Sputnik

Replica of Sputnik 1

Mission type Technology

Operator Soviet space program

Harvard designation 1957 Alpha 2

SATCAT 1957­001B [1]

Mission duration 92 days[2]

Orbits completed 1440 [2]

Spacecraft properties

Manufacturer OKB­1Ministry of Radiotechnical Industry

Launch mass 83.60 kg (184.3 lb)

Dimensions 58 centimeters (23 in) diameter

Start of mission

Launch date 4 October 1957, 19:28:34 UTC

Rocket Sputnik 8K71PS

Launch site Baikonur 1/5

End of mission

Last contact 26 October 1957

Sputnik 1From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sputnik 1 (/ˈspʌtnɪk/; Russian: Спутник­1 [ˈsputnʲɪk]"Satellite­1", or ПС­1 ["PS­1", i.e., Russian:Простейший Спутник­1 "Elementary Satellite 1"])[3]was the first artificial Earth satellite. The Soviet Unionlaunched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October1957. It was a 58 cm (23 in) diameter polished metalsphere, with four external radio antennae to broadcastradio pulses. It was visible all around the Earth and itsradio pulses were detectable. This surprise successprecipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered theSpace Race, a part of the larger Cold War. The launchushered in new political, military, technological, andscientific developments.[4][5]

Sputnik itself provided scientists with valuableinformation, even though it wasn't equipped with sensors,by tracking and studying the satellite from Earth. Thedensity of the upper atmosphere could be deduced fromits drag on the orbit, and the propagation of its radiosignals gave information about the ionosphere.

Sputnik 1 was launched during the InternationalGeophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratamrange, in Kazakh SSR (now known as the BaikonurCosmodrome). The satellite travelled at about 29,000kilometres per hour (18,000 mph; 8,100 m/s), taking 96.2minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005and 40.002 MHz,[6] which were monitored by amateurradio operators throughout the world.[7] The signalscontinued for 21 days until the transmitter batteries ranout on 26 October 1957.[8] Sputnik 1 burned up on 4January 1958, as it fell from orbit upon reentering Earth'satmosphere, after travelling about 70 million km (43.5million miles) and spending three months in orbit.[9]

Contents

1 Before the launch1.1 Satellite construction project1.2 Launch vehicle preparation and launch

site selection1.3 Observation complex

2 Design3 Launch and mission

4 Reaction

Decay date 4 January 1958

Orbital parameters

Reference system Geocentric

Regime Low Earth

Semi­major axis 6,955.2 km (4,321.8 mi)

Eccentricity 0.05201

Perigee 215.0 km (133.6 mi)

Apogee 939.0 km (583.5 mi)

Inclination 65.100°

Period 96.2 minutes

Epoch 1956

This metal arming key is the lastremaining piece of the first Sputniksatellite. It prevented contact betweenthe batteries and the transmitter priorto launch. Currently on display at theSmithsonian National Air and SpaceMuseum.

4 Reaction4.1 Propaganda

5 Impact6 Backup units and replicas7 See also8 Notes9 Bibliography10 Further reading

10.1 Russian texts11 External links

Before the launch

Satellite construction project

On 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev addressed Dimitri Ustinov and proposed adevelopmental plan for an artificial satellite. Korolev forwarded a report by Mikhail Tikhonravov with an overviewof similar projects abroad.[10] Tikhonravov had emphasized that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitablestage in the development of rocket technology.[11]

On 29 July 1955, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced through his press secretary that the UnitedStates would launch an artificial satellite during the International Geophysical Year (IGY).[12] A week later, on 8August, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approved the proposal to create an artificialsatellite.[13] On 30 August Vasily Ryabikov – the head of the State Commission on R­7 rocket test launches – helda meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a spaceflight trajectory to the Moon. They decided todevelop a three­stage version of the R­7 rocket for satellite launches.[14]

