sst4201 keys to the identification-book

KEYS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF MALAYSIAN SOILS

USING PARENT MATERIALS

S. Paramananthan Second Edition

March 2012

Published Jointly By

PARAM AGRICULTURAL SOIL SURVEYS (M) SDN. BHD. Co. No. 208039-H A4-3 JALAN 17/13

46400 PETALING JAYA SELANGOR, MALAYSIA

TEL/FAX: (603) 7960 1810, H/P: 012-363 9985 e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Keys to the Identification of Malaysian Soils Using Parent Materials Explanatory Notes

1

INTRODUCTION

Malaysia has a wide variety of soils. These soils have been mapped on mountainous, hilly, rolling, undulating, level and swampy terrain. They occur at high and at low altitudes. Both shallow moderately deep and deep soils have been recognized and mapped. Some of these soils are organic in origin while most of them are made-up of mineral soil materials. These soils can be well drained or poorly drained or can even be under water for long periods of time. Malaysian soils have a variety of colours ranging from blue, to white, from yellow to brown and to red. They can be sandy in texture without any clay or have a range of clay contents giving rise to sandy loam, sandy clay loam, sandy clay and clay textures. These soils can be developed over a range of parent materials.

To-date over 500 soil types have been identified in Malaysia. These different soil types have developed over different topographic situations and over different parent materials or rock types and alluvial deposits. The fact that Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak used different soil classification systems further complicates the identification of these soils. Sometimes what appears to be the same type of soil is given a different names in the three regions. Sometimes a particular soil name describes different soil types in the different regions.

The soil surveyors task is to map the soils in a particular area of survey. His job is complicated and made difficult by the large number of soil types and the fact that the three regions of Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak have yet to develop a common classification system. In order for the soil surveyor to name the soils he is mapping, it is important for him to be able do it correctly. For him to do this, he needs to be able to refer to a common key for the naming the soils in the country. Increasingly soil surveyors are mapping soils in all the three regions of Malaysia, namely Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. It is therefore becoming increasingly important to have a common key for the soil surveyors to use. The correct identification and naming of the soils is an extremely important factor that determines the accuracy and usefulness of the map. The need for communication and transfer of technology and research findings from one part of Malaysia to another can only be made if all the maps are produced using a common identification key.

Objective of the Publication This publication is the Second Edition of the Keys to the Identification of Malaysian Soils

Using Parent Materials (Paramananthan, 2010, 2011). The purpose of this publication is to provide in a simple and concise manner the methodology to identify and name the various soil series mapped in Malaysia. It is hope that where overlapping names occur these can be indicated and corrective measures taken with the hope that these can be equated or eliminated and only one name be retained. This will greatly simplify the understanding of soils and make soil mapping more uniform and simple in Malaysia. A summary of the characteristics of the different soil series mapped to-date in Malaysia is also given as an Appendix. It is hoped that this publication will help to standardize the names of soil series in Malaysia.


2

TYPES OF KEYS

Basically three types of Keys can be used to identify the different soil types in Malaysia. These are: i) Taxonomic Keys ii) Identification Keys using Parent Materials iii) Morphological Keys Taxonomic Keys

A taxonomic key is developed based on a taxonomic classification system. Most such Keys use a hierarchial system where different taxonomic (often morpho-genetic) criteria are used at different categoric levels. The Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1995, 1999 and 2011) and the Malaysian Soil Taxonomy (Paramananthan, 1998, 2012) are examples of such systems. In these systems seven categoric levels are used. An example of both these systems is given in Table 1 below for three Malaysian soils.

Identification Keys The second method of determining the names of soils is to use identification keys or

tables for various group of soils. In all the three regions of Malaysia, the soils have been grouped by parent materials. The parent materials of soils can firstly be divided into broad groups organic soils and mineral soils. Each of these broad groups are then further sub-divided into smaller groups. After this multiple criteria tables are developed to differentiate the various soil series. These types of identification tables were initially developed and used during the reconnaissance surveys (see Tables 2, 3 and 4) and now further refined and used in the semi-detailed surveys. For each sub-group the criteria selected for use in the identification tables varies according to which characteristics are more important for that particular sub-group. The main groups and sub-groups are given in Figure 1.

Table 1. Examples of the Taxonomic Systems.

System Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Stuff, 1999) Malaysian Soil Taxonomy

(Paramananthan, 2012) Categoric

Level Rengam Table Anderson Rengam Table Anderson

Order Ultisol Oxisol Histosol Ultisol Oxisol Histosol Sub-Order Udult Udox Fibrist Udult Udox Gambist

Great Group Paleudult Hapludox Haplofibrist Paleudult Hapludox Ombrogambist Sub-

Group Typic Paleudult Typic Hapludox Typic

Haplofibrist Typic Paleudult Typic Hapludox Typic

Ombrogambist

Family fine clayey kaolinitic

isohyperthermic

clayey oxidic

isohyperthermic

fine clayey kaolinitic

red-yellow isohyperthermic

clayey oxidic brown

isohyperthermic

marine-clayey wood-

undecomposed isohyperthermic autochthonous

Series Rengam Table Anderson Rengam Table Anderson Phase

(example) Rengam/red

Rengam/coarse Table/undulating

Table/rolling Rengam/red

Rengam/coarse Table/undulating

Table/rolling Anderson/deep Anderson/very

deep


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Figure 1. Examples of Sub-Divisions of soils into Group and Sub-Groups using parent materials.


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Identification keys using soil characteristics In this system of identifying or keying out the different soil types, different soil

characteristics are used sequentially and the final soil series identified. Depending on the sequence of characteristics used this method resembles closely the use of identification keys using parent materials except that in the Parent Material Keys, the nature of parent materials is given a high priority. An example of the Keys Using Soil characteristics is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Example of a Morphological Key.

