squid characterization of materials -...
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SQUID characterizationof materials
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SQUID characterizationof materials
SQUID surveying for minerals
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SQUID characterizationof materials
SQUID surveying for minerals
SQUIDsscreening
for ischemia
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SQUID characterizationof materials
SQUID surveying for minerals
SQUIDsscreening
for ischemia
Gravity probe B:SQUID gyroscopes
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The Ubiquitous SQUID: From Cosmology to Medicine
BCS@50UIUC12 October 2007
• The SQUID: A little history
• Cosmology-Shedding light on dark energy-Searching for cold dark matter
• Medicine-Magnetoencephalograpy-Microtesla magnetic resonance imaging
Supported by DOE
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In the Beginning…..• Fritz London understands that the electrons in a
superconductor are in a macroscopic quantum state• He predicts that magnetic flux in a closed superconducting
ring is quantized in units of h/e• BCS formulate the ground state wave function for the pair
condensate, which can be described by a single macroscopic quantum state
Ψ(r,t) = |Ψ(r,t)|eiφ(r,t)
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Φ = n Φ0
J
Flux QuantizationSingle-valuedness of Ψ:Φ = nΦ0 (n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...)whereΦ0 ≡ h/2e ≈ 2 x 10-15 Tm2
is the flux quantum
Deaver and Fairbank 1960 Doll and Näbauer 1960
Vibrating s/c tube in a coil
Torque on a s/c tube
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In the Beginning II…..• Ivar Giaever observes single electron tunneling between
superconductors• (Morel) Cohen, Falicov and Phillips formulate their tunneling
Hamiltonian• At Cambridge University, Phil Anderson describes this theory
in a lecture course in which Brian Josephson is a first year graduate student
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JosephsonTunneling
Anderson and Rowell 1963
Sn-SnOx-Pb1.5 K
0.006 G
0.4 G
I
Superconductor 1 Superconductor 2
~ 20 Å
Insulatingbarrier
I
V
I = I0 sinδδ = φ1 – φ2
dδ/dt = 2eV/ħ= 2πV/Φ0
Josephson 1962
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Birth of the SuperconductingQuantum Interference Device (SQUID)
Jaklevic, Lambe, Silver and Mercereau 1964
Critical curent versus applied magnetic field for two different junction spacingsRapid oscillations due to interference, slow oscillations due to diffraction
Sn-SnOx-Sn junctions
VΦ
I
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Zimmerman and Silver 1966
Other SQUIDDesigns
Niobium structures
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5 mm
Copper
Niobium
SnPbsolder
The SLUG(Superconducting Low-Inductance Undulatory Galvanometer)Autumn 1964: Brian Pippard suggests that a quantum interference
device would make a sensitive voltmeter
Current IB in niobium wireV
olta
ge
JC 1966
Nb wire and solder
I
I
V
IB
IB
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5 mm
Copper
Niobium
Solder
The SLUG as a Voltmeter
Voltage noise10 fVHz-1/2
V
JC 1966
1 μΩ
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Beasley and Webb 1967
0.001′′ Nb foil
0.001′′ mylar
0.03′′ Nb wire
Adjustable Niobium SQUIDNb wireand foil
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Silver and Zimmerman 1967
The RF SQUID
L
M
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Thin-Film Cylindrical SQUID
5 mm
Wolf Goubau, Mark Ketchenand JC 197410-14 tesla Hz-1/2 (10 fTHz-1/2)
• Nb-NbOx-PbInjunctions
• Shadow masks
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Thin-Film DC SQUID
Ketchen and Jaycox 1982
Superconductingwasher
• Pb alloy• Photolithography
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Nb-AlOx-Nb Tunnel Junctions
Rowell et al. 1981
Trilayer process
• Deposit Nb film as base electrode• Deposit Al film• Grow AlOx layer thermally in O2• Deposit Nb film as counter electrode
Standard process for all low-Tc electronics
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The Workhorse SQUID
SQUID with input coil Josephson junctions
500 μm 20 μm
Multilayer device with photolithographic patterning Niobium - aluminum oxide – niobium Josephson junctionsOperates typically at temperatures ≲4.2 K
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Flux Noise in the SQUID
Frequency (Hz)
White noise2 x 10-6 Φ0 Hz-1/2S Φ
(f) (
H
z-1)
2 0Φ
10-1 101 103 105
10-10
10-12
V
0 1 2 Φo
Φ
δV
δΦ
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Noise in the dc SQUID
Originates in Nyquist noise in shunt resistors R.
