Springer Handbookof PetroleumTechnology

Springer Handbooks providea concise compilation of approvedkey information on methods ofresearch, general principles, andfunctional relationships in physicaland applied sciences. The world’sleading experts in the fields ofphysics and engineering will be as-signed by one or several renownededitors to write the chapters com-prising each volume. The contentis selected by these experts fromSpringer sources (books, journals,online content) and other systematicand approved recent publications ofscientific and technical information.

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HHandbookSpringer

of Petroleum TechnologyChang Samuel Hsu , Paul R. Robinson (Eds.)

With 754 Figures and 282 Tables

K

EditorsChang Samuel HsuDepartment of Chemical & Biomedical EngineeringFlorida A& M University – Florida State University2525 Pottsdamer StreetFL 32310-6046 Tallahassee, USAand

China University of Petroleum – BeijingCollege of Chemical EngineeringChangping, Chinaand

Petro Bio Consulting LLCTallahassee, USAchsu@fsu.edu

Paul R. RobinsonKaty Institute for Sustainable Energy3418 Clear Water Park DriveTX 77450 Katy, USApr.robinson@katysustain.org

ISBN: 978-3-319-49345-9 e-ISBN: 978-3-319-49347-3DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-49347-3Library of Congress Control Number: 2017960801

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

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V

Foreword

This Springer Handbook of Petroleum Technologycould not have appeared at a more appropriate time.Petroleum and its close cousin, natural gas, continue toprovide most of the energy we consume, and will un-doubtedly do so for many decades to come. Oil and gasalso serve as basicmaterials formanufacturing construc-tion materials, fertilizers, and a panoply of chemicals.

We are now beginning to see a technology-driventransformation of global economics. Since the 1970s,the oil-rich countries of OPEC (Organization of thePetroleum Exporting Countries) have exerted dispro-portionate economic and political power by manipu-lating the availability of petroleum. But the balance ofpower is shifting.

Consider the United States (Fig. 1):

� In 2014, thanks to a creative combination of direc-tional drilling and hydraulic fracturing, the US wasthe world’s leading oil producer, pumping out an av-erage of 12.3 million barrels per day [1].� In 2007, the US imported 59% of its oil, but in 2014,US oil imports were down to 35% of consumption.Imports of natural gas had also dropped by 65% [2].� The price of crude (West Texas Intermediate)reached $146 per barrel in June 2008, fell to $104per barrel in May 2014, then crashed to below $30per barrel on January 12, 2016 before recent recov-ery [3].� US CO2 emissions have decreased, thanks to an on-going shift in electricity production from coal tonatural gas, solar, and wind. Another factor is higherefficiency automobiles, which are reducing gasolineconsumption.

The net effect is that, compared to a couple of yearsago, about $320 billion per year stays in the US econ-omy instead of enriching someone else. Lower pricesfor oil and gas are decreasing revenues from productionand increasing margins for refining and petrochemicals.Upstream investments are being delayed or cancelled.Meanwhile, fuel-intensive industries, such as air trans-portation, are thriving [4]. Lower prices appear tobe fueling renewed growth in non-OECD countries.(OECD is the Organization for Economic Cooperationand Development, which represents 14 of the world’srichest countries in natural resources.) According to theUS Energy Information Administration, in 2014 OECDconsumed less than half the oil used in the world [5].

Other factors may influence the supply/demand pic-ture. The recent US accord with Iran increased supply

Geoffrey E. Dolbear, PhDAmerican Chemical Society FellowLifetime Achievement Award,American Chemical Society Energyand Fuels Division

when supply was already excessive.This further suppressed prices. Impacton prices also came from amendingthe 1975 Energy Policy ConservationAct and the 1979 Export Administra-tion Act, which ban crude oil exportsfrom the United States. Undoubtedly,light, sweet US crude will pour intothe global oil pool, decreasing incomein other producing countries, both bysuppressing prices even more and bylowering how much the other produc-ing countries can sell. The change willreverberate politically, perhaps in Rus-sia, which has been using gas supplyas a tool of diplomacy. It would raisestrategic questions. Does America re-ally want to drain itself first? Does it want to impoverishreligiously restive North African countries, for whichoil and gas are essentially the only source of external in-come? The US dollar is strengthening [6]. How wouldan even stronger dollar affect the US balance of tradewith, for example, China?