KEYS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF MALAYSIAN SOILS

USING PARENT MATERIALS

EXPLANATORY NOTES


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ALL SOILS

Organic or Mineral Soil Materials The first distinction to make is to determine if the soil consists organic soil materials

and/or mineral soil materials. This definition is shown in the table and figure shown below. Note that a soil can have both these materials within one profile.

Definition of mineral and organic soil materials

Mineral Soil Materials (MSM) Organic Soil Materials (OSM)

1. Are never saturated with water for more than a few days and contain less than 20% (by weight) organic carbon; or

1. Are never saturated with water for more than a few days and contain 20% or more (by weight) organic carbon or

2. Are saturated with water for long periods (or have been artificially drained) and excluding live roots, have an organic carbon content (by weight) of

a. Less than 18% organic carbon if 60% or more of the mineral fraction is clay; or

b. Less than 12% organic carbon if the mineral fraction has no clay; or

c. A proportional content of organic carbon between 12% and 18% if the clay content of the mineral fraction is between zero and 60% or

2. Are saturated with water for long periods (or artificially drained) and, excluding live roots, have an organic carbon content (by weight) of:

a. 18% or more if the mineral fraction contains 60% or more clay; or

b. 12% or more if the mineral fraction contains no clay; or

c. A proportional content of organic carbon between 12% and 18% if the clay content of the mineral fraction is between zero and 60% or

3. Have a loss on ignition of less than 35% by weight.

3. Has a loss on ignition of more than 35% by weight.

Definition of organic and mineral soils materials

Next we have to decide if a soil is an organic or a mineral soil. This is done by referring to the tables below. A few examples are also given on how to use this definition.


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Organic Soils or Mineral Soils

Definition of mineral and organic soils

Mineral Soils Organic Soils

1. Mineral soil materials < 2 mm in diameter (fine earth fraction) make up more than half the cumulative thickness of the upper 100 cm (40 inches)

1. Organic soil materials make up more than half the cumulative thickness of the upper 100 cm (40 inches

2. The depth to bedrock is between 50 to 100 cm and the total thickness of the mineral horizons taken cumulatively is equal to more than half the depth to bedrock.

2. The depth to bedrock is between 50 to 100 cm and the total thickness of the organic layers taken cumulatively is equal to more than half the depth to bedrock.

3. The depth to bedrock is less than 50 cm and the total thickness of the mineral soil horizons taken cumulatively is equal to more than half the depth to bedrock.

3. The depth to bedrock is less than 50 cm and the total thickness of the organic soil layers taken cumulatively is equal to more than half the depth to bedrock.

Examples of mineral and organic soils


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Elevation Elevation is used to differentiate soil temperature. The data from the few highland climatic stations and vegetation maps can be used to

determine the soil temperature regime and moisture regime of the highlands of Malaysia (see Figs. 1 and 2).

Do not confuse Highland Soils with Steepland. Steepland refers to land with slopes in excess of 25 or 50% slopes. Steepland can

occur at any elevation and similarly gently sloping land can also occur at any elevation.

Soil Temperature Regime In Malaysia, we have adopted the Soil Temperature Regimes as defined in the Soil

Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). These are summarised in the Table below. Soil Temperature Regimes (Soil Survey Staff, 1975)

MAST C MSST MWST (C)

< 0 0-8 8-15 15-22 22 +

> 5 Pergelic Cryic/Frigid Mesic Thermic Hyperthermic

< 5 Isofrigid Isomesic Isothermic Isohyperthermic

Notes: 1. Soil temperature is measured at 50 cm or shallower 2. MAST = Mean annual soil temperature MSST = Mean summer soil temperature MWST = Mean winter soil temperature 3. Frigid soil temperature regime has a mean summer temperature > 8C

In Malaysia, since we are near the Tropics we have no winters and hence we have only isotemperatures. The temperature regime depends on elevation (see Fig. 1).


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SOIL MOISTURE REGIMES

Defined in terms of groundwater level seasonal presence/absence of water held at a tension of 20% clay) 10-30 cm below soil surface Coarse loamy (15-20% clay) 20-60 cm below soil surface Sandy 30-90 cm below soil surface

Soil moisture regimes Aquic : This implies a reducing regime often saturated by groundwater. These soils

have horizons with a chroma of 2 or less (i.e. gray colours). In Malaysia if the soil is organic rich but has a high watertable or is artificially drained, the chroma can be >2 e.g. Selangor Series.

Udic : This implies that the soil is moist in the control section for more than nine months in the year.

Perudic : This is a special type of udic moisture regime where the precipitation is higher than evapotranspiration for most of the year.

Ustic : Soil moisture control is dry but there is enough rain for three months for crops to be grown.

In Malaysia both aquic and udic moisture regimes are common. In Malaysia generally a month with less than 100 mm is considered a dry month. Areas north of Sg. Patani in Kedah (including Langkawi Islnd), and Perlis State have soil moisture regimes with 1-2 dry months (


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KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF

HIGHLAND AND LOWLAND SOILS (see Figure 1 and Table 1)

Areas with an elevation of >750 m or 2,250 feet are considered to have Highland Soils as they have isothermic or cooler soil temperature regime and perudic soil moisture regime. Areas designated as Highland Soils (elevation >750 m) are not necessarily all steepland (slopes >25 or 50%). Similarly some areas with Lowland Soils (


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LOWLAND SOILS

The subdivision of lowland soils is given in Figure 3. Organic soils Soils in which the thickness of organic soil layers make up more than half the soil

to 100 cm or shallower if rocks or parent materials occur at less than 100 cm. Sub-divided based on the thickness. In situ soils Soils developed over in situ parent materials/rocks. Soils with iron-coated parent

material or lateritic gravels/stones and quartz gravels are excluded from this group. Sub-divided according to the origin of the rock igneous rocks/sedimentary,

metamorphic calcareous rocks and tuffs. Skeletal Soils Soils with more than 35% by volume of coarse fragments (> 2 mm diameter)

forming a horizon >25 cm thick with its upper boundary within 100 cm depth. The coarse fragments can be quartz, iron-coated parent materials or ironstone

(lateritic) in origin. Alluvial Soils These are soils developed over alluvial deposits. Older alluvium: Normally occur on gently rolling or at elevations of 100 feet (>30

m). Valleys between these low hills are U shaped and broad. Colours in these soils get paler with depth and rounded water-worn pebbles (parent material) occur at different depths. These soils can be confused with soils over conglomerate but in these soils colour becomes redder with depth and the valleys V-shaped.

