SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHSCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH An Introduction An Introduction

‘‘Research’ is Research’ is “ “ a careful study of a a careful study of a subject especially to discover new facts subject especially to discover new facts or information about it .” or information about it .” We We ObserveObserve and/or and/or Relate Relate phenomena (both in physical phenomena (both in physical and social sciences) and and social sciences) and fix up belief fix up belief on their behavior.on their behavior.

Such beliefs on the behavior of phenomena could be Such beliefs on the behavior of phenomena could be fixed up by a fixed up by a common man and a scientistcommon man and a scientist. .

But their ways are different.But their ways are different.

Commonsense and scientific approach in Commonsense and scientific approach in fixing belief on behavior of phenomenafixing belief on behavior of phenomena

A A common mancommon man and and the scientistthe scientist both both fix up fix up beliefsbeliefs and and test hypotheses test hypotheses relating to relating to behavior behavior of phenomenaof phenomena: Consider the following:: Consider the following:Women are more religious than men in IndiaWomen are more religious than men in India

Brand preference and economic status are positively Brand preference and economic status are positively related.related.

People from a caste or ethnic group are enterprising.People from a caste or ethnic group are enterprising.

Investment in company X is profitable.Investment in company X is profitable.

Sales and advertizing expenditures are +ly relatedSales and advertizing expenditures are +ly related

These could be beliefs based on commonsense.These could be beliefs based on commonsense.

Science and commonsense differ in a Science and commonsense differ in a variety of ways in fixing beliefs.variety of ways in fixing beliefs.

CommonsenseCommonsense observes and relates observes and relates variables in an variables in an unsystematicunsystematic i.e. i.e. unorganizedunorganized & & unplannedunplanned way. way.

It often It often generalizes behaviorgeneralizes behavior of of phenomena in an phenomena in an uncontrolleduncontrolled way. way.

It tests hypotheses in a It tests hypotheses in a selectiveselective way i.e .it way i.e .it selects evidences and gives explanation selects evidences and gives explanation simply because it is consistent with his simply because it is consistent with his hypothesis.hypothesis.

But the Scientist's approach is different in But the Scientist's approach is different in fixing beliefs on the behavior of phenomenafixing beliefs on the behavior of phenomena

Scientific approach Scientific approach is a is a systematically built systematically built theoretical structure ( with a theoretical structure ( with a structured design structured design and a and a plan of investigationplan of investigation). ).

It tests beliefs/theories It tests beliefs/theories empirically empirically and in a and in a controlled conditioncontrolled condition, where ever necessary., where ever necessary.

A scientist knowing the selection tendency of A scientist knowing the selection tendency of human being to be a common psychological human being to be a common psychological phenomenon, carefully phenomenon, carefully guards his research guards his research against his own preconception and predilections against his own preconception and predilections (liking). (liking).

The Scientist's approach is differentThe Scientist's approach is different…(Contd)…(Contd)

Obvious relationshipsObvious relationships are empirically tested are empirically tested and established (for decision making) in a and established (for decision making) in a scientific approach.scientific approach.

• Demand is inversely related to price. Demand is inversely related to price. • Advertising expenditure & sale volume are Advertising expenditure & sale volume are

positively related.positively related.• Brand loyalty & economic status are related Brand loyalty & economic status are related

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHSCIENTIFIC RESEARCH - A DEFINITION - A DEFINITION

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IS DEFINED AS A IS DEFINED AS A

SYSTEMATIC, CONTROLLED, EMPIRICAL AND SYSTEMATIC, CONTROLLED, EMPIRICAL AND

CRITICAL INVESTIGATIONCRITICAL INVESTIGATION OF OF HYPOTHETICAL HYPOTHETICAL

PROPOSITIONSPROPOSITIONS ABOUT ABOUT PRESUMED RELATIONSPRESUMED RELATIONS

AMONGST AMONGST OBSERVED PHENOMENAOBSERVED PHENOMENA..

SUBJECTIVE BELIEFS ARE CHECKED AGAINST SUBJECTIVE BELIEFS ARE CHECKED AGAINST

OBJECTIVE REALITYOBJECTIVE REALITY

Aim of Scientific ResearchAim of Scientific Research

Aim of scientific researchAim of scientific research is basically is basically theorizing the behavior/relationship theorizing the behavior/relationship between variables/phenomenabetween variables/phenomena..