Also consider the environment and worker safety.As Barry Commoner and others have said: There isno free lunch [7]. Despite tremendous profits, andwell-publicized (and undoubtedly sincere) campaignsto improve work safety and protect the environment,catastrophic accidents continue to occur. Most are pre-ventable, and most are due to poor training or lack ofmaintenance. As a colleague says, lessons have beenlearned, but not everyone has learned them, and manyof those who have learned them have since forgot themor choose to ignore them. Major accidents include:

� On 23March 2005, an explosion in an isomerizationprocess unit at the BP Texas City refinery killed 15people and injured 180 others. The official report [8]cited inadequate training and worker fatigue as rootcauses. BP declared profits of 3.68 billion for thefourth quarter of 2005 and $5.62 billion for the firstquarter of 2006 [9].� On 20 April 2010, on the Deepwater Horizondrilling rig, a blowout killed 11 people and gushed560 to 585 thousand tons of crude oil into the Gulfof Mexico. According to the official report [10],the blowout was preventable, and several poor de-cisions were made for economic reasons. Perhapsthe most important were a lack of training, a lack of

VI Foreword

Thousand barrels per day

U.S. Imports

U.S. Consumption

U.S. Production

United States Petroluem Balance

22 000

12 000

14 000

16 000

18 000

20 000

10 000

8000

6000

4000

20001980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Year

Fig. 1 Source: Energy InformationAdministration, http://www.eia.gov,retrieved 14 July 14 2015

technical supervision, and the use of only six cen-tralizers instead of the recommended 21, apparentlyto save ten hours (page 97 of the report).� The infrastructure for transporting frack oil fromNorth Dakota was known to be limited and in poorcondition, making problems inevitable. On 5 July2013, a 74-car freight train carrying crude oil fromthe Bakken shale formation derailed and overturnedin Lac-Mégantic, Quebec. The consequent fire andexplosion killed 47 people and destroyed most ofthe town. The root cause was a known problem ina locomotive engine [11].

All of which brings me back to this Springer Hand-book. It’s a one-stop information shop. When I want toknow something about any aspect of oil and gas, and re-lated topics, I will look first in this book. If I can’t findwhat I need in one of the 41 chapters written by morethan 80 experts from ten countries, I will surely finda relevant reference among the book’s roughly 2000 ci-tations.

Here are some specific examples:

� I’ve heard that a lack of centralizers might havebeen largely responsible for the Deepwater Hori-

zon disaster. This book describes centralizers andexplains why they are important. If I want to knowhow BP knew there was so much oil so deep un-der the sea in the Mississippi Canyon, I will consultthe chapters on petroleum engineering and reservoirmodeling.� The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007exempts contaminated fluids associated with frack-ing from certain clean water regulations. If I want toknow more about fracking, I will consult the chap-ters on advances in oil production technology. If Iwant to know how the exemptions might affect mydrinking water, I will refer to the chapter on Safetyand the Environment.� I’m considered by some to be an expert in petroleumin the chemistry and catalysis of petroleum process-ing, obtaining chemicals from coal, and alternativeenergy. This book will update my knowledge ofthese topics, too.

I just wish something like this had been availablewhen I entered the industry in the late 1960s.

I am proud to have contributed to this work and itspredecessor, Practical Advances in Petroleum Process-ing, and I was honored to be invited to write a foreword

Foreword VII

for this work, which promises to serve as a superb ref-erence not just for students and industry professionals,but for people from many walks of life.