Sub-recent non-accreting alluvium and colluvium: These soils normally occur on gently undulating to level terrain at elevations of 50-100 feet (15-30 m). Termite mounds are common on such terrain. These terraces are associated with old rivers and mostly occur away from large rivers. Red mottles are common in these soils due to a fluctuating watertable. Drainage classes and textural classes are used to separate these soils.

Recent accreting alluvium: These are soils formed on recent floodplains of the larger rivers. Depend on the surrounding hills mica flakes may be present. Lithologic discontinuities are common below 50 cm depth. Manganese nodules or specks are common in these soils. They occur on level terrain and are widely used for wetland rice cultivation.

Beach deposits: These are deposits often referred to as Bris Soils Beach ridges interspersed with swales. The sandy deposits often form ridges while the swales are variable ranging from sand, clay and even organic.

Sulfidic materials/Sulfuric horizon: Marine or brackish water sediments (clays or sands rich in iron sulfides (Fe2S) characterized by their hydrogen sulfide (rotten eggs) smell. When these are drained the sulfides are oxidized to sulfuric acid and yellow jarosite mottles appear and the soil pH drops to


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LOWLAND ORGANIC SOILS

The Key to the identification of lowland organic soils is given in Tables 2 and 3. The criteria used to separate these soils is outlined in the control section and explained below. The thickness, material in the subsurface tier/underlying substratum and reaction class are used. The criteria used at the different categoric levels is summarised in the Table. Thickness of Organic Soil Materials Thick > 150 cm Ombro Thin 50-150 cm Topo Dominant materials in Subsurface Tier Sulfuric: presence of yellow jarosite mottles and pH 10% of logs and stage of

decomposition Mode of origin allochtohonous: organic deposits which have

been transported and redeposited.

Criteria used at different categoric levels.

CATEGORIC LEVEL CRITERIA USED EXAMPLE

ORDER Minimum cumulative thickness of 50 cm within

100 cm or more than half to lithic/paralithic or terric layer

HISTOSOLS

SUB-ORDER Drainage Class poor, well GAMBIST poorly drained FOLIST well drained

GREAT GROUP Thickness of organic layer Ombro: >150 Ombro Topo: 50-150 Topo

Ombrogambist Topogambist

SUB-GROUPS Dominant in sub-surface (50-100 cm) tier Terric, Sapric, Hemic, Typic (Fibric)

Hemic Topogambist Sapric Ombrogambist

FAMILY

Nature of substratum marine clay/sand riverine clay/sand Soil temperature regime isohyperthermic/isomesic

BARAM FAMILY ADONG FAMILY

SOIL SERIES

Presence and nature of wood no wood wood decomposed wood undecomposed Mode of origin autochthonour/allochthonous

Baram Series: Sapric Topogambist, marine-sandy, isohyperthernic, non-woody, autochthonous. Adong Series: Hemic Ombrogambist, marine-sandy, isohyperthermic, decomposed wood, autochthonous.

PHASE

Depth shallow: 50-100 cm moderately deep: 100-150 cm deep: 150-300 cm very deep: 300+ cm

Baram/shallow Baram/moderately deep Adong/deep Adong/very deep


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Control section for organic soils of Malaysia (after Paramananthan et al., 1984).


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IN-SITU SOILS

These are given in Table 4 (Soils over Igneous Rocks) and Table 5 (Soils over Sedimentary, Calcareous, Metamorphic and Tuffaceous Sedimentary Rocks). Parent Materials

The separation of these rock types and the common textures they give are given in the table below.

Parent material groups and classes

GROUPS CLASS PARENT MATERIAL COMMON TEXTURES

Coarse-grained acid igneous

Granite, Adamellite, Syenite, Microgranite, Gneiss cosc

Fine-grained acid igneous Rhyolite, Rhyolitic Tuff, Rhyodacite, Trachyte fsc-sic

Intermediate igneous Diorite Granodiorite, Dacite, Dacitic Tuff, Quartz Andesite c

Ultrabasic/Basic igneous Andesite, Basalt, Andesitic Tuff, Basic Tuff, Gabbro, Norite Serpentinite, Dunnite, Biotite Schist, Amphibolite

c

Arenaceous Conglomerate, Quartzite, Sandstone and other predominantly Arenaceous Rocks sl-scl

Argillaceous Shale, Slate, Mudstone, Phyllite, Siltstone Quartz, Mica Schist and other predominantly Argillaceous Rocks

sc-c

In-Situ Residuum

Calcareous Limestone, Dolomite and other predominantly Calcareous Rocks sic-c

Reworked Material Reworked Reworked Material (Sol remanie) P, P3, P2 Gravelly

Colluvium Colluvium Colluvial Deposits Variable

Alluvium (Riverine) Terrace alluvium

River Alluvia (Very Recent, T0) (Recent, T1) (Sub-Recent, T2) (Older Alluvium, T3) Variable

Sandy marine Beach Ridge and Related Deposits s-c Alluvium (Marine) Clayey marine Marine, Brackish Water and Estuarine Deposits c-sic

Depth Classes Soils developed over in-situ materials are first separated based on the soil depth

classes. The depth to rock or C (weathered rocks) or BC is used. Shallow 100 cm


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Particle-size Classes Six particle size classes are used. Note that if gravels or stones (diameter >2 mm)

occur within 100 cm then the soil is placed in the Skeletal Soils group. The particle-size classes are separated using the triangular diagram.