For SQUID with optimized parameters and inductance L:
Computed spectral density of flux noise SΦ(f) ≈ 16kBTL2/R
For L = 200 pH, R = 6 Ω, T = 4.2 K:
2/1062/1 Hz10x2.1)f(S −−≈ ΦΦ
ε f( ) = SΦ f( ) / 2L ≈ 10−32 JHz−1 ≈ 100h( )
Noise energy:
Claudia Tesche and JC 1977
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Superconducting Flux Transformer:Magnetometer
SQUIDMagnetic field noise ~ 10-15 THz-1/2
B J
Closedsuperconducting
circuit
Roomtemperatureelectronics
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Magnetic Fields
1 femtotesla
tesla
10-16
10-10
10-8
10-6
10-4
10-12
10-14
10-2
1
Earth’s field
Urban noise
Car at 50 m
Human heart
Fetal heart
Human brain response
SQUID magnetometer
Conventional MRI
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High-Tc SQUID
Ludwig et al. 1995
• YBCO films and bicrystalgrain boundary junctions—which are not very reproducible
• White noise and 1/f noisehigher than for low-Tc SQUIDs
• No flexible, bondable high-Tcwire technology
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Cosmology
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Neutrinos 0.6%Baryons (ordinary matter) 4.6%Cold Dark Matter (CDM) 22%Dark Energy (DE) 73%
• Thus 95% of the universe is unknown!• SQUIDs are being used to investigate both DE and CDM
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)“The Cosmic Rosetta Stone”
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Transition-Edge Sensor (TES)
SQUID
250 mK
TES
Weakthermal link
Optical absorber
T
R
• Electrothermal feedback: fast, linear response• Low power dissipation (~1 nW)• Sensitivity limited by photon shot noise
Kent Irwin
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Shedding Light on Dark Energy: Searching in the FIR for Galaxy Clusters
• South Pole Telescope (SPT) Antarctica • 1000 transition edge sensors with
multiplexed SQUID readoutUCB, LBNL, Univ. of Colorado Boulder, Univ. of Chicago, Case Western Reserve Univ.,UC Davis, Harvard-Smithsonian, Univ. of Illinois, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
• James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, Mauna Kea, Hawaii
• 10,240 transition edge sensors with multiplexed SQUID readoutAstronomy Technology Center (UK),NIST (US), multiple universities
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Searching for Cold Dark Matter
• A candidate particle is the axion, proposed in 1978 toexplain the absence of a measurable electric dipolemoment on the neutron
ma ≈ 1μeV – 1 meV (0.24 - 240 GHz)• Predicted axion mass:
UC BerkeleyLLNLUniversity of Giessen
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Pow
erFrequency
610~ −Δνν
Resonant Conversion of Axions into PhotonsPierre Sikivie (1983)
Primakoff Conversion
Expected Signal
HEMT* Amplifier
*High Electron Mobility Transistor Need to scan frequency
Magnet
Cavity
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Axion Detector at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
• Cooled to 1.5K• 7 tesla magnet
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Scan Time
• Using a HEMT amplifier, time* to scan the frequency range
from f1 = 0.24 to f2 = 2.4 GHz: 45 years
*Dine-Fischler-Srednicki-Zhitnitsky (DFSZ) theory
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Noise Temperatures of Two SQUID Amplifiers
TQL = 33mK
• In the classical limit theory predictsTN ∝ T• In the quantumlimit: TQL = hf/kB• Closest approachto quantum limit:At 799 MHzTN = 47 ± 5 mKTQL = 38 mK
University of California, BerkeleyLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryLawrence Livermore National LaboratoryUniversity of Giessen
684 MHz
702 MHz
HEMT TN ≈ 2 K
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Scan Time
• Using a HEMT amplifier, time* to scan the frequency range
from f1 = 0.24 to f2 = 2.4 GHz: 45 years