On 30 January 1956 the Council of Ministers approved practical work onan artificial Earth­orbiting satellite. This satellite, named Object D, wasplanned to be completed in 1957–58; it would have a mass of 1,000 to1,400 kg (2,200 to 3,100 lb) and would carry 200 to 300 kg (440 to 660 lb)of scientific instruments.[15] The first test launch of "Object D" wasscheduled for 1957.[11] Work on the satellite was to be divided betweeninstitutions as follows:[16]

the USSR Academy of Sciences was responsible for the generalscientific leadership and research instruments supplythe Ministry of Defense Industry and its primary design bureauOKB­1 were assigned the task of building the satellitethe Ministry of Radiotechnical Industry would develop the controlsystem, radio/technical instruments and the telemetry systemthe Ministry of Ship Building Industry would develop gyroscopedevicesthe Ministry of Machine Building would develop ground launching,refueling and transportation meansthe Ministry of Defense was responsible for conducting launches

Preliminary design work was completed by July 1956 and the scientific tasks to be carried out by the satellite weredefined. These included measuring the density of the atmosphere and its ion composition, the solar wind, magneticfields, and cosmic rays. These data would be valuable in the creation of future artificial satellites. A system of

30k USSR postage stamp depictingSputnik 1

ground stations was to be developed to collect data transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellite's orbit, andtransmit commands to the satellite. Because of the limited time frame, observations were planned for only 7 to 10days and orbit calculations were not expected to be extremely accurate.[17]

By the end of 1956 it became clear that the complexity of the ambitious design meant that 'Object D' could not belaunched in time because of difficulties creating scientific instruments and the low specific impulse produced bythe completed R­7 engines (304 sec instead of the planned 309 to 310 sec). Consequently, the government re­scheduled the launch for April 1958.[11] Object D would later fly as Sputnik 3.[18]

Fearing the U.S. would launch a satellite before the USSR, OKB­1 suggested the creation and launch of a satellitein April–May 1957, before the IGY began in July 1957. The new satellite would be simple, light (100 kg or220 lb), and easy to construct, forgoing the complex, heavy scientific equipment in favour of a simple radiotransmitter. On 15 February 1957 the Council of Ministers of the USSR approved this simple satellite, designated'Object PS'.[19] This version allowed the satellite to be tracked visually by Earth­based observers, and it couldtransmit tracking signals to ground­based receiving stations.[19] The launch of two satellites, PS­1 and PS­2, withtwo R­7 rockets (8K71) was approved, provided that the R­7 completed at least two successful test flights.[19]

Launch vehicle preparation and launch site selection

The R­7 Semyorka was initially designed as an ICBM by OKB­1. Thedecision to build it was made by the Central Committee of the CommunistParty of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on 20May 1954.[20] The R­7 was also known by its GRAU (later GURVO)designation 8K71.[21] At the time, the R­7 was known to NATO sources asthe T­3 or M­104,[22] and Type A.[23] A special reconnaissance commissionselected Tyuratam for the construction of a rocket proving ground (the 5thTyuratam range, usually referred to as "NIIP­5", or "GIK­5" in the post­Soviet time). The selection was approved on 12 February 1955 by theCouncil of Ministers of the USSR, but the site would not be completeduntil 1958.[24] Actual work on the construction of the site began on 20 Julyby military building units. On 14 June 1956 Sergei Korolev decided toadapt the R­7 rocket to the 'Object D',[25] that would later be replaced bythe much lighter 'Object PS'.

The first launch of an R­7 rocket (8K71 No.5L) occurred on 15 May 1957.A fire began in the Blok D strap­on almost immediately at liftoff, but thebooster continued flying until T+98 seconds when the strap­on broke awayand the vehicle crashed some 400 km downrange.[26] Three attempts to launch the second rocket (8K71 No.6) weremade on 10–11 June, but an assembly defect prevented launch.[27] The unsuccessful launch of the third R­7 rocket(8K71 No.7) took place on 12 July.[26] An electrical short caused the vernier engines to put the missile into anuncontrolled roll which resulted in all of the strap­ons separating 33 seconds into the launch. The R­7 crashedabout 7 km from the pad.[28]