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Colour Classes The colour classes used in Malaysia are shown in the table below. Red and brown

colours signify high iron content and hence P-fixation. Pallid colours indicate low iron content or reducing conditions. If the value is high and the chroma is low (7/1, 7/2, 8/1, 8/2 gray/white colours) this normally indicates reducing conditions unless the area is on a hill which then implies the soil has low iron content, coarse structures and poor infiltration rate e.g. Batu Anam Series. Such soils can have standing on the surface after rain even though the land may be rolling or hilly. Soils with low value and low chroma (2/1, 2/2, 3/1, 3/2) are black or dark brown in colour suggesting high amounts of organic carbon.

Colour Classes used in Malaysia. (Based on Munsell Colour Chart 1994, Revised Edition)

MUNSELL NOTATION COLOUR CLASS

HUE VALUE/CHROMA

5R 2.5/3 2.5/4 2.5/6 3/3 3/4 3/6 3/8

10R 3/3 3/4

2.5YR 2.5/3 2.5/4 3/3 3/4 4/3 4/4 DUSKY RED

5YR 3/3 3/4 4/3 4/4 5/3 5/4

7.5YR 2.5/3 3/3 3/4 4/3 4/4 5/3 5/4

10YR 3/3 3/4 3/6 4/3 4/4 4/6 5/3 BROWN

2.5Y 3/3 4/3 4/4 5/3 5/4 5/6

4/3 4/4 4/6 4/8 5/3 5/4 5/6 5/8 6/3 6/4 5R

6/6 6/8 7/3 7/4 7/6 7/8

3/6 4/3 4/4 4/6 4/8 5/3 5/4 5/6 5/8 6/3 10R

6/4 6/6 6/8 7/3 7/4 7/6 7/8

3/6 4/6 4/8 5/3 5/4 5/6 5/8 6/3 6/4 6/6 2.5YR

6/8 7/3 7/4 7/6 7/8

RED

5YR 4/6 5/6 5/8

5R 8/3 8/4

10R 8/3 8/4

2.5YR 8/3 8/4

5YR 6/3 6/4 6/6 6/8 7/3 7/4 7/6 7/8 8/3 8/4

4/6 5/6 5/8 6/3 6/4 6/6 6/8 7/3 7/4 7/6 7.5YR

7/8 8/3 8/4 8/6

RED-YELLOW

10YR 5/4 5/6 5/8 6/3 6/4 6/6 6/8

10YR 7/3 7/4 7/6 7/8 8/3 8/4 8/6 8/8

6/3 6/4 6/6 6/8 7/3 7/4 7/6 7/8 8/3 8/4 2.5Y

8/6 8/8

4/3 4/4 5/3 5/4 5/6 6/3 6/4 6/6 6/8 7/3

YELLOW

5Y 7/4 7/6 7/8 8/3 8/4 8/6 8/8

PALLID ANY HUE CHROMA OF 2 OR LESS, GLEY CHARTS


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Diagnostic Horizon A few important diagnostic horizons are used to key out the soils.

a = argillic horizon soils with moderate structure and presence of clayskins (cutans) and a CEC of

16-24 cmol(+)kg-1 clay aa = argillic/allic horizon soils with moderate structure and presence of clayskins (cutans) and a CEC of

more than 24 cmol(+)kg-1 clay c = cambic horizon soils having structure but no clayskins with or without weatherable minerals.

Mottling can also indicate a cambic horizon. k = kandic horizon soils with moderate to weak structures and presence of clayskins (cutans) and

a CEC of


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SKELETAL SOILS (Table 6)

All soils which have gravels or stones forming a horizon which has its upper boundary within 100 cm of the soil surface and which is more than 25 cm in thickness are skeletal soils. The gravels can be angular quartz gravel e.g. on coarse grained acid igneous rocks, iron-coated igneous rocks or schists or petroplinthite (laterite) gravels. Depending on the clay content and the depth of gravel the particle-size class is determined.

Angular quartz gravels These are clear glassy quartz of primary origin.

Iron-coated parent material These gravels are red due to coating by iron. Iron-coated igneous parent material are

mainly acid igneous in origin. When the stones are broken clear, glassy quartz can be seen. Iron-coated schists are platy and when broken the schist can be seen.

Petroplinthite Stones/Gravels These are hardened plinthite and the interiors are red and sometimes show concentric

layers. The degree of rounding increases from the P surface (mainly stones, very angular), P3 surface (sub-rounded to rounded), P2 surface (fine-polished rounded iron-stone gravels)

SOILS ON OLDER ALLUVIUM (Table 7)

Soils on Older Alluvium occur mainly on undulating to rolling (C2-C3 or 2-12 or 4%-24% slopes). Landscapes with these soils seldom exceed 50 m (150 feet) and the hills have concordant heights with broad U shaped valleys. They are characterized by rounded water worn gravels as their parent material. With depth the colours are somewhat paler as the parent material is reached compared to redder with depth on in situ soils such as those developed over weathered conglomerate. Usually in the Older Alluvium these gravels/stones are better sorted. These soils are separated using their depth to these rounded gravels/stones/boulders, their particle-size class and colour class (see Table 7).


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SOILS ON SUB-RECENT AND RECENT ALLUVIUM (Tables 8 and 9)

Sub-Recent Alluvium Alluvial soils vary somewhat in their particle size classes. They also commonly have

lithologic continuities at depths below 50 cm depth. The Sub-Recent Alluvial soils occur as terraces of the older rivers and hence often occur at elevations of 15-30 m (50-100 feet). These soils occur on gently undulating to level land with slopes of 4%-16% or 2-8. These soils may overlie weathered rock or saprolite below depths of 70 cm. Due to their higher position in the landscape iron-mottling is common due to deep fluctuating water table. Termite mounds, lallang, ferns etc. are common on these landscapes. These soils are separated using their particle size class, their drainage class and the type of subsurface horizon which are present. Depending on the surrounding hills from which these alluvial deposits are formed they can have high base saturation and other properties associated with soils on these hills. Mica flakes are rare.

