srimathi sundaravalli memorial school

7/28/2019 Srimathi Sundaravalli Memorial School

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SRIMATHISUNDARAVALLIMEMORIALSCHOOLCHEMISTRYPROJECT

FormationofCurdfromBuffalomjlk& Soyamjlk

Done bySudhanshuShekharSahooXII ARoll no.12121


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Milk is a white liquid produced by the mammary glands ofmammals. It is the primary source ofnutrition for young mammalsbefore they are able to digest other types of food. Early-

lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mother'santibodies to the baby and can reduce the risk of many diseasesin the baby.Milk derived from cattle species is an important food with manynutrients. The precise nutrient composition ofraw milk vary byspecies and by a number of other factors, but it containssignificant amounts ofsaturated fat, protein and calcium as wellas vitamin C. Cow's milk has a pH ranging from 6.4 to 6.8,making it slightly acidic.[1][2]

Throughout the world, there are more than 6 billion consumersof milk and milk products, the majority of them in developingcountries. Over 750 million people live within dairy farminghouseholds. World's dairy farms produced about 720 milliontonnes of milk in 2010.[3]India is the world's largest producer

and consumer of milk, yet neither exports nor imports milk. NewZealand, EU-15 and Australia are the world's three largestexporters of milk and milk products. China, Mexico and Japanare the world's largest importers of milk and milk products. Milk
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary_glandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colostrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calciumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calciumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colostrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammary_gland


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is a key contributor to improving nutrition and food securityparticularly in developing countries. Improvements in livestock,dairy technology and milk quality may offer the most promise in

reducing poverty and malnutrition in the worldSources of milk

All female mammals can by definition produce milk, but cow milkdominates commercial production. Human milk is not produced

or distributed industrially or commercially; however, milk banksexist that allow for the collection of donated human milk and itsredistribution to infants who may benefit from human milk forvarious reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies,metabolic diseases, etc.).

In the Western world, cow's milk is produced on an industrialscale and is by far the most commonly consumed form of milk.Commercial dairy farmingusingautomated milkingequipmentproduces the vast majority of milk in developed countries. Dairy

cattle such as the Holstein have been bred selectively forincreased milk production. About 90% of the dairy cows in theUnited States and 85% in Great Britain are Holsteins.[7]Other dairy cows in the United States include Ayrshire,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inborn_error_of_metabolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_farminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_milkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_countryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holstein_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-On_Food_and_Cooking-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-On_Food_and_Cooking-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-On_Food_and_Cooking-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayrshire_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayrshire_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-On_Food_and_Cooking-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holstein_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_countryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_milkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_farminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inborn_error_of_metabolism


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Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Jersey, and Milking Shorthorn(Dairy Shorthorn).

Sources aside from cows

Goat milk can be used for other applications such as cheeseand other dairy products

Aside from cattle, many kinds oflivestock provide milk used byhumans for dairy products. These animals include camel,

donkey, goat, horse, reindeer, sheep, water buffalo, and yak.

In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also exist.[35]

According to the US National Bison Association, Americanbison (also called American buffalo) are not milked

commercially;[36]however, various sources report cows resultingfrom cross-breeding bison and domestic cattle are good milkproducers, and have been used both during the Europeansettlement of North America[37]and during the development ofcommercial Beefalo in the 1970s and 1980s.[38]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Swisshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernsey_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milking_Shorthornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livestockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asses%27_milk_%28Donkey%27s_milk%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goat_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse#Productshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reindeerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_buffalo#Importance_to_humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pack_yakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moose_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_bisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_bisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beefalohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beefalohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_bisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_bisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moose_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pack_yakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_buffalo#Importance_to_humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reindeerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse#Productshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goat_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asses%27_milk_%28Donkey%27s_milk%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livestockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milking_Shorthornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernsey_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Swiss


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BUFFALO MILK

58% more calcium than cows milk!