The launch of the fourth rocket (8K71 No.8), on 21 August at 15:25 Moscow Time,[26] was successful. Therocket's core boosted the dummy warhead to the target altitude and velocity, reentered the atmosphere, and brokeapart at a height of 10 km (6.2 mi) after traveling 6,000 km. On 27 August TASS issued a statement on thesuccessful launch of a long­distance multistage ICBM. The launch of the fifth R­7 rocket (8K71 No.9), on 7September[26] was also successful, but the dummy was also destroyed on atmospheric re­entry,[28] and hence

needed a redesign to completely fulfill its military purpose. The rocket, however, was deemed suitable for satellitelaunches, and Korolev was able to convince the State Commission to allow the use of the next R­7 to launch PS­1,[29] allowing the delay in the rocket's military exploitation to launch the PS­1 and PS­2 satellites.[30][31]

On 22 September a modified R­7 rocket, named Sputnik and indexed as 8K71PS,[32] arrived at the proving groundand preparations for the launch of PS­1 began.[33] Compared to the military R­7 test vehicles, the mass of 8K71PSwas reduced from 280 tonnes to 272 tonnes; its length with PS­1 was 29.167 metres (95 ft 8.3 in) and the thrust atlift off was 3.90 MN (880,000 lbf).[34] These weight reductions were accomplished by deleting the inertialguidance system, several telemetry measurements, and assorted hardware designed to support a warhead.

Observation complex

The measurement complex at the proving ground for monitoring the launch vehicle from its launch was completedprior to the first R­7 rocket test launches in December 1956. It consisted of six static stations: IP­1 through IP­6,with IP­1 situated at a distance of 1 km (0.62 mi) from the launch pad.[30] The main monitoring devices of thesestations were telemetry and trajectory measurement stations, "Tral," developed by OKB MEI. They received andmonitored data from the "Tral" system transponders mounted on the R­7 rocket's core stage,[35] which providedtelemetric data about Sputnik 1's launch vehicle. The data was useful even after the satellite's separation from thesecond stage of the rocket; Sputnik 1's location was calculated from the data on the second stage's location (whichfollowed Sputnik 1 at a known distance) using nomograms developed by Pavel E. Elyasberg.[36]

A replica of Sputnik 1 at the U.S.National Air and Space Museum

Tracking of the booster during launch had to be accomplished through purely passive means such as visualcoverage and radar detection. R­7 test launches demonstrated that the tracking cameras were only good up to analtitude of 200 km (125 miles) but radar could track it for almost 400 km (250 miles).

An additional observation complex, established to track the satellite after its separation from the rocket, wascompleted by a group led by Colonel Yuriy A. Mozzhorin in accordance with the General Staff directive of 8 May1957. It was called the Command­Measurement Complex and consisted of the coordination center in NII­4 by theMinistry of Defence (at Bolshevo) and seven ground tracking stations, situated along the line of the satellite'sground track. They were: NIP­1 (at Tyuratam station, Kazakh SSR, situated not far from IP­1), NIP­2 (at Makatstation, Guryev Oblast), NIP­3 (at Sary­Shagan station, Dzhezkazgan Oblast), NIP­4 (at Yeniseysk), NIP­5 (atIskup village, Krasnoyarsk Krai), NIP­6 (at Yelizovo) and NIP­7 (at Klyuchi).[30][37] The complex had acommunication channel with the launch pad. Stations were equipped with radar, optical instruments, andcommunications systems. PS­1 was not designed to be controlled, it could only be observed. Data from stationswere transmitted by telegraphs into NII­4 where ballistics specialists calculated orbital parameters. The complexbecame an early prototype of the Soviet Mission Control Center.[38]

In the US, the satellite was tracked by the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory of the National Bureau ofStandards,[39] as well as amateur radio operators in many countries, and the booster rocket was located and trackedby the Lovell Telescope at the Jodrell Bank Observatory.[40] The Newbrook Observatory was the first facility inNorth America to photograph Sputnik 1.[41]

Design

The chief constructor of Sputnik 1 at OKB­1 was Mikhail S.Khomyakov.[42] The satellite was a 585­millimetre (23.0 in) diametersphere, assembled from two hemispheres that were hermetically sealedwith o­rings and connected by 36 bolts. It had a mass of 83.6 kilograms(184 lb).[43] The hemispheres were 2 mm thick,[44] and were covered with ahighly polished 1 mm­thick heat shield[45] made of aluminium­magnesium­titanium AMG6T alloy ("AMG" is an abbreviation for "aluminium­magnesium" and "T" stands for "titanium"; the alloy is 6% magnesium and0.2% titanium[46]). The satellite carried two pairs of antennas designed bythe Antenna Laboratory of OKB­1 led by Mikhail V. Krayushkin.[16] Eachantenna was made up of two whip­like parts: 2.4 and 2.9 meters (7.9 and9.5 ft) in length,[47] and had an almost spherical radiation pattern,[48] so thatthe satellite beeps were transmitted with equal power in all directions,making reception of the transmitted signal independent of the satellite's rotation.