• The HEMT is being replaced with a SQUID amplifier. With the
system cooled to 50 mK by a dilution refrigerator, time* to
scan the frequency range from f1 = 0.24 to f2 = 2.4 GHz: 18 days
*Dine-Fischler-Srednicki-Zhitnitsky (DFSZ) theory
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Medicine
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300-Channel SQUID Systems for Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
• Presurgical mapping of brain tumors• Locating epileptic centers• Monitoring recovery from stroke or brain trauma
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MicroteslaMagnetic Resonance Imaging
UC BerkeleyLBNL
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High Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging
1.5 tesla MRI scanner (GE)
Could we lower the magneticfield by a factor of (say) 10,000 to 150 microtesla?
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Microtesla MRI System
• Protons are prepolarized in afield of typically 50–100 mTprior to obtaining the image.
• Typical imaging field is 132 μT(proton frequency 5600Hz).
• Three magnetic field gradients define “voxels” in the sample.
• NMR signal is detected with aSQUID gradiometer with a noiseof 8 ×10−16 T Hz−1/2.
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T1-Weighted Contrast Imaging
• T1 is the relaxation time for the nuclear spins to returnto thermal equilibrium after a π/2 pulse, and is typically 1 sec in water. It depends strongly on the environment.
• T1-weighted contrast imaging is used in conventional MRI to distinguish different types of tissue.
• However, contrast is sometimes very poor, for example for breast tumors, unless one uses an injected contrast agent such as a Gd compound.
• T1-contrast cannot be achieved for prostate tumors evenwith a contrast agent.
• T1-contrast can be much higher in low fields.
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Enhanced T1-Weighted Contrast
Phantom:Water columns in agarose gel
S-K. Lee et al.
T1 contrast at 132 µT
2
T1 contrast at 100 mT
1
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Preliminary Measurements on Ex Vivo Prostate Tissue
• Malignant prostate removed surgically at UCSF hospital• Pathologist cuts two small tissue samples, one healthy and one
cancerous (Blind: we do not know which is which)• Samples rushed to Berkeley in a biohazard bag placed on ice• About two hours after surgery, T1’s of the two samples are
measured simultaneously• Based on results from eight pairs of such specimens, we find
that T1 in healthy tissue is typically 60% higher than in tumors
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Prospects• Microtesla MRI is potentially lower in cost, lower in weight,and more open than conventional MRI.
• It has the particular advantage of significantly higher T1-contrastthan high-field MRI.
• Next step is to build a prototype system for in vivo imaging oftumors: Projected resolution 2 × 2 × 2 mm3.
• Microtesla MRI may have application to screening for cancer, and to monitoring the progression of tumors during treatment.
• A new EU project is aimed at combining microtesla MRI with existing 300-channel systems for magnetoencephalography.
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Epilogue
• SQUIDs are very diverse, with applications in physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, materials science, geophysics,cosmology, quantum computing,……..
• SQUIDs are remarkably broadband: 10-4 Hz (geophysics)to 109 Hz (axion detectors).
• The resolution of SQUID amplifiers approaches the quantum limit.
• The SQUID, now 44 years old, shows no signs of aging. New devices are on the horizon, including “nanoSQUIDs” to detect the magnetic moments of single molecules and quantum limited readout schemes for superconducting quantum bits (“qubits”).