Geoffrey E. Dolbear

References

[1] United States Energy Information Administration:International Energy Statistics. http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=5&pid=53&aid=1

[2] United States Energy Information Administration:U.S. Natural Gas Imports & Exports 2014. http://www.eia.gov/naturalgas/importsexports/annual/

[3] Macrotrends: WTI Crude Oil – Historical PricesSince 1948. http://www.macrotrends.net/1369/crude-oil-price-history-chart

[4] A. Martyn-Hemphill: Delta Benefits From LowerFuel Costs, Profits Soar on Earnings. The Street,http://www.thestreet.com/video/13219639/delta-benefits-from-lower-fuel-costs-profits-soar-on-earnings.html (July 15, 2015)

[5] F. Norris: U.S. Oil Production Keeps Rising Be-yond the Forecasts. The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/25/business/us-oil-production-keeps-rising-beyond-the-forecasts.html (January 24, 2014)

[6] G. Kristopher: Crude Oil Prices: Downward Pres-sure from the US Dollar. Market Realist, http://marketrealist.com/ (July 17, 2015)

[7] B. Commoner: The Closing Circle. (Alfred A.Knopf, New York 1971, 1974)

[8] U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard InvestigationBoard: Refinery Explosion and Fire, BP TexasCity Refinery (15 Killed, 180 Injured). Report No.2005-04-I-TX (March 23, 2005)

[9] http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/investors/bp_first_quarter_2006_results.pdf

[10] National Commission on the BP Deepwater Hori-zon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling: Report to thePresident: Deepwater: The Gulf Oil Disaster theFuture of Offshore Drilling (January 2011)

[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lac-Megantic_derailment

VIII

Preface

The Springer Handbook of Petroleum Technology pro-vides a comprehensive overview of the petroleum in-dustry, and acts as a single reference touching on everyimportant subject: the formation of oil and gas, char-acterization of petroleum and bitumen, exploration,production, upgrading, emerging technologies, and eco-nomics. It also covers special topics, such as catalyticproduction of lube base stocks and petrochemicals, op-timization of hydrogen networks, process modeling,model-predictive control, online optimization, plasmaapplications, and renewable fuel/chemical processes.And lest we forget: safety, reliability, and pollutioncontrol.

The Times They Are a-Changin’ is the title of a 1964album by BobDylan, who won the 2016Nobel Prize forliterature [1]. For petroleum, it is far more apropos nowthan it was a decade ago, when we quoted the signaturesong in the preface to Practical Advances in PetroleumProcessing [2].

1965–2005

We noted in our prior book, Practical Advances inPetroleum Processing, that in 1964, a wall dividedBerlin. The Moon was free of footprints. In Amer-ica, we said, Fill ‘er up with ethyl, referring to thetetraethyl lead octane-number additive, as a team of uni-formed fueling-station attendants hurried to check theoil level and wash the windows of our gasoline-thirstyFords and Chevrolets. In the world of petroleum, naturalgas, and petrochemicals, major changes began in 1962with Silent Spring, the classic book by Rachel Car-son on the global dangers of DDT (dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane), and with the efforts of Linus Paulingand other renowned scientists to publicize the dangersof radioactive fallout. The resulting public outrage ledto the establishment of the Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) in the United States and the concurrentfounding of similar agencies around the globe. In 1972,the EPA issued a general ban on DDT and strength-ened the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, thereafterknown as the Clean Water Act. In 1973, EPA began itsstepwise program to remove tetraethyl lead from gaso-line. More than anything else during this time, laws toprotect the environment led to new research and devel-opment in the petroleum industry.

Crude oil prices leaped from US$3 per barrel tonearly US$12 per barrel during the Yom Kippur Warin 1973–74, then leaped again during the Islamic Rev-

olution in Iran in 1978–79. Prices topped out at nearly$40 per barrel – equivalent to more than $100 per barrelin 2016 currency. The high prices motivated signifi-cant drops in worldwide oil consumption and openedautomobile markets in Europe and the United Statesto fuel-efficient imports. Idle, non-OPEC oil and gaswells were reopened, and non-OPEC oil companiesintensified efforts to find new reserves. World oil con-sumption dropped from 63.9 million barrels per dayin 1979 to 57.6 million barrels per day in 1983 [3]due to significant conservation, especially in the UnitedStates and Europe, the world’s major energy consumers.The drive to conserve created a market for rigorousmodels and advanced process control in refineries andpetrochemical plants; advances which greatly improvedenergy efficiency and formed the foundation for onlineoptimization.