The power supply, with a mass of 51 kg (112 lb),[49] was in the shape of an octagonal nut with the radio transmitterin its hole.[50] It consisted of three silver­zinc batteries, developed at the All­Union Research Institute of CurrentSources (VNIIT) under the leadership of Nikolai S. Lidorenko. Two of these batteries powered the radiotransmitter and one powered the temperature regulation system.[49] The batteries had an expected lifetime of twoweeks, and operated for 22 days. The power supply was turned on automatically at the moment of the satellite'sseparation from the second stage of the rocket.[51]

The satellite had a one­watt, 3.5 kg (7.7 lb)[30] radio transmitting unit inside, developed by Vyacheslav I. Lappofrom NII­885,[51] that worked on two frequencies, 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Signals on the first frequency weretransmitted in 0.3 sec pulses (under normal temperature and pressure conditions on­board), with pauses of the

Artist's impression of Sputnik 1 inorbit

same duration filled by pulses on the second frequency.[52] Analysis of the radio signals was used to gatherinformation about the electron density of the ionosphere. Temperature and pressure were encoded in the durationof radio beeps. A temperature regulation system contained a fan, a dual thermal switch, and a control thermalswitch.[51] If the temperature inside the satellite exceeded 36 °C (97 °F) the fan was turned on and when it fellbelow 20 °C (68 °F) the fan was turned off by the dual thermal switch.[48] If the temperature exceeded 50 °C(122 °F) or fell below 0 °C (32 °F), another control thermal switch was activated, changing the duration of theradio signal pulses.[51] Sputnik 1 was filled with dry nitrogen, pressurized to 1.3 atm.[32] The satellite had abarometric switch, activated if the pressure inside the satellite fell below 130 kPa, which would have indicatedfailure of the pressure vessel or puncture by a meteor, and would have changed the duration of radio signalimpulse.[53]

While attached to the rocket, Sputnik 1 was protected by a cone­shaped payload fairing, with a height of 80 cm(31.5 in).[30] The fairing separated from both Sputnik 1 and the spent R­7 second stage at the same time as thesatellite was ejected.[51] Tests of the satellite were conducted at OKB­1 under the leadership of Oleg G.Ivanovsky.[42]

Launch and mission

The control system of the Sputnik rocket was adjusted to an intended orbit of 223 km (139 mi) by 1,450 km(900 mi), with an orbital period of 101.5 min.[54] The trajectory had been calculated earlier by Georgi Grechko,using the USSR Academy of Sciences' mainframe computer.[30][55]

The Sputnik rocket was launched on 4 October 1957 at 19:28:34 UTC (5October at the launch site[2]) from Site No.1 at NIIP­5.[56] Telemetry indicatedthat the strap­ons separated 116 seconds into the flight and the core stageengine shut down 295.4 seconds into the flight.[54] At shut down, the 7.5 tonnecore stage with PS­1 attached had attained an altitude of 223 km (139 mi)above sea level, a velocity of 7,780 m/s (25,500 ft/s) and velocity vectorinclination to the local horizon of 0 degrees 24 minutes. This resulted in aninitial orbit of 223 kilometres (139 mi) by 950 kilometres (590 mi), with anapogee approximately 500 kilometres (310 mi) lower than intended, and aninclination of 65.1 degrees and a period of 96.2 minutes.[54]

The launch came very close to failure—a postflight examination of telemetrydata found that the Blok G strap­on had not attained full power at ignition andthe resulting imbalanced thrust caused the booster to pitch over about 2° sixseconds after liftoff. Two seconds later, the flight control system tried tocompensate by rapidly moving the vernier engines and stabilizer fins. TheBlok G strap­on finally reached 100% thrust only one second before the pitchangle would have been sufficient enough to trigger an automatic shutdowncommand, which would have terminated the launch and sent the R­7 andSputnik 1 crashing to the ground in a fireball only a short distance from the pad.

