pulses depends on the optical pulse width and alsoin the electron mobility for the photoconductors. Photoconductorswere able to provide higher power at expense of less THz frequency. Auston developed a photoconductive switch with a improved THz power output

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The first THz and FIR on-board systemsare developed and employed in the

Infrared Astronomical Satellite (1983) and in Kuiper Airbone Observatory (1986)

A large amount of new applications in the FIR and THz are discovered in

this decade. This produces a huge growth in this research field. This

growth has not yet stopped.

There is an important need of higher power to achieve better sensitivities and

be able to resolve the spectral lines in astronomy and upper

atmospheric applications.

Availability and development of computer science make the FT

spectroscopy more easily available

FELTHz Gas laserBWOGyrotronSHGSchottly diodes

Schottly diodesBolometersGolay cellPhotoconductorPyroelectric detector

Mixe

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Schottly diodesSIS mixersHEB

1990

1994The Quantum Cascade LaserJ. Faist, F. Capasso, D. L. Sivco, C. Sirtori, A. L. Hutchinson, A. Y. ChoThe quantum confinement determines the wavelength, that could go from mid-infrared to the submillimeter wave region. Altough the THz QCL will appear in 2002, this is actually the birth of the QCL technology

1998Uni-Travelling-Carrier Photodiode (UTC-PD)46Y. Muramoto, K. Kato, M. Mitsuhara, O. Nakajima, Y. Matsuoka, N. Shimizu, T. IshibashiA photodiode with a new structure (UTC) is developed, demonstrating a bandwidth of 70 GHz. The UTC is the first of several PD structures for sub-THz operation and was always linked to the development of the photonic CW sub-THz generation techniques

Gen

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The optical techniques for signal generation were used from the

appearance of the laser (mainly optical heterodyning)47.

In this decade, the development of the optical communications and the higher bandwidth photomixers (photodiodes)

produce a huge development of the photonic techniques for

sub-THz and THz generation and detectionthat will continue up to nowadays

THz Gas laserBWOGyrotronSHGSchottly diodes

Schottly diodesBolometersGolay cellPhotoconductorPyroelectric detectorUTC photodiodes

Mixe

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Schottly diodesSIS mixersHEB

44

Faist, Jerome

ETH ZurichUniversity of NeuchâtelBell Laboratories

1995First THz TDS imaging experiment45B.B. Hu, M.C. Nuss The signal in each point is downconverted and processed in real time in a DSP. Actually, a unique detector in a motorized stage is used to scan the samples

2000

State of the Art

[1] H. Rubens and B. W. Snow, “On the refraction of rays of great wavelength in rock salt, sylvine, and fluorite,” Philosophical Magazine, vol. 35, 1893.[2] E. F. Nichols, “A method for energy measurements in the infra-red spectrum and the properties of the ordinary ray in quartz for waves of great wavelength,” Physical Review, vol. 4, 1897.[3] J. C. Bose, “On a Self-Recovering Coherer and the Study of the Cohering Action of Different Metals,” Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 65, 1899.[4] M. Planck, “Über eine Verbesserung der Wienschen Spektral-gleichung (On an Improvement of Wien’s Equation for the Spectrum),” Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesselschaft, vol. 2, pp. 202–204, 1900.[5] M. Planck, “Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energieverteilung im Normalspektrum (On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum),” Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesselschaft, vol. 2, p. 237, 1900.[6] H. Rubens and K. Kurlbaum, “Über die Emission langwelliger Wärmestrahlen durch den schwarzen Körper bei verschiedenen Tem-peraturen,” Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, vol. 2, 1900.

[24] R. H. Pantell, “The design and characteristics of a megawatt space-harmonic traveling-wave tube,” Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, vol. 48–53, p. 1146, 1959.[25] W. S. Boyle and K. F. Rogers, “Performance characteristics of a new low-temperature bolometer,” Journal of the Optical Society of America, vol. 49, p. 66, 1959.[26] S. J. Fray and J. F. C. Oliver, “Photoconductive detector of radiation of wavelength greater than 50 um,” Journal of Scientific Instru-ments, vol. 36, p. 195, 1959.[27] W. M. Sinton, “Observation of solar and lunar radiation at 1.5 millimeters,” Journal of the Optical Society of America, vol. 45, p. 975, 1955.[28] J. E. Chamberlain, J. E. Gibbs, and H. A. Gebbie, “Refractome-try in the far infra-red using a twobeam interferometer,” Nature, vol. 198, p. 874, 1963.[29] A. Crocker, H. A. Gebbie, M. F. Kimmitt, and L. E. S. Mathias, “Stimulated emission in the far infrared,” Nature, vol. 201, p. 250, 1964.[30] D. T. Young and J. C. Irvin, “Millimeter frequency conversion using Au-n-type GaAs Schottky barrier epitaxial diodes with a novel con-tacting technique,” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 53, p. 2130, 1965.