A series of large-scale disasters intensified pres-sure to improve safety and protect the environment inthe petroleum and petrochemical industries. Oil spilledfrom the Amoco Cadiz, the Exxon Valdez fouled coast-lines and killed wildlife. Preventable refinery explo-sions at BP Texas City and Tosco Avon were deadly.The tragic release of MIC (methyl isocyanate) froma plant in Bhopal, India killed more than 3700 peopleand injured more than 550 000 others.

European Union directives and the US CleanAir Act Amendments (CAA) of 1990 again changedthe industry. Both regulations required a phase-in oflow-sulfur diesel with < 500 ppm sulfur, followed byultralow-sulfur diesel (ULSD). (By 2017 in the EU,the UK, the United States, the most populous regionsof China, and much of the rest of the world, ULSDmust contain< 10 ppmw sulfur.) For gasoline, the CAArequired the inclusion of oxygenates such as ethanolor methyl-t-butyl ether (MTBE), which is synthesizedfrom methanol and isobutylene. Billions of dollars werespent building MTBE and methanol plants. Eventually,MTBE was banned in the United States, only to be re-placed by a highly questionable ethanol mandate.

Meanwhile, the world economy boomed, especiallyin Asia, and the demand for fossil fuels increased ac-cordingly.

2005–2015

When Practical Advances in Petroleum Processing waspublished in 2006, construction was underway in NewYork City on the newWorld Trade Center transportation

Preface IX

hub. Allied forces were bogged down in Afghanistanand Iraq. The US embargo of Cuba was still goingstrong. The US had just frozen the assets of individ-uals associated with Iran’s nuclear program. Energyconsumption and oil prices were approaching all-timehighs. And Pluto was still a planet.

In Practical Advances in Petroleum Processing, wepredicted that several ongoing trends would continue:

1. The industry would continue to consolidate.2. Advances in automation would continue to improveefficiency and safety.

3. Consumption would continue increase in China andIndia, driving prices upward.

4. Environmental regulations would continue totighten.

5. The world would continue to rely more heavily onheavier and heavier oil.

With one significant caveat, the first four predic-tions have come to pass. Consolidation continues, andautomation is indeed improving efficiency and safetyin our homes and factories [4]. Energy use in Asia isclimbing, but – here is the caveat – oil prices have fallenprecipitously. Prices dropped for the same reason thatour fifth prediction was wrong: innovative technology.

In 2005, we tacitly assumed that United States oilreserves would continue to fall, and that the countrywould continue to import most of its oil and gas. Weassumed that improvements in technology for hydrocar-bon production and processing would be incremental,not revolutionary. We weren’t quite as wrong as theperson who wrote in 1899 that Everything than can beinvented has been invented [5], but we were certainlysurprised. (Contrary to popular lore, Charles H. Du-ell did NOT make that statement. The quote has beentraced to a piece in Punch or the London Charival, en-titled The Coming Century.)

By 2008, due to a creative meld of horizontaldrilling and hydraulic fracturing, US producers tappedvast but previously unrecoverable reserves of oil andgas. Due to that technology, colloquially dubbed frack-ing, the United States is now the world’s leading oil andgas producer. Instead of being heavy and sour, the newoil is light and sweet. Refineries thrive on frack oil, forwhich processing costs are reduced.

Eventually, overproduction of frack oil led to a glut,and prices for Brent crude fell from US$110 per barrelin September 2013 [6] to less than US$40 in Decem-ber 2015. Prices for Brent clawed their way back to$52 in October 2016 [7], but they were still less thanhalf of their recent peak. Natural gas is now a glut inthe United States; imports from Canada have droppedprecipitously. In the US, exports of liquefied natural

gas (LNG) have begun, putting further downward pres-sure on energy prices. Thanks to cheap gas, for thefirst time in decades foreign companies are construct-ing huge petrochemical plants in the United States. TheUS Energy Information Administration predicts that theworld’s largest economy will be energy independent by2025. As a colleague said, referring to these industrychanges, Oil is upside down.