A fuel regulator in the booster also failed around 16 seconds into launch, which resulted in excessive RP­1consumption for most of powered flight and engine thrust 4% above nominal. Core stage cutoff was intended forT+296 seconds, but the premature propellant depletion caused thrust termination to occur one second earlier whena sensor detected overspeed of the empty RP­1 turbopump. There were 375 kilograms (826 pounds) of LOXremaining at cutoff.[57]

At 19.9 seconds after engine cut­off, PS­1 separated from the second stage[2] and the satellite's transmitter wasactivated. These signals were detected at the IP­1 station by Junior Engineer­Lieutenant V.G. Borisov, wherereception of Sputnik's "beep­beep­beep" tones confirmed the satellite's successful deployment. Reception lasted fortwo minutes, until PS­1 fell below the horizon.[30][58] The Tral telemetry system on the R­7 core stage continued totransmit and was detected on its second orbit.[2]

The designers, engineers and technicians who developed the rocket and satellite watched the launch from therange.[59] After the launch they drove to the mobile radio station to listen for signals from the satellite.[59] Theywaited about 90 minutes to ensure that the satellite had made one orbit and was transmitting, before Korolev calledSoviet premier Nikita Khrushchev.[60]

On the first orbit the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) transmitted: "As result of great, intense workof scientific institutes and design bureaus the first artificial Earth satellite has been built".[61] The R­7 core stage,with a mass of 7.5 tonnes and a length of 26 meters, also reached Earth orbit and was visible from the ground atnight as a first magnitude object following the satellite. Deployable reflective panels were placed on the booster inorder to increase its visibility for tracking.[60] The satellite itself, a small, highly polished sphere, was barely visibleat sixth magnitude, and thus more difficult to follow optically. A third object, the payload fairing, also achievedorbit.

The core stage of the R­7 remained in orbit for two months until 2 December 1957, while Sputnik 1 orbited until 4January 1958, having completed 1,440 orbits of the Earth.[2]

Reaction

Our movies and television programs in the fifties were full of the idea of going into space. What cameas a surprise was that it was the Soviet Union that launched the first satellite. It is hard to recall theatmosphere of the time.

— John Logsdon[62]

The Soviets provided details of Sputnik before the launch but few outside the Soviet Union noticed. Afterreviewing information publicly available before the launch, the science writer Willy Ley wrote in 1958:

If somebody tells me that he has the rockets to shoot — which we know from other sources, anyway— and tells me what he will shoot, how he will shoot it, and in general says virtually everythingexcept for the precise date — well, what should I feel like if I'm surprised when the man shoots?"[63]

Teams of visual observers at 150 stations in the United States and other countries were alerted during the night towatch for the Soviet sphere at dawn and during the evening twilight. They had been organized in ProjectMoonwatch to sight the satellite through binoculars or telescopes as it passed overhead.[64] The USSR asked radioamateurs and commercial stations to record the sound of the satellite on magnetic tape.[64]

News reports at the time pointed out that "anyone possessing a short wave receiver can hear the new Russian earthsatellite as it hurtles over this area of the globe". Directions, provided by the American Radio Relay League wereto "Tune in 20 megacycles sharply, by the time signals, given on that frequency. Then tune to slightly higherfrequencies. The 'beep, beep' sound of the satellite can be heard each time it rounds the globe."[66] The first

Listeners were both thrilled andterrified to hear Sputnik's steadybeep.[65]

recording of Sputnik 1's signal was made by RCA engineers nearRiverhead, Long Island. They then drove the tape recording into Manhattanfor broadcast to the public over NBC radio. However, as Sputnik rosehigher over the East Coast, its signal was picked up by ham stationW2AEE, the ham radio station of Columbia University. Students workingin the university's FM station, WKCR, made a tape of this, and were thefirst to rebroadcast the Sputnik 1 signal to the American public (or whoevercould receive the FM station).