Recent Alluvium These are alluvial soils associated with the larger present day rivers. These soils form

the present-day floodplains and form a drainage sequence from the levee into the backswamp. Lithologic discontinuities are common in these soils often as sand layers sometimes with micas. Soils on the levees are sandy but soon change to sandy clays and clays. Manganese concretions or specks are common in these soils often an indicator of high base saturation. Slopes are level to depressional in the backswamps. Flooding by overflow of levees is common in these soils. Rice is a common crop in these soils as watertables are high. Depending on the surrounding hills base saturation can be high. These soils are separated using the particle-size class, drainage class, base saturation and diagnostic horizon. Ox-bow lakes are also common indicating the changing course of the river.

Drainage Classes

Diagramatic representation of drainage classes


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SOILS OVER BEACH DEPOSITS (Table 10)

Soils developed over beach deposits have often been referred to as BRIS soils (beach ridges interspersed with swales). These are well drained sandy to sandy loam beach ridges with lowlying very poorly drained depressions between them. These lying areas vary greatly in texture from sandy to clay and even organic deposits. On the ridges an albic and spodic horizons are common. The spodic horizon can be strongly cemented to weakly cemented. The ridges further inland only have a deep white albic horizon which extends to over one metre depth. These soils over beach ridges have not been studied in detail especially those in the depressions. The separation of these soils uses the particle-size, drainage class the diagnostic horizon present.

SOILS DEVELOPED OVER MARINE, ESTUARINE AND BRACKISH WATER DEPOSITS

(Tables 11 and 12)

Soils developed over marine, estuarine and brackish water deposits occur on the coastal plains with meandering rivers. Both the marine and estuarine deposits occur near the coast while the brackish water deposits fringe the coastal peat swamps. In their natural state these deposits are flooded and sometimes even saline. These areas have mostly been drained and a coastal bund constructed to keep the sea water and tides out. Soils over the marine and estuarine deposits are generally poor in organic matter and are bluish in colour but when drained give light gray B horizon with coarse structures and sticky consistence when wet but hard when dry. Where dry seasons are common (Kedah/Perlis) slickensides and cracks (vertic features) are common. Gypsum is also present when limestone hills are nearby. The brackish water deposits are rich in organic matter are brown in colour in the drained B horizon and have weak to moderate structures with friable consistence.

The soils on these deposits are divided into two broad groups using the presence/absence of sulfidic materials or a sulfuric horizon within 100 cm of the soil surface. Thus in the deposits with sulfidic materials or sulfuric horizon the soils are mainly separated using the presence and depth at which the sulfidic materials or sulfuric horizon, occurs, the depth of the underlying C horizon and the particle-size class (mainly clayey) (see Table 11).

Where no sulfidic materials or sulfuric horizon is present the presence of a cambic horizon, vertic properties (cracks and slickensides), presence of gypsum, n value, a salinity levels coupled with particle-size classes (mainly clayey) are used to separate these soils in addition to the subsoil B properties (see Table 12). The presence of these potential or true acid sulfate soils are indicated by yellow jarosite in the spoils from the drains, rust-coloured deposits (ochric) at the edge of drains, the presence of fibristylists growing in the drains. Sulfidic Materials

Sulfidic materials contain significant amounts of sulfides mainly as pyrite Fe2S. In their natural state they are inundated and in a reduced state. They smell of rotten eggs (hydrogen sulfide) and turn black on exposure and eventually to yellow jarosite mottles.


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Sulfuric Horizon When sulfidic materials are drained they are oxidized by microbes to yellow jarosite

mineral, a potassium iron-aluminum sulfate. During this oxidation large amounts of hydrogen ions are produced resulting in the soil having a pH of less than 3.5. Thus the presence of yellow jarosite mottles and a pH of less than 3.5 signify a sulfuric horizon.

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Paramananthan, revised Jan 2011

Figure 1. Distinction between highland and lowland soils.

2

Paramananthan, Jan 2011

Figure 2. Vegetation, soil climatic zones and proposed soil groupings in Malaysia (Vegetation distribution after Burgess, 1969; soil climatic zones and soil types after Paramananthan, 1977).

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Table 1. Key to the identification of Highland soils of Malaysia. Climatic Regime Isomesic/Perudic (>1,750 metres asl.) Isothermic/Perudic (1,500-1,750 metres asl.)

Isothermic/Perudic (750-1,500 metres asl.)

Soil Order Histosols (Folists/Gambists) Lithosols Spodosols Spodosols Andisols Ultisols Inceptisols Entisols

Other Properties

Parent Material/Rock

Ombro (>150 cm)

Topo (

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Paramananthan, Jan 2011

Figure 3. Sub-divisions of lowland soils.

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Table 2. Lowland Soils of Malaysia Keys to the identification of deep (150-300 cm) and very deep (>300 cm) organic soils Ombrogambists

Soil Moisture Regime Aquic Poorly Drained GAMBIST

Cumulative Thickness of OSM More than 150 cm OMBROGAMBIST Dominant Nature of Subsurface

Tier (50100 cm) Sapric Hemic Fibric (Typic) Nature of Underlying Materials/Substratum

Lithic Fluventic Terric Non Woody Decomposed Wood

Undecomposed Wood Non Woody

Decomposed Wood


Decomposed Wood

Undecomposed Wood

Woody >50% wood

PRIMALUCK PONTIAN ARANG/LUK Marine Clay Sulfidic (> 15% clay)

Primaluck Teraja Pontian Arang Klias Luk NAMAN BAYAS ANDERSON Marine Clay

(> 15% clay) Naman Retus Kenyana Bayas Gedong Anderson

Marine Sand Calcareous (< 15% clay)

Marine Sand Sulfidic ( 15% clay) Liku Karap Gondang Taniku Salleh Tinjar

Riverine/ Colluvial Sand (< 15% clay)