For the transportation and processing sectors, frackoil is a good- and bad-news story. Pipelines are thesafest, most efficient way to move petroleum liquidslong distances, but while pipeline construction is de-layed, oil is being shipped by rail with sometimes-questionable rolling stock; the derailment of a poorlymaintained frack-oil train led to an explosion in Lac-Mégantic Quebec on 6 July 2013 [8], killing 47 people.

More and more biomass-derived oil is being co-processed with conventional petroleum. Advances inother areas – characterization methods, reservoir mod-eling, process modeling, lubricants, petrochemicals,and safety systems – are enhancing the way the industryworks.

Environmental regulations suffered a significant re-versal when the US Energy Independence and SecurityAct of 2007 (EISA) exempted contaminated fluids as-sociated with fracking from the Clean Air Act andcertain Clean Water Act regulations. Arguably, the En-ergy Policy Act of 2005, in combination with EISA,delivered another setback by prompting the blending ofvast amounts of corn ethanol into gasoline. Since Don-ald Trump became President of the US in 2017, therehave been additional rollbacks of environmental regu-lations. Time will tell how significant and permanentthe regulations will be.

Purpose of this Book

The issues above are complex, with significant world-wide impact, politically, economically, and technically.Our ultimate purpose is to provide a tool with whichtechnically sound science-based opinions are devel-oped. We hope that informed opinions will serve as thebasis for sound decisions on energy policy.

Target Audience

Our target audience includes students, engineers, andscientists, including those who are experts in one areabut want to learn about other fields.

Organization

The book is divided into four parts, except for the firsttwo chapters: the introduction and the chapter on safety

X Preface

and the environment, which are of general interest.Part 1 includes chapters on specific topics, includingpetroleum characterization. Part 2 covers the formationof fossil hydrocarbons, and the science and engineeringof finding and recovering oil and gas. Part 3 focuseson upgrading technologies, with chapters on coking,fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), hydroprocessing, hydro-gen production, catalytic reforming, and refinery-wideoptimization. Part 4 provides enlightening informa-tion on lubricants, polymers, and novel and emergingtechnologies.

Contributors

We are pleased to have contributions from severalsources, including integrated oil companies, catalystsuppliers, licensors, consultants, and academic re-searchers. Our 82 contributors hail from ten differentcountries on 3 continents.

Putting this book together has been a rewardingchallenge. We trust that you, our readers, will find ituseful and valuable.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank our editors from Springer – Dr. Ken-neth Howell and especially Dr. Judith Hinterberg – fortheir guidance and limitless patience. We also wantto thank our many contributors for their time and ef-fort. Obviously, without them, this book would be a lotshorter.

Most of all, we wish to thank our devoted, magnif-icent wives, Grace Miao-Miao Chen and Carrie Robin-son, for putting up with our absences – mental if notphysical – during so many nights and lost weekendsthroughout the past two years.

Chang Samuel HsuPaul R. Robinson September 2016

References

[1] B. Dylan: The Times They Are a-Changin’.(Columbia Records, 1964)

[2] C.S. Hsu, P.R. Robinson (Eds.): Practical Ad-vances in Petroleum Processing. (Springer, NewYork 2006)

[3] BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2015.http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/about-bp/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html

[4] http://www.automationworld.com/safety[5] D. Crouch: Tracing the Quote. Patentlyo, http://

patentlyo.com/patent/2011/01/tracing-the-quote-everything-that-can-be-invented-has-been-invented.html (January 6, 2001)

[6] http://dailyreckoning.com/why-110-is-like-kryptonite-for-the-oil-price

[7] http://www.investing.com/commodities/brent-oil-historical-data

[8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lac-M%C3%A9gantic_rail_disaster

XI

About the Editors

Chang Samuel Hsu had over 32 years’ experience at ExxonMobil and BP before joiningFlorida State University in 2010 to establish the Future Fuels Institute. He also established theRefinery of the Future Lab at BP. Currently, he is an Adjunct Professor at the Department ofChemical and Biomedical Engineering at Florida A&M University/Florida State University,and also at the State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing of the College of ChemicalEngineering at the China University of Petroleum in Beijing as 111 Plan Professor sponsoredby the Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China. He is also a visiting scholar atGuangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences. In 2012, he foundedPetro Bio Oil Consulting, LLC.