At first the Soviet Union agreed to use equipment "compatible" with that of the United States, but later announcedthe lower frequencies.[64] The White House declined to comment on military aspects of the launch, but said "it didnot come as a surprise."[67] On 5 October the Naval Research Laboratory announced it had recorded four crossingsof Sputnik­1 over the United States.[64] The USAF Cambridge Research Center collaborated with Bendix­Friez,Westinghouse Broadcasting Co., Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, and MIT, to obtain a motion picture ofthe rocket body of Sputnik 1 crossing the pre­dawn sky of Baltimore, broadcast on 12 October by WBZ­TV inBoston.[68] U.S. President Eisenhower obtained photographs of the Soviet facilities from Lockheed U­2 flightsconducted since 1956.[69]

The success of Sputnik seemed to have changed minds around the world regarding a shift in power to theSoviets.[70]

The USSR's launch of Sputnik spurred the United States to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA,later DARPA) in February 1958 to regain a technological lead.[71][72][73]

In Britain the media and population initially reacted with a mixture of fear for the future, but also amazement abouthumankind's progress. Many newspapers and magazines heralded the arrival of the Space Age. However, when theSoviet Union launched a second craft containing the dog Laika, the media narrative returned to one of anti­communism and many people sent protests to the Russian embassy and the RSPCA.[74]

Propaganda

Sputnik 1 was not immediately used for Soviet propaganda. The Soviets had kept quiet about their earlieraccomplishments in rocketry, fearing that it would lead to secrets being revealed and failures being exploited bythe West.[75] When the Soviets began using Sputnik in their propaganda, they emphasized pride in the achievementof Soviet technology, arguing that it demonstrated the Soviets' superiority over the West. People were encouragedto listen to Sputnik's signals on the radio[75] and to look out for Sputnik in the night sky. While Sputnik itself hadbeen highly polished, its small size made it barely visible to the naked eye. What most watchers actually saw wasthe much more visible 26 meter core stage of the R­7.[75] Shortly after the launch of PS­1, Khrushchev pressedKorolev to launch another satellite in time for the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution on 7 November1957.[76]

The launch of Sputnik surprised the American public and shattered the perception, furthered by Americanpropaganda, of the United States as the technological superpower and the Soviet Union as a backward country.[77]Privately, however, the CIA and President Eisenhower were aware of progress being made by the Soviets onSputnik from secret spy plane imagery.[78] Together with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Army BallisticMissile Agency built Explorer 1, and launched it on 31 January 1958. Before work was completed, however, theSoviet Union launched a second satellite, Sputnik 2, on 3 November 1957. Meanwhile, the televised failure ofVanguard TV3 on 6 December 1957 deepened American dismay over the country's position in the Space Race. The

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Soviet 40 kopeks stamp, showingsatellite's orbit

Americans took a more aggressive stance in the emerging space race,[79]resulting in an emphasis on science and technological research and reformsin many areas from the military to education systems.[80] The federalgovernment began investing in science, engineering and mathematics at alllevels of education.[77][81] An advanced research group was assembled formilitary purposes.[77] These research groups developed weapons such asICBMs and missile defense systems, as well as spy satellites for the U.S.[77]

Impact

On Friday, 4 October 1957, the Soviets had orbited the world'sfirst artificial satellite. Anyone who doubted its existence couldwalk into the backyard just after sunset and see it.

— Mike Gray, Angle of Attack[82]

Initially U.S. President Eisenhower was not surprised by Sputnik. He hadbeen forewarned of the R­7s capabilities by information derived from U2spy plane overflight photos as well as signals and telemetryintercepts.[83][84] The Eisenhower administration's first response was low­key and almost dismissive.[85]Eisenhower was even pleased that the USSR, not the U.S., would be the first to test the waters of the still­uncertainlegal status of orbital satellite overflights.[86] Eisenhower had suffered the Soviet protests and shoot­downs ofProject Genetrix (Moby Dick) balloons[87] and was concerned about the probability of a U­2 being shot down.[88]