Scientific Research Scientific Research establishes general establishes general laws covering the behavior of empirical laws covering the behavior of empirical eventsevents and enables us to connect together and enables us to connect together our knowledge of separately known events our knowledge of separately known events or or explain the relationship between explain the relationship between variablesvariables and and make reliable predictionsmake reliable predictions..

SCIENTIFIC STATUS OF A SCIENCE SCIENTIFIC STATUS OF A SCIENCE

It depends on the It depends on the degree and accuracydegree and accuracy of the of the four aspects four aspects mentioned in the definition of scientific research.mentioned in the definition of scientific research.

Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical

This fixes up limits with respect to This fixes up limits with respect to exactexact and and inexact inexact sciencessciences

Physical sciences such as physics, chemistry are more Physical sciences such as physics, chemistry are more exact than exact than social sciences such as sociology, social sciences such as sociology, psychology, economics, management etc. psychology, economics, management etc.

However, all the sciences differ in degree with respect to However, all the sciences differ in degree with respect to the characteristic of exactness.the characteristic of exactness.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCESSCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

In In social science social science we study the we study the behavior of behavior of social phenomena and the behavior of social phenomena and the behavior of human beinghuman being..

Questions arises here isQuestions arises here is

“ “ Can human behavior be subjected to Can human behavior be subjected to scientific enquiry ?”scientific enquiry ?”

Thus, we examine the characteristics of Thus, we examine the characteristics of social sciences and relate them to the four social sciences and relate them to the four aspects of scientific research.aspects of scientific research.

1. Social scientists like the physical scientists seek to discover regularity and order in social

behavior

This is done through observations and measurementThis is done through observations and measurement

i)i) Observation of regularities Observation of regularities in the behavior of human in the behavior of human beings and socio-economic variables in the market.beings and socio-economic variables in the market.

ii)ii) MeasurementMeasurement of social behavior of human beings / of social behavior of human beings / socio-economic and market related variables.socio-economic and market related variables.

(i(i) Discovering/observing regularities and ) Discovering/observing regularities and framing theoriesframing theories in in social sciences. Consider the following:social sciences. Consider the following:

An object falling to earth, water flowing downstream,HAn object falling to earth, water flowing downstream,H2 2 O is O is

water, application of fertilizer results in a good crop.water, application of fertilizer results in a good crop.

Women are more religious than men, advertising and sale Women are more religious than men, advertising and sale volumes are related, EPS is positively related to profit, buying a volumes are related, EPS is positively related to profit, buying a share of company X is profitable.share of company X is profitable.

Behavior of phenomena in physical sciences are more regular Behavior of phenomena in physical sciences are more regular than social sciencesthan social sciences

Regularities in social science represent probabilistic pattern Regularities in social science represent probabilistic pattern since they are more subjectivity in nature.since they are more subjectivity in nature.

(ii) Measurement(ii) Measurement

QualitativeQualitative and and quantitativequantitative variables are variables are observed and related in social sciences e.g. observed and related in social sciences e.g. Income, Profits, Expenditure, Sales Revenue Income, Profits, Expenditure, Sales Revenue Intelligence, Economic Status , Brand loyalty etcIntelligence, Economic Status , Brand loyalty etc

These could be measured with specific These could be measured with specific methods/ways and used in the analysis.methods/ways and used in the analysis.

However, a systematic measurement must be However, a systematic measurement must be judged on the basis of its utilityjudged on the basis of its utility rather than rather than absolute truthabsolute truth in social sciences. in social sciences.

2. Logical reasoning in physical and social 2. Logical reasoning in physical and social sciences.sciences.Reasoning: deductive and inductive Reasoning: deductive and inductive

Deductive reasoningDeductive reasoning is a process from is a process from general general principle to specificprinciple to specific instances. instances.

Inductive reasoningInductive reasoning is a process from is a process from specific specific observations to generalobservations to general principles. principles.

Deductive method is stronger in having theoretical Deductive method is stronger in having theoretical supportsupport whereas, whereas, inductive method is stronger in inductive method is stronger in empirical support.empirical support.

AA cyclical process of induction and deduction are cyclical process of induction and deduction are followed in both the sciences followed in both the sciences with respect to with respect to theorizing behavior/phenomena.theorizing behavior/phenomena.