Acid Igneous Residuum

Basic Igneous Residuum

Calcareous Residuum

Calcareous Residuum

BAREO Sedimentary Residuum

Bareo (isomesic)

Ironstone Residuum

Fragmental

KEY: BAYAS Soil Family Luk = allochthonous Bayas Soil Series f = sulfidic

6

Table 3. Lowland Soils of Malaysia Keys to the identification of shallow (50-100 cm) and moderately deep (100-150 cm) organic soils Topogambists

Soil Moisture Regime Aquic Poorly Drained GAMBIST

Cumulative Thickness of OSM Less than 150 cm TOPOGAMBIST Dominant Nature of Subsurface

Tier (50100 cm) Sapric Hemic Fibric (Typic) Nature of Underlying Materials/Substratum

Lithic Fluventic Terric Non Woody Decomposed Wood


Decomposed Wood


Decomposed Wood

Undecomposed Wood

Woody >50% wood

PENOR BAKRI MERAPOK Marine Clay Sulfidic (> 15% clay)

Penor Nipis Bakri Merapok Mahat

LINGGI EPAI MUKAH Marine Clay (> 15% clay)

Linggi Trus Epai Mukah

MENGALUM Marine Sand Calcareous (< 15% clay)

Mengalum

LONG PUTAT Marine Sand Sulfidic ( 15% clay) Erong Gali Changkat Lobak

PAK BONG Riverine/ Colluvial Sand (< 15% clay) Pak Bong

Acid Igneous Residuum

Basic Igneous Residuum

Calcareous Residuum

KAPOR Calcareous Residuum

Kapor

MELINAU/UMOR Sedimentary Residuum

Melinau Umor (Isomesic)

Ironstone Residuum

Fragmental

KEY: GALI Soil Family isomesic = isomesic soil temperature regime Gali Soil Series Mahat = allochthonous

7

Table 4. Lowland soils of Malaysia Key to the Identification of Soils Over Igneous Rocks

Depth to rock/saprolite/BC

/spodic/plinthite (cm) Shallow (< 50 cm) Moderately Deep (50-100 cm) Deep (>100 cm)

Colour Particle Class Size Class

Dusky Red Brown Red Red-Yellow Yellow Pallid Dusky Red Brown Red Red-Yellow Yellow Pallid Dusky Red Brown Red Red-Yellow Yellow Pallid

Very Fine (>60% clay)

tub Tinagat bi Jabor nd (ic) bt Kawa c ub Binuang

Tiger ai Wullersdorf bi Mostyn bi Goh o (ic) bi Bombalai c

ai Bukit Ajil k bi Jebong o bi Kepayang o

ub Pinianakan o ub Sungei Mas o tub Mai a

bi Kuantan o bi Table o

bi Apas o bi Bantal a bi Kampong Kolam o ai Piring k bi Segamat o bi Tarat o

bi Beeston aa bi Jarangan o ai Jerangau o bi Katong o ai Lanchang k bi Senai o bi Kinabutan k

Fine clayey

30% silt

ai Penyabong nd bi Kobovan aa

ai Harad a ai Arip aa

ai Chenian a ai Yong Peng a ai Jerantut a ai Kulai a

Fine Loamy (18-35% clay)

ai Quarry c ai Damak a (ai Abok a)

ai Gading o ai Abok k

ai Gumbang a

Coarse Loamy (15-18% clay)

ai Jan aa

Sandy (70% sand)

Clayey-Skeletal >35% gravels within 50 cm depth >35% clay

ai Lambak k (gr) ai Beserah o (gr)

Clayey Over Clayey Skeletal >35% clay >35% gravels between 50-100 cm

ai Masai o (ic) ai Baling k (gr) Pelepah (ic)

Loamy-Skeletal >35% gravels within 50 cm depth 15-35% clay

Loamy Over Loamy or Clayey Skeletal 15-35%clay >35% gravels between 50-100 cm

Sandy-Skeletal 35% gravels >70% sand

Paramananthan, March 2012 Notes: Base Status Parent Material Diagnostic Horizon Variants Particle-size Class Others italic = high base saturation ai = acid igneous tub = tuffs - basic a = argillic k = kandic o = oxic r = red variant (gr) = quartz gravels ( ) = less common bi = basic/intermediate igneous tui = tuffs - intermediate aa = argillic allic nd = no diagnostic horizon pl = plinthite (ic) = iron-coated parent material ub = ultrabasic igneous c = cambic

8

Table 5. Lowland soils of Malaysia Key to the Identification of Soils Over Sedimentary, Calcareous, Metamorphic Rocks and Tuffaceous Sedimentary Rocks

Depth to rock/saprolite/ BC/spodic/plinthite (cm) Shallow (< 50 cm) Moderately Deep (50-100 cm) Deep (>100 cm)


Dusky Red Brown Red Red-Yellow Yellow Pallid Dusky Red Brown Red Red-Yellow Yellow Pallid Dusky Red Brown Red Red-Yellow Yellow Pallid


s Jeram/sh nd c Loc Sambuang m/a

s Jeram a tu Komel a

s Gol k s Ruai a tu Tahan a

c Terah a c Langkawi k tu Mai a m Patang o m Prang o c Sagu o m Ulu Dong k

s Chat k c Kaki Bukit k s Lumerau a/pl s Munchong o s Stass aa s Tajeng a c Tangga o

tu Kuong aa (imp) s Melugu a s Nyarok k s Padawan aa s Semongok a

Fine clayey 30% silt

s Kasah nd s Kuah nd s Lokyang k/pl

s Lokyang a/pl tu Lekok aa s Juak c s Pagi a/pl

tu Beruit aa s Durian a/pl s Lunparai aa (imp) tu Sat a

s Asahan k/pl s Batu Anam a (imp)

s Musang a tu Sahabat aa

s Lalat a s Bandang a


s Hatton nd s Kedah nd s Kekura nd tu Tenggara c

s Kapit nd s Kininpir nd s Meluan nd

tu Kerak aa s Tekek a s Derawan a s Keledang a s Nami k tu Talid aa s Talisai aa s Sipit k/pl

s Antulai c s Laab c s Marang aa

s Apek a tu Selimber a s Juara a s Laka k (f)

s Bekenu a s Kemahang k (c) s Mat Daling a s Sarikei a s Serdang k (f) s Tanjong Lipat aa

m Biawak a s Timang k/pl

s Durin aa


s Kapit/sh s Kapilit aa s Malau aa s Nyalau a

s Matang aa (albic) s Nyalau (yellow) a

s Saratok k (imp)