[38] K. H. Yang, P. L. Richards, and Y. R. Shen, “Generation of far-in-frared radiation by picosecond light pulses in LiNbO3,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 19, p. 320, 1971.[39] D. H. Barker, D. T. Hodges, and T. S. Hartwick, “Far infrared imagery,” Proceedings SPIE, vol. 67, p. 27, 1975.[40] G. J. Dolan, T. G. Phillips, and D.P.Woody, “Low-noise 115-GHz mixing in superconducting oxidebarrier tunnel junctions,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 34, p. 347, 1979.[41] L. R. Elias, J. Hu, and G. Ramian, “The UCSB electrostatic accelerator free electron laser: First operation,” Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, vol. A237, p. 203, 1984.[42] D. H. Auston, K. P. Cheung, and P. R. Smith, “Picosecond photoconducting Hertzian dipoles,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 45, no. 3, p. 284, 1984.[43] E. M. Gershenzon, M. E. Gershenzon, G. N. Goltsman, A. M. Lyulkin, A. D. Semenov, and A. V. Sergeev, “On the limiting characteris-tics of high-speed superconducting bolometers,” Soviet Physics�: Technical Physics, vol. 34, p. 195, 1989.[44] J. Faist, F. Capasso, D. L. Sivco, C. Sirtori, A. L. Hutchinson, and A. Y. Cho, “Quantum Cascade Laser,” Science, vol. 264, no. 5158, pp. 553–556, 1994.

[45] B. B. Hu and M. C. Nuss, “Imaging with terahertz waves,” Optics Letters, vol. 20, no. 16, p. 1716, 1995.[46] Y. Muramoto, K. Kato, M. Mitsuhara, O. Nakajima, Y. Matsuoka, N. Shimizu, and T. Ishibashi, “High-output-voltage, high speed, high efficiency uni-travelling-carrier waveguide photodiode,” Electronics Letters, vol. 34, no. 1, p. 122, 1998.[47] J. L. Hall, “Optical heterodyne measurement of Neon Laser´s millimeter wave difference frequency,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 10, no. 5, p. 152, 1967.

This THz history is mainly based on the first chapter of the book Terahertz Techniques, a very comprehensive introduction to THz science. Some additions have been made in this infogra-phy for completeness sake:

E. Bründermann, H.-W. Hübers, and M. F. Kimmitt, Terahertz Techniques. Springer. Springer Series in Optical Sciences, Vol. 151, 2012, p. 383.

[8] R. W. Wood, “The echelette grating for the infrared,” Philosophi-cal Magazine, vol. 20, p. 770, 1910.[9] H. Rubens and R. W. Wood, “Focal isolation of long heat-waves,” Philosophical Magazine, vol. 21, p. 249, 1911.[10] E. F. Nichols and J. D. Tear, “Joining the infra-red and elec-tric-wave spectra,” The Astrophysical Journal, vol. 61, p. 17, 1925.[11] A. G. Arkadiewa, “Short electromagnetic waves of wave-length up to 92 um,” Nature, vol. 113, p. 640, 1924.[12] R. M. Badger, “Absolute intensities in the hydrogen-chloride rotation spectrum,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 408, 1927.[13] C. H. Cartwright, “Black bodies in the extreme infra-red,” Physi-cal Review, vol. 35, p. 415, 1930.[14] C. H. Cartwright, “Radiation thermopiles for use at liquid-air tem-peratures,” Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 4, p. 382, 1933.[15] V. Cleeton and N. H. Williams, “Electromagnetic waves of 1.1 cm wave-length and the absorption spectrum of ammonia,” Physical Review, vol. 45, p. 234, 1934.[7] E. Hagen and H. Rubens, “On some relations between the optical and the electrical qualities of metals,” Philosophical Magazine, vol. 7, p. 157, 1904.

[16] D. H. Andrews, W. F. Bruksch, W. T. Zeigler, and E. R. Blanchard, “Attenuated superconductors I. For measuring infra-red radiation,” Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 13, p. 281, 1942.[17] R. Beringer, “The absorption of one-half centimeter electromag-netic waves in oxygen,” Physical Review, vol. 70, p. 53, 1946.[18] H. A. Zahl and M. J. E. Golay, “Pneumatic heat detector,” Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 17, p. 511, 1946.[19] M. J. E. Golay, “A pneumatic infra-red detector,” Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 18, p. 347, 1947.[20] P. Guenard, O. Doehler, B. Epsztein, and R. Warnecke, “New UHF tubes with wide electronic tuning range,” Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, vol. 235, 1952.[21] J. A. Klein, J. H. N. Loubser, A. H. Nethercot, and C. H. Townes, “Magnetron harmonics at millimeter wavelengths,” Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 23, p. 78, 1952.[22] C. A. Burrus and W. Gordy, “Submillimeter wave spectroscopy,” Physical Review, vol. 93, p. 897, 1954.[23] R. Q. Twiss, “Radiation transfer and the possibility of negative absorption in radio astronomy,” Australian Journal of Physics, vol. 11, p. 564, 1958.

[31] A. M. Nicolson, “Broad-band microwave transmission charac-teristics from a single measurement of the transient response,” Instru-mentation and Measurement, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 17, p. 395, 1968.[32] E. H. Putley, “Impurity photoconductivity in n-type InSb,” Proceedings of Physical Society, vol. 76, p. 802, 1960.[33] F. J. Low, “Low temperature germanium bolometer,” Journal of the Optical Society of America, vol. 51, p. 1300, 1961.[34] W. J. Moore and H. Shenker, “A high-detectivity gallium-doped germanium detector for the 40–120 um region,” Infrared Physics, vol. 5, p. 99, 1965.[35] C. C. Grimes, P. L. Richards, and S. Shapiro, “Josephson-ef-fect far-infrared detector,” Applied Physics, vol. 39, p. 3905, 1968.[36] T. Y. Chang and T. J. Bridges, “Laser action at 452, 496 and 541 um in optically pumped CH3F,” Optics Communications, vol. 1, p. 423, 1970.[37] R. W. Wilson, K. B. Jefferts, and A. A. Penzias, “Carbon mon-oxide in the Orion nebula,” Astrophysics Journal, vol. 161, p. L43, 1970.

THz history (1890 - 2000)

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