Dr. Hsu was the first researcher to introduce ultrahigh resolution Fourier-transform ioncyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) for in-depth molecular characterizationof petroleum fractions, which has become common practice for analyzing resids/asphaltenesand other heavy oil fractions. He introduced a diophantine algorithm to eliminate the limitationencountered by the polynomial approach for calculating isotopic distribution, which has beenused for very large molecules, such as high polymers and proteins. He was one of the pioneersof tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) at Exxon, which provides an additional dimension forthe determination of the molecular structure of components in complex mixtures.

Dr. Hsu’s research interests cover petroleum (both upstream and downstream), coal, shaleand biomass oils. His current focuses are novel characterization of petroleum biomarkers forexploration and exploitation, and heavy hydrocarbon characterization for hydroprocessing,catalytic cracking, coking and fuels/lubes analysis. He also has extensive experience in envi-ronmental damage assessment and remediation for large scale oil spills. Dr. Hsu has publishedthree books, 13 patents, ten book chapters and over 240 other publications and presentationsprior to this handbook. He is a member of the American Chemical Society and American So-ciety for Mass Spectrometry.

In 2016, Paul R. Robinson is a recognized expert on petroleum processing. During his 39years in commercial energy, he visited more than 140 sites in 34 countries on 5 continents.At nearly half of these sites, he participated in project work or provided operations support.He started his career at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, where his research focused onsplitting water with thermochemical cycles. He then spent more than 30 years in various roleswith Unocal, Aspen Technology Inc., Chevron, Shell, and KBR. At Unocal, he developedhydrotreating catalysts, studied conversion of syngas to alcohols, and became a Regional Man-ager for the technology licensing group. Along the way, he received three creativity awards anda patent achievement award. As a senior engineer at Chevron and Shell, he provided processmonitoring, operations support, and troubleshooting for commercial hydroprocessing units. AtAspenTech, he became Best Practice Leader for online optimization of hydrocracking units.In this role, he co-developed Aspen Hydrocracker, which was based on a model developed bySun Oil Company and implemented online. At KBR, he was the Chief Technology Advisor forVCC technology, which converts vacuum residue and coal into clean diesel and gasoline.

In 2016, Dr. Robinson founded the Katy Institute for Sustainable Energy, a nonprofit or-ganization devoted to stimulating science-based dialog on energy. KISE teaches courses andprovides consultation on petroleum, hydroprocessing, climate change, and related topics.

Dr. Robinson earned BS (Honors) and MA degrees at the University of Missouri,Columbia. At the University of California, San Diego, he spent a year at the Scripps Insti-tution of Oceanography before receiving a PhD in Chemistry. He has authored or co-authoredmore than 105 publications and presentations, including two books and 15 book chapters. Heholds 11 patents, primarily on catalyst and process technology. He is Public Policy Chair forthe Energy and Fuels Division of the American Chemical Society. He is most proud of hiswonderful family and black belt in TaeKwonDo.

XII

Contents

List of Abbreviations ............................................................. XXIII

1 Introduction to Petroleum TechnologyPaul R. Robinson, Chang Samuel Hsu ......................................... 11.1 Petroleum and Its Uses ................................................. 31.2 People and Petroleum .................................................. 81.3 The Oil Business ......................................................... 141.4 Macroeconomics......................................................... 151.5 Origin of Fossil Hydrocarbons .......................................... 181.6 Natural Gas, Coal, and Kerogen ........................................ 191.7 Petroleum (Crude Oil) ................................................... 201.8 Oil and Gas Exploration ................................................. 251.9 Drilling and Production (Recovery) .................................... 271.10 Transportation and Storage............................................. 301.11 Refining .................................................................. 301.12 Petroleum Products ..................................................... 631.13 Characterization of Petroleum.......................................... 721.14 Modeling ................................................................. 731.15 Petrochemicals .......................................................... 751.16 Alternatives to Petroleum............................................... 761.17 Protecting the Environment ............................................ 771.18 Conclusion ............................................................... 80References ....................................................................... 81