Sandy (70% sand)

s Sibuga ws s Bako ws s Silantek ss

s Tika (albic)

Paramananthan, Jan 2012 Notes: Base Status Parent Material Diagnostic Horizon Variants/Phases Particle-Size italic = high base saturation c = calcareous rocks m = metamorphic rocks a = argillic c = cambic m = mollic pl = plinthite nd = no diagnostic horizon imp = imperfectly drained sh = shallow phase ss = strongly cemented spodic (c) = coarse s = sedimentary rocks tu = tuffs aa = argillic allic k = kandic o = oxic albic = albic r = red variant yellow = yellow ws = weakly cemented spodic (f) = fine

9

Table 6. Lowland soils of Malaysia Key to the Identification of Skeletal Soils

IN-SITU SOILS: IRON-COATED PARENT MATERIALS PEDIMENTS REWORKED LATERITIC SOILS Nature of Skeletal

Grains Angular quartz gravels of igneous origin

Iron-coated parent material

(acid igneous rocks)

Iron-coated parent material

(sedimentary and calcareous rocks)

Mainly angular petroplinthite gravels/stones

(Saprolite > 100 cm) (P)

Mainly subrounded petroplinthite gravels/stones

(Saprolite > 100 cm) (P3)

Rounded petroplinthite gravels

overlying saprolite within 100 cm (P2)


Red Red-Yellow Red Red-Yellow Red Red-Yellow Red Red-Yellow Red Red-Yellow Red Red-Yellow

Clayey-Skeletal >35% gravels within 50 cm depth >35% clay

ai Lambak k ai Beserah o ai Masai o s Seremban nd c Kodiang o

s Padang Besar a

Malacca o Tunggal o

Gajah Mati k/o Jitra k/a Gajah Mati k/o Napai k Pokok Sena k

Clayey Over Clayey Skeletal >35% clay >35% gravels between 50-100 cm

ai Baling k(gr) ai Pelepah k s Batu Lapan a Tandak o

Tavy k

Terap/r k Terap Chungloon k c Kabu k Tembil k Sembrin k

Loamy-Skeletal >35% gravels within 50 cm depth 15-35% clay

Pedu/r k Pedu k Chuping k (fine loamy) Bera k (coarse loamy)

Loamy Over Loamy or Clayey Skeletal 15-35%clay >35% gravels between 50-100 cm

m Lanas k Nerang k Dampar k (fine loamy) Tembaga k (coarse loamy)

Sandy-Skeletal 35% gravels >70% sand

Paramananthan, Jan 2011 Notes: Parent Material Diagnostic Horizon Variants/Phases ai = acid igneous rocks a = argillic gr = gravelly phase c = calcareous rocks k = kandic r = red variant s = sedimentary rocks o = oxic fine loamy = 18-35% clay m = metamorphic rocks nd = no diagnostic horizon coarse loamy = 15-18% clay

10

Table 7. Lowland soils of Malaysia Key to Soils Developed Over Older Alluvium

Depth to Stoneline (cm) Shallow (< 50 cm) Moderately Deep (50-100 cm) Deep (> 100 cm)


Red Red Yellow Yellow Pallid Red Red

Yellow Yellow Pallid Red Red

Yellow Yellow Pallid


Kening k Kelau k

Fine Sand

Paliu a Tungau k

Lupar k

Fine (35-60% clay) Coarse

Sand

Temerloh k Kening k Kawang k Harimau k

Fine Sand

Jerneh k Tampoi k Sirikin a Lubai a Fine Loamy (18-35% clay) Coarse

Sand

Ulu Tiram c Chukai k Tukau k Merang a

Fine Sand

Sebangan a Semaba a Triboh k Coarse

Loamy (15-18% clay) Coarse

Sand

Ibok c

Paramananthan, Jan 2011 Notes: Stoneline Diagnostic horizons Stoneline consists of quartz, a = argillic quartzitic gravels and stones c = cambic k = kandic

11

Table 8. Lowland soils of Malaysia Key to the Identification of Soils Over Sub-Recent, Non-Accreting Alluvium and Colluvium

Drainage Particle Class Size Class

0 Very Poor

1 Somewhat Very Poor

2 Poor

3 Somewhat

Poor

4 Imperfect

5 Somewhat Imperfect

6 Moderately

Well

7 Well

8 Somewhat Excessive

9 Excessive


Jelutong aa Sogomana k Belading a Serok k

Sitiawan k

35% plinthite

Hutan k Lubok Kiat k Kerayong k Lumisir aa

Fine silty (35-60%

clay)

Simpah k/pl Pelandok a/pl

Silty (>30% silt) Coarse silty

(18-35% clay)

Kilin k

Fine sand

Halu a Lunas k

Bukit Tuku k Luba c

Darau aa Terang aa Pantagalung aa

Benuou o Rasau k Penipah k Numatoi aa Sabor aa


Coarse sand Segari a Awang k Lundu nd

Holyrood k

Fine sand Gong nd Nangka c(pm)

Coarse Loamy (15-18% clay) Coarse sand

Banar c Lintang c

Fine sand Grang sw (sh) Penian sw (sh)

Bokah nd Buso sc (sh)

Jerijeh sc (sh) Stoh sw (sh)

Baiayo sw (sh) Miri sc (md) Silimpopon sc (md)

Sebaya nd Karamatoi sw (md)