40% more protein than cows milk!43% less cholesterol than cows milk!

Buffalo milk is a totally natural product that can be consumedlike any other milk. Time after time participants in tasting trials

pick out buffalo milk in preference to cows, goats and artificiallymanufactured milks. They just love the taste.Buffalo milk is very white and beautifully smooth. It issignificantly lower in cholesterol and higher in calcium than cows,sheeps or goats milks. And unlike the array of industrially

produced soya and other cereal milks it is totally free ofadditives and chemical formulations.

In addition to the significant cholesterol and calcium benefits

Buffalo Milk is also a rich source of iron, phosphorus, vitamin Aand of course protein.Buffalo Milk also contains high levels of the natural antioxidanttocopherol. Peroxidate activity is normally 2-4 times that of cowsmilk.


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An unfortunate sign of the times is the growing number ofpeople who suffer from cows milk allergy (cma). Fortunately this

is not the case with Buffalo Milk which is suitable for manysuffers from cma*.

The high milk solids of Buffalo Milk not only make it ideal for

processing into superb dairy products but also contribute tosignificant energy savings in conducting that process. Yogurtsare natural thick set without recourse to adding addition milkproteins or gelling agents as with lesser milks.Unlike the modern dairy cow the buffalo can thrive without the

need to use high levels of concentrated feed. Grass, clover andstraw make up the bulk of a buffaloes diet. No bone meals, fishmeals or genetically modified feeds are ever fed to ourbuffalo.And for those concerned about BSE; buffalo are agenetically pure species with no BSE or scrapie.


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Dairies love to work with Buffalo Milk, which we all know makes

the best mozzarella. The smooth texture and richness convertsinto a truly wonderful range of multiple award winning products.And for vegetarians who are denied the opportunity to enjoyItalian buffalo mozzarella (which uses animal rennet)Ribbelsdale's English buffalo mozzarella is simply the best!

MILK COMPOSITION ANALYSIS

Constituents QtyCow Goat Sheep Buffalo

Protein grm 3.2 3.1 5.4 4.5

Fat grm 3.9 3.5 6.0 8.0

Carbohydrate grm 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9

Energy Kcal

K

J

66275

60253

95396

110463

Sugars (Lactose) grm 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9

Fatty Acids-SaturatedMonounsaturatedPolyunsaturated

grm

grm

grm

2.41.10.1

2.30.80.1

3.81.50.3

4.21.70.2

Cholesterol mg 14 10 11 8

Calcium iu 120 100 170 195


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SOYA MILK

What is soy milk?

Soy milk is made by soaking soybeans, grinding them with water.The fluid which results after straining is called soy milk. You can

make soy milk at home with basic kitchen tools or with a soy milk

machine. Soy milk is most commonly found in aseptic cartons.

Most of the soy milk available in the market is flavoured andfortified with extra calcium or vitamins. The most popular

flavours are vanilla and chocolate. Some producers add

thickeners to their soy milk to give it a mouth feel of cow's milk.

Traditionally, soy milk has a beany taste which is well accepted

by the Chinese, but less by the Western palate. By using

correct processing techniques, this beany taste can be reduced

or eliminated. Recently, with the recognition of its health

benefits and with its improved flavor and texture, soy milk has

now a high and rising acceptance. Sometimes, use is made of

protein isolates from soy bean which are mixed with water, oils,

sugars, stabilisers to give it a milky appearance. This type of

product is not as wholesome as real soy milk. In Europe,


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legislation prohibits soy milk manaufacturers to label their

product as soy milk. Often they use the denomination soy drink.

Nutritional values of soy milk

Plain soy milk is very nutritive: it's an excellent source of high

quality proteins, isoflavones and B-vitamins. Soy milk is free of

the milk sugar (lactose) and is a good choice for people who are

lactose intolerant. Also, it is a good alternative to those who areallergic the proteins of cow's milk.