To set a precedent for "freedom of space" before the launch of America's secret WS­117L spy satellites,[89] theU.S. had launched Project Vanguard as its own "civilian" satellite entry for the International Geophysical Year.[90]Eisenhower greatly underestimated the reaction of the American public, who were shocked by the launch ofSputnik 1 and by the televised failure of the Vanguard Test Vehicle 3 launch attempt. The sense of fear wasinflamed by Democratic politicians and professional cold warriors, who portrayed the United States as woefullybehind.[91] One of the many books that suddenly appeared for the lay­audience noted seven points of "impact"upon the nation: Western leadership, Western strategy and tactics, missile production, applied research, basicresearch, education, and democratic culture.[22]

The U.S. soon had a number of successful satellites, including Explorer 1, Project SCORE, and Courier 1B.However, public reaction to the Sputnik crisis led to the creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency(renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency or DARPA in 1972),[92] NASA,[93] and an increase inU.S. government spending on scientific research and education. Not only did the launch of Sputnik spur Americato action in the space race, it also led directly to the creation of NASA through the space act bill.

Sputnik also contributed directly to a new emphasis on science and technology in American schools. With a senseof urgency, Congress enacted the 1958 National Defense Education Act, which provided low­interest loans forcollege tuition to students majoring in math and science.[94][95] After the launch of Sputnik, a poll conducted andpublished by the University of Michigan showed that 26% of Americans surveyed thought that Russian sciencesand engineering were superior to that of the United States. (A year later, however, that figure had dropped to 10%as the U.S. began launching its own satellites into space.)[96]

One consequence of the Sputnik shock was the perception of a "missile gap."[97] This became a dominant issue inthe 1960 Presidential campaign.

Sputnik replica at the Cosmosphere inHutchinson, Kansas

One irony of the Sputnik event was the initially low­key response of the Soviet Union. The Communist Partynewspaper Pravda only printed a few paragraphs about Sputnik 1 on 4 October.[98] In the days following theworld's startled response, the Soviets started celebrating their great accomplishment.

Sputnik also inspired a generation of engineers and scientists. Harrison Storms, the North American designer whowas responsible for the X­15 rocket plane, and went on to head the effort to design the Apollo Command/ServiceModule and Saturn V launch vehicle's second stage was moved by the launch of Sputnik to think of space as beingthe next step for America.[99] Astronauts Alan Shepard, who was the first American in space, and Deke Slaytonlater wrote of how the sight of Sputnik I passing overhead inspired them to their new careers.[100] Homer Hickam'smemoir Rocket Boys and the movie October Sky tell the story of how a coal miner's son, inspired by Sputnik,started building rockets in the mining town where he lived.

The launch of Sputnik 1 inspired United States writer Herb Caen to coin the term "beatnik" in an article about theBeat Generation in the San Francisco Chronicle on 2 April 1958.[101]

Backup units and replicas

At least two vintage duplicates of Sputnik 1 exist, built apparently asbackup units. One resides just outside Moscow in the corporate museum ofEnergia, the modern descendant of Korolev's design bureau, where it is ondisplay by appointment only.[102][103] Another is in the Museum of Flight inSeattle, Washington. Unlike Energia's unit, it has no internal components,but it does have casings and molded fittings inside (as well as evidence ofbattery wear), which suggest it was built as more than just a model.Authenticated by the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in Moscow, theunit was auctioned in 2001 and purchased by an anonymous private buyerwho donated it to the museum.[102] Two more Sputnik backups are said tobe in the personal collections of American entrepreneurs RichardGarriot[102] and Jay S. Walker.[104]

In addition to the Soviets' donation to the UN, there are dozens of other full­size Sputnik replicas, more or lessaccurate, on display in locations around the world, including the National Air and Space Museum in Washington,D.C.;[102] the Frontiers of Flight Museum and the Fort Worth Museum of Science and History, both inTexas;[102][105] the Armstrong Air and Space Museum and the National Museum of the United States Air Force,both in Ohio; the Cosmosphere in Hutchinson, Kansas; the California Science Center in Los Angeles; the ScienceMuseum, London; the World Museum in Liverpool; Powerhouse Museum in Sydney, Australia and outside theRussian embassy in Madrid, Spain.