2 Safety and the EnvironmentPaul R. Robinson ................................................................ 852.1 Introduction and History ............................................... 862.2 Pollution from Petroleum Production and Processing................ 892.3 Significant Accidents and Near-Misses ................................ 1012.4 Agencies Protecting Safety and the Environment..................... 1262.5 Key Regulations ......................................................... 1282.6 Pollution Control and Abatement Technology ........................ 1352.7 Summary ................................................................. 143References ....................................................................... 143

Part A Petroleum Characterization

3 Molecular Science, Engineering and ManagementChang Samuel Hsu .............................................................. 1513.1 Analytical Endeavors in the Petroleum Industry ...................... 1523.2 Analytical Tools .......................................................... 1533.3 Analytical Strategy....................................................... 1533.4 Chromatographic Systems .............................................. 1533.5 Mass Spectrometry ...................................................... 1543.6 Petroleum Biomarker Analysis ......................................... 155

Contents XIII

3.7 Online LC-MS............................................................. 1583.8 Ionization for Molecules ................................................ 1603.9 Mass Analyzers........................................................... 1643.10 Data Interpretation and Management................................. 1663.11 Molecular Engineering and Management

Through Science and Modeling ........................................ 1673.12 Conclusion ............................................................... 167References ....................................................................... 168

4 PetroinformaticsManhoi Hur, Sunghwan Kim, Chang Samuel Hsu ............................ 1734.1 Petroleum Analysis and Statistical Approaches ....................... 1754.2 Emerging Technologies for Storing, Visualizing,

and Processing Crude Oil Data.......................................... 1904.3 Summary ................................................................. 194References ....................................................................... 194

5 Separations in the Sample Preparationfor Sulfur Compound AnalysisJan T. Andersson................................................................. 1995.1 The Necessicity of Sample Preparation ................................ 1995.2 Separation ............................................................... 2025.3 Chromatographic Methods.............................................. 2075.4 Conclusion ............................................................... 214References ....................................................................... 215

6 AsphaltenesOliver C. Mullins, Andew E. Pomerantz, A. Ballard Andrews,Rudraksha Dutta Majumdar, Paul Hazendonk,Yosadara Ruiz-Morales, Lamia Goual, Richard N. Zare ...................... 2216.1 Overview of Asphaltenes................................................ 2226.2 Reservoir Crude Oils ..................................................... 2236.3 Asphaltenes and the Yen-Mullins Model.............................. 2256.4 Asphaltene Molecules ................................................... 2266.5 Asphaltene Nanoaggregates ............................................ 2366.6 Clusters ................................................................... 2406.7 Intermolecular Interaction of Asphaltenes ............................ 2436.8 The Flory–Huggins–Zuo Equation of State ............................ 2466.9 Conclusions .............................................................. 247References ....................................................................... 247

7 Reservoir Evaluation by DFA Measurementsand Thermodynamic AnalysisGo Fujisawa, Oliver C. Mullins .................................................. 2517.1 The Borehole Environment ............................................. 2527.2 VIS/NIR Spectroscopy of Hydrocarbon Reservoir Fluids ............... 2547.3 Implementation of DFA Hardware ..................................... 2577.4 Basic DFA Operations and Applications ................................ 2607.5 Reservoir Evaluation via DFA and Thermodynamics .................. 2617.6 Reservoir Case Studies .................................................. 2627.7 Conclusions .............................................................. 270References ....................................................................... 270

XIV Contents

8 Phase Behavior and Properties of Heavy OilsJohn M. Shaw, Marco A. Satyro, Harvey W. Yarranton ........................ 2738.1 Background .............................................................. 2748.2 Phase Behavior and Phase Composition Measurement .............. 2778.3 Thermophysical Property Measurement ............................... 2838.4 Heavy Oil Characterization .............................................. 2878.5 Phase Behavior Correlation and Prediction ........................... 2948.6 Thermophysical Property Simulation and Prediction................. 3038.7 Perspectives and Conclusions .......................................... 311References ....................................................................... 311