Part of a Balanced Diet

Soy milk and all soy foods offer outstanding nutrition, alongwith theirhealth benefits. They provide balanced nutrition:

complete protein high-quality fiber

low glycemic index (GI) zero cholesterol 83% less saturated fat than 2% milk high Omega-3 to Omega-6 balance a naturally good source of B vitamins
http://www.soya.be/soy-drink.phphttp://www.qtessencesoymilkmaker.com/soy-health-benefits.htmlhttp://www.qtessencesoymilkmaker.com/soy-health-benefits.htmlhttp://www.soya.be/soy-drink.php


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A non-Dairy Alternative

Many people who are sensitive to dairy products are able todrink soy milk.

Soy is gluten free Soy milk is casein free

It's also makes a good substitute for milk in cooking.

Ecological impact

Usingsoybeans to make milk instead of raising cows may beecologically advantageous, because the amount of soy that

could be grown using the same amount of land would feed morepeople than if used to raise cows.[17]Cows require much moreenergy in order to produce milk, since the farmer must feed theanimal, which can consume up to 24 kilograms (53 pounds) offood in dry matter (DM) basis and 90 to 180 litres (25 to 50

gallons) of water a day, producing an average of 40 kilograms ofmilk a day. Because the soybean plant is a legume, it alsoreplenishes the nitrogen content of the soil in which it is grown.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_milk#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_milk#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_milk#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_milk#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybean


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In Brazil, the explosion of soybean cultivation has led to losinglarge tracts of forest land leading to ecological damage.[18]These particular cleared forests are planted with soy intended

for animal agricultural enterprises (especially beefand porkproduction), not for human consumption.[19]

The American soil scientist Dr. Andrew McClung was the firstto devise a method to grow soybeans in the Cerrado region ofBrazil. He was awarded with the 2006 World Food Prize

PRACTICALS :-

EXPERIMENT

Preparation of soyabean milk and its comparison withthe naturalmilk with respect to curd formation, effect of temperature andtaste.

REQUIREMENTS

Beakers, pestle and mortar, measuring cylinder, glassrod,tripod-stand, thermometer, muslin cloth, burner.Soyabeans,buffalo milk, fresh curd and distilled water.
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PROCEDURE

1)Soak about 150g of Soya beans in sufficient amountof

water so that they are completely dipped in it.2)Take outswo lle n Soyabeans and gr ind the m to a very fine paste3)Take out swollen Soyabeans and grind them to avery finepaste and filter it through a muslin cloth.Clear white filtrate issoyabean milk. Compare itstaste with buffalo milk.

4)Take 50 ml of soyabean milk in three other beakersand heatthe beakers to 30 40and 50Crespectively. Add spoonful curd to each of these beakers.Leave the beakers undisturbed for 8 hoursand curd is formed.5)Similarly, take 50 ml of buffalo milk in three beakers and heat

the beakers to and 50Crespectively. Add spoonful curd toeach of these beakers. Leave the beakers undisturbed for 8hours and curd is formed.


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RESULTFor buffalo milk, the best temperature for theformation of goodquality and tasty curd is..Cand for soyabean milk, it is ..C.

.


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What is a drug?

A drug is any substance, solid, liquid or gas that changes the functions or structures of the body in some way.This excludes food and water, which are required to maintain normal body functioning.

The drugs of most concern to the community are those that affect a person's central nervous system. These arethe psychoactive drugs. They act on the brain and can change the way a person thinks, feels or behaves.


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Where do drugs come from?

Drugs are derived from a range of sources. Many are found in plants, for example nicotine in tobacco; caffeinein coffee beans; and cocaine from the coca plant. Morphine and codeine are derived from the opium poppy,while heroin is produced by the chemical modification of morphine. Marijuana is the leaf, buds and seed headsof the cannabis plant, while hashish and hash oil are the plant's resin.