Three one­third scale student­built replicas of Sputnik 1 were deployed from the Mir space station between 1997and 1999. The first, named Sputnik 40 to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1, wasdeployed in November 1997.[69] Sputnik 41 was launched a year later, and Sputnik 99 was deployed in February1999. A fourth replica was launched but never deployed, and was destroyed when Mir was deorbited.[102][106]

See also

­nik ­ words formed with the ending ­nik.Explorer 1, the United States' first successfully launched orbital satelliteDonald B. Gillies – one of the first to calculate the Sputnik 1 orbit

ILLIAC I – First computer to calculate the orbit of Sputnik I.Kerim Kerimov – one of the lead architects behind Sputnik 1Oleg Ivanovsky – deputy chief constructor of the first and second SputniksSergei Korolev – chief designer of Sputnik 1Space Race – the competition between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (USA) for supremacyin space explorationSputnik crisis – the American reaction to the success of the Sputnik programTimeline of artificial satellites and space probesTimeline of Russian innovationYuri Gagarin

Notes1. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1957­001B2. Anatoly Zak (2015). "Sputnik's mission". RussianSpaceWeb.com. Anatoly Zak. Retrieved 27 December 2015.3. Siddiqi, p. 155.4. Walter A. McDougall (http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2010/4/2010_4_88.shtml) "Shooting theMoon," American Heritage, Winter 2010.

5. Swenson, et al, p. 71.6. Jorden, William J. (5 October 1957). "Soviet Fires Earth Satellite Into Space". The New York Times. New York: The NewYork Times Co. Retrieved 28 December 2015.

7. Ralph H. Didlake, KK5PM; Oleg P. Odinets, RA3DNC (28 September 2007). "Sputnik and Amateur Radio". AmericanRadio Relay League. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 26 March 2008.

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Further reading

Dickson, Paul (2007). Sputnik: The Shock of the Century. Walker & Co. ISBN 978­0­8027­1365­0.Green, Constance McLaughlin (1970). Vanguard: A History (NASA historical series). Washington, DC:National Aeronautics and Space Administration. OCLC 204635.Mieczkowski, Yanek (2013). Eisenhower's Sputnik Moment: The Race for Space and World Prestige. Ithaca,NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801467934.

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Sputnik.

Isachenkov, Vladimir (30 September 2007). "Sputnik at 50: An Improvised Triumph". USAToday.com.Associated Press. Retrieved 26 December 2015.

Russian texts

Chertok, B. E. (1999). Rakety i li u di: lunnai a gonka [Rockets & People: The Moon Race] (in Russian).Moscow: Mashinostroenie. ISBN 5­217­02942­0.Gerchik, Konstantin Vasilyevich (1994). Proryv v kosmos [A Breakthrough in Space] (in Russian). Moscow:Veles. ISBN 5­87955­001­X.

External links

Interview of NBS CRPL team, Miles City MT, 16 October 1957 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Interview_16_October_1957_of_Dale_Whittaker_and_Wesley_B._Harding_re_Sputnik­1_observations_with_recording_of_the_satellite.wav) at Wikimedia; includesrecording of satellite signal.History of Sputnik 1 (http://mentallandscape.com/S_Sputnik1.htm) at MentalLandscape.com; includesauthentic recordings of the satellite signalSputnik 1 Diary (http://www.zarya.info/Diaries/Sputnik/Sputnik1.php)Soviet documents (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/sputnik/ussr.html)Newspaper accounts on ham radio operators (http://www.w9az.com/1957_his.html)Documents related to Sputnik and the Space Race (http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/sputnik.html) at the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential LibraryA film clip "New Moon. Reds Launch First Space Satellite, 1957/10/07 (1957)" (https://archive.org/details/1957­10­07_New_Moon) is available at the Internet ArchiveAn interview with Sir Arthur C. Clarke on Sputnik (http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/oct07/5584)NASA's 50th Anniversary of the Space Age & Sputnik – Interactive Media (http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/SpaceAge/index.html)Sputnik Program Page (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Sputnik) by NASA's SolarSystem Exploration (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov)50th anniversary of the Earth's first artificial satellite launch. RIA Novosti Video (http://en.rian.ru/video/20071003/82269150.html)NASA on Sputnik 1 (http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/)A joint Russian project of Ground microprocessing information systems SRC "PLANETA" and SpaceMonitoring Information Support laboratory (IKI RAN) dedicated to the 40th anniversary of Sputnik 1 (http://sputnik.infospace.ru/)

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