Standardizing Standardizing ArgumentsArguments

Part IPart IDr. Jason Chang

Critical Thinking and Writing

Standardizing Standardizing ArgumentsArguments

What does standardizing involve?

• Mapping out an argument in premise-conclusion form

(P1)(P2)(P3)Therefore,(C)

Standardizing Standardizing ArgumentsArguments

“It is a mistake to think that medical problems can be treated solely by

medication. First, medication does not address psychological and lifestyle

issues. And second, medication often has side effects.”

(P1) Medication does not address psychological and lifestyle issues.(P2) Medication often has side effects.Therefore,(C) Medical problems cannot be treated solely by medicine

Standardizing Standardizing ArgumentsArguments

““It is vitally important that wildness areas It is vitally important that wildness areas be preserved. This is because wilderness be preserved. This is because wilderness

provides essential habitat for wildlife, provides essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species, and it is a including endangered species, and it is a natural retreat from the stress of daily natural retreat from the stress of daily

life.”life.”(P1) Wilderness provides essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species.(P2) Wildness is a natural retreat from the stresses of daily life.Therefore,(C) It is vitally important that wilderness areas be preserved.

Obstacles to Obstacles to Standardizing Standardizing

ArgumentsArguments

1.1. Claims not orderedClaims not ordered2.2. Irrelevancies and redundanciesIrrelevancies and redundancies3.3. Non-claims needing to be translated Non-claims needing to be translated

into claimsinto claims4.4. Unstated premises and conclusionsUnstated premises and conclusions5.5. SubargumentsSubarguments

Not Ordered ExampleNot Ordered Example““If the practice of selling human organs is allowed If the practice of selling human organs is allowed

to get a foothold, people in desperate financial to get a foothold, people in desperate financial straits will start selling their organs to pay their straits will start selling their organs to pay their bills. So the selling of human organs should be bills. So the selling of human organs should be

outlawed. In addition, now that I think more outlawed. In addition, now that I think more about it, those with a criminal bent will take to about it, those with a criminal bent will take to killing healthy young people and selling their killing healthy young people and selling their

organs on the black market. Even more reason organs on the black market. Even more reason to think it should be outlawed!to think it should be outlawed!

(P1) If the practice of selling human organs is (P1) If the practice of selling human organs is allowed to get a foothold, people in desperate allowed to get a foothold, people in desperate financial straits will start selling their organs to pay financial straits will start selling their organs to pay their bills their bills (P2) Those with a criminal bent will take to killing Those with a criminal bent will take to killing healthy young people and selling their organs on healthy young people and selling their organs on the black market the black market Therefore,(C) The selling of human organs should be outlawed.

IrrelevanciesIrrelevancies

• Sometimes a passage that contains an Sometimes a passage that contains an argument contains claims that are argument contains claims that are irrelevant to the argumentirrelevant to the argument

• Only include relevant claims in your Only include relevant claims in your standardizationstandardization

Irrelevancies: An Irrelevancies: An ExampleExample

““I hate homework! Homework just stifles the thrill I hate homework! Homework just stifles the thrill of learning in student’s mind. It instills an of learning in student’s mind. It instills an

oppressive learn-or-else discipline. It squashes oppressive learn-or-else discipline. It squashes the desire for knowledge and the love of truth. the desire for knowledge and the love of truth. For these reasons, homework should never be For these reasons, homework should never be assigned. I’m sure many students would agree assigned. I’m sure many students would agree

with me!”with me!”

(P1) Homework instills an oppressive learn-or-else (P1) Homework instills an oppressive learn-or-else discipline.discipline.(P2) Homework stifles the thrill of learning in the Homework stifles the thrill of learning in the student’s mind.student’s mind.Therefore,(C) Homework should never be assigned.

Non-Claims Needing Non-Claims Needing RewordingRewording

• Sometimes premises and conclusions Sometimes premises and conclusions appear in the form of a non-claimappear in the form of a non-claim

• Translate relevant non-claims into Translate relevant non-claims into claims in your standardizationclaims in your standardization

Non-Claims Needing Non-Claims Needing Rewording ExampleRewording Example

““If the global climate is getting warmer, then If the global climate is getting warmer, then California should be under water by now. And is California should be under water by now. And is

California California reallyreally under water right now? How under water right now? How can anyone even think this? So, ultimately, can anyone even think this? So, ultimately,

what can we conclude from this?”what can we conclude from this?”

(P1) If the global climate is getting warmer, then (P1) If the global climate is getting warmer, then California should be under water right now.California should be under water right now.(P2) California is not under water right now.(P2) California is not under water right now.Therefore,(C) Global climate is not getting warmer.

Missing PremisesMissing Premises

• An argument sometimes contains An argument sometimes contains missing premises or conclusionsmissing premises or conclusions

• Why missing premises need to be Why missing premises need to be included included

o Truth of missing premises is not Truth of missing premises is not obviousobvious

o Keep the arguer honestKeep the arguer honest(P1)(P1)(P2)(P2)(MP)(MP)Therefore,Therefore,(C) (C)

Missing Premises Missing Premises ExampleExample

““The conditions under which many food animals The conditions under which many food animals are raised are unhealthy for humans. To keep are raised are unhealthy for humans. To keep these animals alive, large quantities of drugs – these animals alive, large quantities of drugs –

which linger in the animal’s body - must be which linger in the animal’s body - must be administered.”administered.”