Alcohol is produced by the natural process of fermentation that happens when fruit, grain or vegetablesdecompose. Certain fungi, such as magic mushrooms and cactus plants, are considered drugs because of theirhallucinogenic properties. Medicines can be manufactured from both natural and artificial chemicals.

Who uses drugs?

A number of state and national surveys have been conducted to assess the extent of drug use in Australia. Thesesurveys provide clear evidence that Australia is a nation of drug users.

The 2004 National Drug Strategy Household Survey [1] estimates that of the Australian population aged 14years and over, at some time in their lives:

90.71% had used alcohol; 47.1% had used tobacco; 33.61% had used marijuana; 5.5% had used analgesics (pain-killers); (a) 2.8% had used tranquillisers/sleeping pills; (a) 7.5% had used hallucinogens; 9.1% had used methamphetamine (speed); (a) 7.5% had used ecstasy; (c) 4.7% had used cocaine; 2.5% had used inhalants;

1.4% had used heroin; 0.3% had used steroids; (a) and 0.3% had used methadone. (b)

a. For non-medical purposes.b. Non-maintenance.c. This category included substances known as 'designer drugs' prior to 2004.

Harm caused by drugs

The most devastating drug-related harm to the community is the death toll. Drug use is a factor in about one infive of all deaths in Australia. In 2000 there were approximately 5,000 deaths attributed to drug use -corresponding to 88,400 years of life lost. Of these total years lost through premature death, more than 60%were associated with tobacco use, 20% with alcohol use and 17% with the use of illicit drugs. The economiccosts of drug abuse nationally in 1998-9 were estimated to be $34 billion per annum.
http://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s03.php#ftn.id2573958http://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s03.php#ftn.id2573958http://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s03.php#ftn.id2573958http://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s03.php#ftn.id2573958


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There are a range of harms that can result from excessive or inappropriate use of psychoactive substances.Loss of life is one extreme and tragic possibility. Negative health effects, family and social problems,psychological and emotional difficulties, legal and financial problems are more common experiences. Itshould be kept in mind that many people start, and continue, to use drugs to find relief or escape from thesetypes of problems.

There is a prevailing community fear that if a person uses drugs they will become dependent or 'addicted'. Nodrug leads to an immediate physical or psychological dependence. However, drug-related harm can happen at

all levels of use, including experimental, recreational and dependent use.

Effects of drugs

how much of the drug is taken and how often how the drug is taken or administered physical characteristics of the user the mood and environment of the user tolerance of the substance polydrug use alcohol tobacco

The physical and psychological effects of psychoactive drugs depend on how they act on the central nervoussystem that, in turn, affects our thoughts, feelings and actions. Psychoactive substances include legal, illegal andprescription drugs.

It is impossible to predict exactly how a drug will affect any one person. Effects usually relate to how much is

used, how often it is used and what other drugs are used. The following factors also influence drug effects.

how much of the drug is taken and how often

The dosage level of a drug is a major factor influencing drug effect. Generally, the larger the dose or higher thepurity, the greater the effect of the drug. Overdose occurs when the amount of the drug taken exceeds the body'scapacity to effectively cope with the drug. Depending on the drug taken, the central nervous system is eitherover-stimulated or slowed down so much that life is threatened.

how the drug is taken or administered

Drugs can get into the body in a number of ways including ingestion (drinking, eating); smoking; injecting;snorting; inhaling and inserting. Drugs that are injected or inhaled act very quickly and the effects are moreintense compared to when they are ingested.

physical characteristics of the user

A person's height, weight, gender, proportion of body fat, rate of metabolism and stage of the menstrual cyclecan all influence the intensity and duration of the drug effects.

the mood and environment of the user
http://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05.php#Ch273Se199485http://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s02.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s03.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s04.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s05.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s06.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s07.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s08.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s08.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s07.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s06.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s05.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s04.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s03.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05s02.phphttp://www.vicdrugguide.org.au/handbook/ch01s05.php#Ch273Se199485


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How a person is feeling can have a significant impact on drug effects, as can the social setting of drug use. If itis a comfortable social atmosphere, users are more likely to have a good time. If it is a threatening environmentor the person feels alienated from the group, they may become fearful, anxious, paranoid or depressed.

tolerance of the substance

Tolerance to a drug can develop if a person uses it frequently. The first time a person uses a drug, they have avery low tolerance and are more likely to feel the effects very strongly, or overdose. The more often the drug is

used, the less intense the effects will be. This results in the need to take larger amounts to get the desired effectsWhen you stop using a drug, or have a break of even a few days, tolerance will reduce.