Kilong nd/e Serai Sandy (70% sand) Coarse sand

Subang nd Sungei Buloh nd Serai e

Clayey-skeletal

(>35% clay)

Manik c

Loamy-skeletal (15-35%

clay)

Badak c Skeletal (>35% gravels)

Sandy- skeletal

(

12

Table 9. Lowland soils of Malaysia Key to the Identification of Soils Over Recent Accreting Alluvium and Colluvium

Drainage Particle Class Size Class

0 Very Poor

1 Somewhat Very Poor

2 Poor

3 Somewhat

Poor

4 Imperfect


6 Moderately

Well

7 Well


9 Excessive


Binjai nd(histic)

Lubok Sendong nd Lubok Itek nd(b)

Jabil k

35% plinthite

Lating a

Fine silty (35-60%

clay)

Kerpai nd(histic) Selingkat c Bangahak aa Setol c Subok aa

Belud aa Hillco aa Sepayang c

Buran aa Gugut c Inanam aa

Buran aa Inanam aa Sungei Meranti c

Silty (>30% silt) Coarse silty

(18-35% clay)

Fine sand Pakan nd(sulfidic)

Gong nd Sungei Amin c Sejacob c Kaya a Tutoh nd Bemang nd

Bulanat c Kelawat c

Fine Loamy (18-35% clay) Coarse sand

Pasir Puteh c Bulanat c Penambang nd Sebat nd (ai)(cos)

Dapoi nd

Fine sand Telaga nd

Bulanat c Julan nd Tenghilan nd

Pengalan nd Telemong nd

Coarse Loamy (15-18% clay) Coarse sand

Bulanat c Sebako nd Semilajau nd

Fine sand Luis nd (histic) Matu*

Plan nd Tatau*

Kayan nd(Sr) Siar nd (red/dark red)

Sandy (70% sand) Coarse sand

Berhala nd Pisau nd(Sb)

Clayey-skeletal

(>35% clay)

Loamy-skeletal (15-35%

clay)

Teras nd Skeletal (>35% gravels)

Sandy- skeletal

(

13

Table 10. Lowland soils of Malaysia Key to the Identification of Soils Over Beach Deposits (Ridges/Swales)

Drainage Class

Particle Size Class

0 Very Poor

(Histic Epipedon

organic layer 25-50

cm)

1 Somewhat Very Poor (Organic layer 0-25

cm)

2 Poor

3 Somewhat

Poor

4 Imperfect


6 Moderately

Well

7 Well


9 Excessive

Clayey (>35% clay)

Chenering nd Daro nd Buntal nd (cal) Nerus nd (b)

Penaga c(co)

Loamy (10-35% clay)

Pisau nd Nununyan nd (cal) Nibong nd (b)

Permatang c Tamanong nd Tanjong nd (alluv. basic ig)

Seneng c (co) Kabili c (f)

Ibai sw (sh)

Sandy (

14

Table 11. Lowland soils of Malaysia Key to the identification of potential (sulfidic materials) and true acid sulfate (sulfuric horizon) soils

Depth to Sulfuric Horizon/ Sulfidic Materials

Sulfidic Materials within 50 cm

Sulfidic Materials between 50-100 cm

Sulfuric Horizon within 50 cm

Sulfuric Horizon between 50-100 cm underlying Cambic

Horizon No Diagnostic Horizon

Depth to Underlying C

Horizon

Moderate to High

Conductivity >1 dSm-1 High n

Moderate to Low

Conductivity 100 cm

Horizonation Subsoil Properties

AC/OAC/OC AC/OAC/OC OAC/AC1C2/ OC1C2 ABC/OABC ABC/OABC ABC/OABC ABC ABC

Clayey (>35% clay) Gray B matrix Moderate to strong

structures Moist sticky dry

hard

Kranjiss Rajangms Rampangi ms

Merbok ws Punda ws

Kalibong ms Libur ms Punda ws

Chenaam ms Kluang ws Metah ws Moyan ms Semara ss

Kuala Perlis Parit Botak Telok Tongkang

Clayey (>35% clay) Brown B matrix Weak to moderate

structures Friable

Bergosongws Linau/sh

Linau/mod Serkat/acid

Kemang Tebuan (cosc)

Guar Sedu Jawa/sh Juru/sh (cosc)

Jawa Juru (cosc)


Palohss/ms Nagorws Nangka ws (Sr)

Lari ms(calcaric) Tambun Carey


Timun

Sandy (70% sand)

Belat Mersan Pandak ms

Paramananthan, Jan 2011 Notes: Salinity Classes Location Textural Variant Phases ms = moderately saline (1-4 dSm-1) (Sr) = Sarawak (cosc) = coarse sandy clay sh = shallow ss = strongly saline (>4 dSm-1) ws = weakly saline (

15

Table 12. Lowland soils of Malaysia Key to the Identification of Soils Over Marine Alluvium, Estuarine and Brackish Water Deposits

Diagnostic Horizon or Property No Diagnostic Property/Horizon

Vertic Properties (slickensides, cracks) Cambic Horizon

Depth to C Horizon < 50 cm < 50 cm 50-100 cm 50-100 cm 50-100 cm 0-50 cm 50-100 cm >100 cm

Dominant Mottle Colour Dominant Mottle Colour Dominant Mottle Colour Other Characteristics Subsoil Properties

High n value High Conductivity

(>4dSm-1)

Low n value Moderate to low

Conductivity (35% clay) Colours: Brown

Serkat Pachintah Sabrang Selangor


Sirik ss Pisau ms(Sr)


Sandy (70% sand)

Nonok ss Tatau ws Telok ms(Sr)

Paramananthan, Jan 2011 Notes: Salinity Classes Diagnostic Horizon Diagnostic Property Location Variants ms = moderately saline (1-4 dSm-1) c = cambic mn = manganese (Sr) = Sarawak sh = shallow ss = strongly saline (>4 dSm-1) pl = plinthite mod = moderately deep ws = weakly saline (

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