(P1) Large quantities of drugs – which linger in the (P1) Large quantities of drugs – which linger in the animal’s body – are administered to animals.animal’s body – are administered to animals.(MP) These drugs are bad for human health.These drugs are bad for human health.Therefore,(C) The conditions under which many food animals are raised are unhealthy for humans.

SubargumentsSubarguments

• A subargument is an argument within A subargument is an argument within an argumentan argument

• Sometimes premises are controversial Sometimes premises are controversial and in need of support. Subarguments and in need of support. Subarguments provide the needed support.provide the needed support.

(P1)(P1)(P2)(P2)So,So,(P3)(P3)(P4)(P4)Therefore,Therefore,(C) (C)

Subarguments ExampleSubarguments Example

““A computer cannot cheat in a game, A computer cannot cheat in a game, because cheating requires deliberatively because cheating requires deliberatively

breaking rules to win. A computer breaking rules to win. A computer cannot deliberatively break rules because cannot deliberatively break rules because

it has no freedom of action.”it has no freedom of action.”

(P1) A computer has no freedom of action.(P1) A computer has no freedom of action.So,So,(P2) A computer cannot deliberatively break rules.(P2) A computer cannot deliberatively break rules.(P3) Cheating requires deliberatively breaking (P3) Cheating requires deliberatively breaking rules.rules.Therefore, Therefore, (C) A computer cannot cheat.(C) A computer cannot cheat.

Subarguments ExamplesSubarguments Examples

““The purpose of life in general is not The purpose of life in general is not something that can be known. That’s something that can be known. That’s

because every life has a different because every life has a different purpose, given to it by the person leading purpose, given to it by the person leading

that life. Only the person leading a life that life. Only the person leading a life can give it purpose.”can give it purpose.”

(P1) Only the person leading a life can give it (P1) Only the person leading a life can give it purpose.purpose.So,So,(P2) Every life has a different purpose, given to it (P2) Every life has a different purpose, given to it by the person leading that life.by the person leading that life.Therefore, Therefore, (C) The purpose of life in general is not something (C) The purpose of life in general is not something that can be known.that can be known.

Subarguments ExamplesSubarguments Examples

““Skating is a wonderful form of exercise. However, Skating is a wonderful form of exercise. However, today’s rollerbladers are a growing menace. today’s rollerbladers are a growing menace.

Rollerbladers are dangers to the public, as they Rollerbladers are dangers to the public, as they breeze through red lights and skim down the breeze through red lights and skim down the

wrong way on one way streets. ”wrong way on one way streets. ”

(P1) Rollerbladers breeze through red lights and (P1) Rollerbladers breeze through red lights and skim down the wrong way on one way streets.skim down the wrong way on one way streets.So,So,(P2) Rollerbladers are dangers to the public.(P2) Rollerbladers are dangers to the public.Therefore, Therefore, (C) Rollerbladers are a growing menace.(C) Rollerbladers are a growing menace.

Diagramming ArgumentsDiagramming Arguments

• Represents the argument in a diagram Represents the argument in a diagram or pictureor picture

o Premises represented by Premises represented by encircled numberencircled number

o Inferences represented by Inferences represented by arrowsarrows

• Unlike standardizations, diagrams Unlike standardizations, diagrams enable us to depict enable us to depict how premises how premises support conclusionsupport conclusion

Patterns of SupportPatterns of Support

Three ways in which premises can support Three ways in which premises can support conclusionconclusion

1.1. Linked supportLinked support

2.2. Convergent supportConvergent support

3.3. Linear supportLinear support

Linked SupportLinked Support

• Premises Premises when taken togetherwhen taken together provide support for the conclusionprovide support for the conclusion

All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.

Socrates is mortal.

+

Convergent SupportConvergent Support

• Premises converge on conclusion, Premises converge on conclusion, where each provide where each provide independentindependent support for the conclusionsupport for the conclusion

War leads to civilian deaths.

War costs billions of dollars to execute.

We should not go to war.

War leads to future

retaliation from our enemies.

Linear SupportLinear Support

• Premises make up a sequence of Premises make up a sequence of subarguments, each with only one subarguments, each with only one premise.premise.

Jay should not order the cheesecake

Jay is lactose

intolerant.

Jay should avoid dairy products.

ReferencesReferences

Govier, Trudy. Govier, Trudy. A Practical Study of ArgumentA Practical Study of Argument, 7, 7thth edition, edition, Belmont: Wadsworth Belmont: Wadsworth

Cengage Learning, (2010).Cengage Learning, (2010).

Hurley, Patrick.. Hurley, Patrick.. A Concise Introduction to LogicA Concise Introduction to Logic, 11, 11thth edition, edition, Boston: Wadsworth Boston: Wadsworth

Cengage Learning, (2012).Cengage Learning, (2012).