This corresponds with the experience of withdrawal symptoms. After detoxification from heroin, tolerancedrops considerably and the first use of heroin after detox is a high risk time for overdose. Release from prison isanother example of a high risk time for heroin overdose due to the reduction of tolerance.

Tolerance often develops rapidly in people who have been tolerant to a substance in the past. The brain appearsto have a memory of past drug use, although the process for this is not well understood. People with alcoholdependence, for example, often find that even after a break in alcohol consumption of months or years,tolerance can return in a couple of days. A tobacco smoking habit is quickly re-established even after years of

not smoking.

polydrug use

Polydrug use refers to the use of more than one drug. Users often have a primary drug of choice (for examplealcohol, marijuana, speed or heroin) but will use one or more drugs to top up, come down or as a substitute.Combining drugs can increase or alter their effects, often in unpredictable ways.

Despite the risks, polydrug use is quite common. For example, tranquillisers or marijuana may be used to help aperson come down from speed or an LSD trip. Using two or more drugs simultaneously or within a relativelyshort timeframe can be hazardous. There is a real risk of overdose if, for example, two drugs that are both

central nervous system depressants are present in the body at the same time. Taking heroin, minor tranquillisers,methadone and alcohol (in any combination) can be fatal.

alcohol

Harmful drug use remains a major health concern for Australian society, and the principal drug of concern,

apart from tobacco, is alcohol. Most members of the community drink at 'low-risk' levels with little or noconsequences, save for the occasional hangover or an inappropriate word dropped here or there.

Alcohol affects each individual differently, so it is impossible to say who will be affected by what amount ofalcohol. However, there are well-established guidelines for 'low-risk' drinking. For the average man, drinkingmore than four standard drinks a day (28 standard drinks a week) is drinking too much. For the average woman,drinking more than two standard drinks a day (14 standard drinks a week) is drinking too much. A 'low-risk'drinking pattern should include two or three alcohol-free days a week.


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These levels are different for men and women because women's bodies are more vulnerable to the affects ofalcohol than are men's. Women are often of smaller build than men, have more fat content and less water thanmen, and break down alcohol more slowly.

Drinking at above these levels increases the risk for physical, social and emotional harm for the drinker and forthose associated with the drinker. It is estimated that at least 10% of the population drink at problematic levels,and that for every problematic drinker five other people are affected. It is estimated that 25% of all hospitaladmissions are alcohol related. [2]

Physical harm from alcohol can include brain damage, heart disease, liver disease, gastro-intestinal illness andsexual dysfunction. Social problems include traffic accidents, domestic and community related violence,diminished work performance and industrial accidents, crime, family breakdown and financial issues.Emotional problems include depression, isolation, anger, guilt and low self-esteem. Prolonged excessivedrinking can sometimes lead to severe mental illness.

tobacco

Each year diseases caused by smoking tobacco kill about 19,000 Australians. Of lifetime smokers, half will diefrom their addiction, with 50% of these deaths occurring by middle age.

Tobacco smoke contains more than 4,000 chemicals, at least 43 of which are known to cause cancers, includingof the lung, throat, mouth, bladder and kidneys. Tobacco smoke also causes other diseases, such as stomachulcers, emphysema, strokes and heart disease, possibly contributes to osteoporosis, and can lead to fertilityproblems for both men and women.