TheoriesTheories are are tested and restated with the use of these tested and restated with the use of these processes.processes.

3.Determinism in social science3.Determinism in social science

Consider the following phenomena in the Consider the following phenomena in the economyeconomy..There is a steady growth of FDI in India after 1990sThere is a steady growth of FDI in India after 1990s BSE sensex is falling over the last few months.BSE sensex is falling over the last few months.Cost of production of X is increasingCost of production of X is increasingIncrease in adv expenditure has not resulted in Increase in adv expenditure has not resulted in increase in the market share of a productincrease in the market share of a productPrice rise of car over the last few years has not been Price rise of car over the last few years has not been associated with a decline in demand etc.associated with a decline in demand etc.A mobile manufacturing company has lost it market A mobile manufacturing company has lost it market share recently.share recently.

Nothing just happensNothing just happens All events have antecedent causes or All events have antecedent causes or a priori reasonsa priori reasons

There could be There could be single or multiple causessingle or multiple causes for for all the phenomena.all the phenomena.

Very often the Very often the causes leading to the causes leading to the occurrenceoccurrence of an event/ phenomenon are of an event/ phenomenon are known as known as determinants determinants ..

There is a There is a probabilistic determinism in the probabilistic determinism in the behavior behavior of socio-economic phenomena.of socio-economic phenomena.

This refers to the ‘Theory of Causation’ in the This refers to the ‘Theory of Causation’ in the philosophy of science.philosophy of science.

4.4. Generalization Generalization

A social scientist begins to explain a A social scientist begins to explain a limited range of limited range of

social behaviorsocial behavior or behavior of a limited sub-set of or behavior of a limited sub-set of

population and population and then normally extends then normally extends his/herhis/her

findings to explain the behavior of other sub-setsfindings to explain the behavior of other sub-sets (i.e. (i.e.

S/he generalizes the behavior of variables ).S/he generalizes the behavior of variables ).

The The process of induction is useful in generalization.process of induction is useful in generalization.

The scientist is not interested in specific observation . He The scientist is not interested in specific observation . He

generalizes the behavior of phenomena and frames theory.generalizes the behavior of phenomena and frames theory.

For example:For example:

A researcher is less interested in the individual A researcher is less interested in the individual response to a price change; rather he is interested in response to a price change; rather he is interested in the general behavior of the consumers.the general behavior of the consumers.

A discovery of a certain behavior of a group of A discovery of a certain behavior of a group of people is less useful than that has universal people is less useful than that has universal application.application.

However, generalization in social science is related to However, generalization in social science is related to probabilistic determinism.probabilistic determinism.

Hypothesis are tested with F, t, Chi-square and other Hypothesis are tested with F, t, Chi-square and other statistical measures to arrive at generalization. statistical measures to arrive at generalization.

5. Parsimony5. Parsimony

Multiple causationMultiple causation suggests that social/economic phenomena suggests that social/economic phenomena

are explained using are explained using multivariate models multivariate models where several where several

variables are used.variables are used.

Additional variables Additional variables increase explanatory powerincrease explanatory power of a model of a model (in (in

a dependency relationship), but it a dependency relationship), but it also also complicates the complicates the

relationshiprelationship (model) and (model) and makes estimation difficult.makes estimation difficult.

Use of more variables Use of more variables decreases generalizability decreases generalizability since different since different

variables may have different impact on different population variables may have different impact on different population

sub-set.sub-set.

Consider the followingConsider the following

Expenditure of H.H.s on a Commodity may depend on Expenditure of H.H.s on a Commodity may depend on the following:the following:

Income of the householdsIncome of the households, Number of family members, , Number of family members, Cost of living, Standard of living, Cost of living, Standard of living, Price of the Price of the commoditycommodity, Location of H.H.. Season, Attitude of a , Location of H.H.. Season, Attitude of a person, Demonstration effect, Management of the house person, Demonstration effect, Management of the house hold, Durability of the product, hold, Durability of the product, Price of substitute, Price of substitute, Cultural back ground ,Proximity to market, Sex ratio in Cultural back ground ,Proximity to market, Sex ratio in the h.hs. Media advertisement for the productthe h.hs. Media advertisement for the product, Price of , Price of complimentary goods. Quantity of consumption complimentary goods. Quantity of consumption etc. etc. etc.etc.