During pregnancy, nicotine and other poisons in cigarette smoke reach the baby through the mother'sbloodstream and can contribute to miscarriage and complications with the pregnancy and the birth. Babies ofsmokers are more likely to have a low birthweight and to be born early or to die around the time of birth.Smoking during pregnancy and after the birth is considered a major risk factor for sudden infant deathsyndrome (SIDS or cot death). Children of smokers are also more likely to have asthma and lung problems.

Nicotine, the addictive drug in tobacco, stimulates the nervous system but also makes the smoker feel relaxed.Mixed with carbon monoxide, it temporarily increases heart rate and blood pressure, and narrows small bloodvessels under the skin. It slows blood flow, reducing oxygen to the feet and hands, resulting in some smokershaving limbs amputated.

Tar is made up of many chemicals, including gases and carcinogens (substances that cause cancer) that coat thelungs like soot in a chimney. Smoking low-tar cigarettes may be of some help, but smokers tend to take deeperpuffs and hold the smoke in for longer.

Carbon monoxide reduces the supply of oxygen to the muscles, brain and body tissue, making the entire body -

especially the heart - work harder. Gradually, airways swell up and allow less air into the lungs.

New smokers often feel dizzy and sick from tobacco smoke; if they continue to smoke, their bodies come todepend on nicotine and they can smoke more and more. There is no 'safe' level of tobacco smoking.

types of drugs

The three main types of drugs, classified by their effects on the central nervous system are:

depressants;
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stimulants; and hallucinogens.

depressants

Depressant drugs slow down, or depress, the functions of the central nervous system (however, they don'tnecessarily make you feel depressed). Depressant drugs include:

alcohol; opiates and opioids: including heroin (also known as 'H', 'hammer', 'smack' and 'gear'), morphine, codeine,

methadone and buprenorphine;

cannabis: (also known as 'green', 'smoke', 'weed', 'pot', 'dope', 'cone' and 'mull'), including marijuana, hashishand hash oil. In stronger concentrations, such as in hashish and resin, cannabis can also act as an hallucinogen in

addition to being a central nervous system depressant;

minor tranquillisers/benzodiazepines (benzos): including diazepam (Valium), oxazepam (Serepax), nitrazepam(Mogadon), temazepam (Normison and Euhypnos); and

some solvents and inhalants: including vapours from petrol, glue, chrome paint and lighter fluid.In moderate doses, depressants can make you feel relaxed. Some depressants cause euphoria and a sense of

calm and well-being. They may be used to 'wind down' or to reduce anxiety, stress or inhibition. Because theyslow you down, depressants affect coordination, concentration and judgment. This makes driving and operatingmachinery hazardous.

In larger doses, depressants can cause unconsciousness by reducing breathing and heart rate. A person's speechmay become slurred and their movements sluggish and uncoordinated. Other effects of larger doses includingnausea, vomiting and, in extreme cases, death. When taken in combination, depressants increase their effectsand increase the danger of overdose.

stimulants

In contrast to depressant drugs, stimulant drugs speed up the functions of the central nervous system. Millionsof Australians use the following stimulants every day:

caffeine: most coffee, tea and cola drinks contain caffeine, which is a mild stimulant; nicotine: the nicotine in tobacco is a stimulant, despite many smokers using it to relax; and ephedrine: used in medicines for bronchitis, hay fever and asthma.

Stronger stimulant drugs include:

amphetamines and methamphetamines: also known as 'speed', 'ice' and 'crystal meth'; cocaine: also known as 'coke' and 'snow'; slimming tablets: e.g. Duromine and Tenuate; and dexamphetamine: prescribed to treat attention-deficit disorder in children and narcolepsy, which is an

uncontrollable urge to fall asleep.

Stimulants speed up or stimulate the central nervous system and can make the users feel more awake, alert orconfident. Stimulants increase heart rate, body temperature and blood pressure. Other physical effects includereduced appetite, dilated pupils, talkativeness, agitation and sleep disturbance.