Are all the variables equally important?Are all the variables equally important?

One has to One has to identify the more or less relevant identify the more or less relevant variables variables with “with “a prioria priori” reasoning.” reasoning.

A A judicious decision judicious decision is warranted in is warranted in explaining socio-economic behavior.explaining socio-economic behavior.

ParsimonyParsimony in social science refers to “ in social science refers to “more more understanding from least variablesunderstanding from least variables””

More understanding often refers to explanatory More understanding often refers to explanatory power in a dependency relationshippower in a dependency relationship

66. . Specificity: It refers to the specification of Specificity: It refers to the specification of methods of measurement of variablesmethods of measurement of variables

ConceptualizationConceptualization of variables and of variables and use of proxy use of proxy variablesvariables

Conceptualizing and measuring of variables Conceptualizing and measuring of variables differs differs in physical and social sciencesin physical and social sciences e.g. e.g.

- acceleration, force, gravitation in physical sciences.acceleration, force, gravitation in physical sciences.

Income, profits, expenditure on the one hand andIncome, profits, expenditure on the one hand and

Industrialization, brand preference, spendthriftness, Industrialization, brand preference, spendthriftness, literacy, Intelligence. religiosity etc on the other.literacy, Intelligence. religiosity etc on the other.

We use We use proxy variables proxy variables in social sciences when we in social sciences when we do not have a set measuring standard.do not have a set measuring standard.

7. Empirical verification7. Empirical verification

Formulation of general laws Formulation of general laws or models are or models are not useful unlessnot useful unless they can they can

be be verified through collection and manipulation of data.verified through collection and manipulation of data.

Explanation of models must make sense Explanation of models must make sense and they must and they must correspond to correspond to

what is being actually studied/observedwhat is being actually studied/observed. E.g.. E.g.

Expenditure = f ( Income) Expenditure = f ( Income)

Brand Loyalty = f (Awareness and Economic Status)Brand Loyalty = f (Awareness and Economic Status)

Economic Development = f (Industrialization)Economic Development = f (Industrialization)

Relationship is meaningless unless variables are specified and data Relationship is meaningless unless variables are specified and data

could be collected on them.could be collected on them.

8. Inter-subjectivity8. Inter-subjectivity

SUBJECTIVITY SUBJECTIVITY DIFFERES BETWEEN SOCIAL DIFFERES BETWEEN SOCIAL

SCIENTISTS.SCIENTISTS.

Inter-subjectivityInter-subjectivity refers to refers to situations in which different situations in which different

social scientists will arrive at different conclusions using social scientists will arrive at different conclusions using

their own ideas and perceptions their own ideas and perceptions on variables and their on variables and their

relationships. But relationships. But when the study is replicated when the study is replicated using a using a

reported design and methodology the reported design and methodology the ideas may ideas may

converge. converge.

If it is If it is notnot, then there is a “, then there is a “paradigm shiftparadigm shift” or change in ” or change in

the theory.the theory.

9. Modifications/Restatement of Theories9. Modifications/Restatement of Theories

Physical and social sciences are Physical and social sciences are open to countless open to countless

modification and restatementmodification and restatement of theories. of theories.

Recent research in physics ( Atoms Large Hadron Collider)Recent research in physics ( Atoms Large Hadron Collider)

New research findings in medical sciences & other physical New research findings in medical sciences & other physical

sciences.sciences.

Large number of modifications/restatement of in the theories of Large number of modifications/restatement of in the theories of

social sciences such as social sciences such as

psycholology,economics,management.psycholology,economics,management.

Scientific Research and Social SciencesScientific Research and Social SciencesA Concluding RemarkA Concluding Remark

The characteristics of social science suggest that The characteristics of social science suggest that scientific research is possible in the field of social scientific research is possible in the field of social sciences to some extent when the four aspects of sciences to some extent when the four aspects of scientific research are considered. scientific research are considered.

Subjective beliefs are checked against objective reality in Subjective beliefs are checked against objective reality in

social science but the process and out come are social science but the process and out come are less less exactexact as compared to the physical sciences. as compared to the physical sciences.

The The degree of exactness differs degree of exactness differs with respect to the nature with respect to the nature of different social sciences such as economics, of different social sciences such as economics, management, psychology, education, sociology, management, psychology, education, sociology, philosophy etc.philosophy etc.