Higher doses of stimulants can 'over stimulate' the users, causing anxiety, panic, seizures, headaches, stomachcramps, aggression and paranoia. They can also cause heart problems such as arrhythmia. Prolonged orsustained use of strong stimulants can also cause these effects.


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Strong stimulants can mask the effects of depressant drugs, such as alcohol. This can increase the potential foraggression, and poses an obvious hazard if the person is driving.

hallucinogens

Hallucinogenic drugs distort the user's perceptions of reality. These drugs include:

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide): also known as 'trips', 'acid' and 'microdots'; magic mushrooms (psilocybin): also known as 'mushies'; mescaline (peyote cactus); and ecstasy (MDMA/methylenedioxymethamphetamine): also known as 'E', 'XTC' and 'Eccies', produces a

combination of hallucinogenic and stimulant effects; and ketamine: also known as 'K' and 'Special K'.

The main physical effects of hallucinogenic drugs are dilation of pupils, loss of appetite, increased activity,talking or laughing, jaw clenching, sweating and sometimes stomach cramps or nausea. Drug effects caninclude a sense of emotional and psychological euphoria and well-being. Visual, auditory and tactilehallucinations may occur, causing users to see or hear things that do not actually exist. The effects ofhallucinogens are not easy to predict and the person may behave in ways that appear irrational or bizarre.

Psychological effects often depend on the mood of the users and the context of use.

Negative effects of hallucinogens can include panic, paranoia and loss of contact with reality. In extreme cases,this can result in dangerous behaviour that can put the user and others at great risk. Driving while under theinfluence of hallucinogens is extremely hazardous. It is common for users to take minor tranquillisers ormarijuana to help them come down from a hallucinogenic drug.

testing for drug use

Most drugs are detectable in urine for one to three days after their use. It is difficult to predict whether a urinetest will be positive for drug use, as this can vary a lot between people and depends on a number of factorsincluding the amount of drug taken, the rate of metabolism for that drug, the length of time the urine has been inthe bladder, and the amount of water consumed. Some drugs are detectable over longer periods of time, such asbenzodiazepines (diazepam, temazepam, oxazepam etc.), which can be detected up to a week later, andcannabis, which can be detected up to a month later. Drinking large amounts of water can dilute the urinesample, making it less likely that any drugs will be detected; however, most laboratories also test how dilutedthe urine sample is.

Since very many factors can affect how long a drug is detectable in urine, the following figures (based on

information from the Department of Corrective Services (1997) Operations Procedures Manual) are only arough guide. Testing is becoming progressively more sophisticated and accurate.

Drug Detectable for

Alcohol 8-12 hours

Amphetamines 2-4 days

Barbiturates (short-acting, e.g. seconal) 1 day

(long-acting, e.g. phenobarbital) 2-3 weeks


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Drug Detectable for

Benzodiazepines 3-7 days

Cannabis (first-time users) 1 week

(long-term users) up to 66 days

Cocaine 2-4 days

Codeine 2-5 days

Ecstasy (MDA/MDMA) 1-3 days

LSD 1-4 days

Methadone 3-5 days

Opiates (e.g. heroin/morphine) 2-4 days

PCP 10-14 days

Steroids (anabolic) (taken orally) 14 days

(taken other ways) 30 days

Hair samples can contain traces of drugs if the drugs were used when the hair was being formed in the scalp orif drugs come into contact with the hair externally. Hair grows at the rate of approximately one centimetre permonth and dividing the hair into one centimetre fragments can be used to plot the pattern of drug use over anextended period.

Sweat can also be used to detect drug use with sweat patches (like patches for giving up smoking), althoughcommercial testing for sweat is not yet routinely available in Victoria.

Commercial tests exist for on-the-spot testing of saliva. The detection times for drugs in saliva are similar to

detection times for drugs in urine.

alcohol & cocaine


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crystal meth, heroin

steroids effect on body builders


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