Part B Exploration and Production

9 Fundamentals of Petroleum GeologyHendratta N. Ali ................................................................. 3219.1 The Petroleum Cycle ..................................................... 3229.2 Historical Perspective ................................................... 3239.3 Geological Overview..................................................... 3269.4 How Petroleum Accumulates and Concentrates....................... 3439.5 Finding and Locating Petroleum ....................................... 3529.6 Future for Petroleum .................................................... 356References ....................................................................... 357

10 Origin of PetroleumClifford C. Walters................................................................ 35910.1 Historic Overview ........................................................ 36010.2 The Petroleum System................................................... 36110.3 Deposition of Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks ....................... 36210.4 Kerogen Formation and the Generative Potential of Source Rocks.. 36510.5 Generation and Expulsion of Oil and Gas ............................. 36910.6 Composition of Produced Petroleum .................................. 37110.7 Unconventional Resources.............................................. 37410.8 Summary ................................................................. 375References ....................................................................... 375

11 Basin and Petroleum System ModelingKenneth E. Peters, Oliver Schenk, Allegra Hosford Scheirer,Björn Wygrala, Thomas Hantschel ............................................. 38111.1 Overview ................................................................. 38211.2 Discussion................................................................ 38511.3 Conclusions .............................................................. 413References ....................................................................... 413

12 Seismic ExplorationsGraham Ganssle ................................................................. 41912.1 Seismic Data Acquisition................................................ 42012.2 Seismic Data Processing................................................. 42312.3 Seismic Data Interpretation ............................................ 42612.4 Summary ................................................................. 431References ....................................................................... 431

Contents XV

13 Formation EvaluationDonald G. Hill.................................................................... 43313.1 What Is Formation Evaluation?......................................... 43513.2 The Need and Purpose of Formation Evaluation...................... 43513.3 Well Logs ................................................................. 43613.4 Who Are Petrophysicists and How Do They Work? .................... 44313.5 How Wireline and MWD/LWD Logs Are Acquired....................... 44413.6 Uses of Well Logs ........................................................ 44513.7 Petrophysics and Well Logging: Historical Development ............. 44513.8 The Schlumberger Legacy ............................................... 45713.9 Laboratory Measurements .............................................. 45813.10 Well Logging Environment .............................................. 46513.11 Well Logging Tools ....................................................... 47113.12 Putting It All Together................................................... 49213.13 Summary ................................................................. 498References ....................................................................... 498

14 Petroleum Production EngineeringShengnan Chen .................................................................. 50114.1 Flowing Wells and Gas Lift.............................................. 50114.2 Artificial Lift.............................................................. 50814.3 Well Stimulation......................................................... 512References ....................................................................... 516

15 Offshore ProductionEkaterina V. Maksimova, Cortis K. Cooper ..................................... 51715.1 Historical Overview ...................................................... 51815.2 Ownership ............................................................... 52015.3 Major Offshore Fields.................................................... 52115.4 Offshore Oil and Gas Platforms ......................................... 52215.5 Metocean Impacts on the Offshore Industry .......................... 52515.6 Future Offshore Production and Drilling............................... 529References ....................................................................... 529

Part C Refining Technologies

16 Petroleum DistillationChang Samuel Hsu, Paul R. Robinson ......................................... 53316.1 Overview ................................................................. 53316.2 Distillation Theory ....................................................... 53716.3 Crude Oil Distillation .................................................... 54116.4 Summary ................................................................. 549References ....................................................................... 549

17 Gasoline Production and BlendingChang Samuel Hsu, Paul R. Robinson ......................................... 55117.1 Gasoline Engines ........................................................ 55217.2 Otto Engine Thermodynamic Cycle ..................................... 55817.3 Key Gasoline Properties ................................................. 55917.4 Gasoline Specifications ................................................. 563

XVI Contents

17.5 Gasoline Production .................................................... 56417.6 Production of Gasoline Blendstocks ................................... 56717.7 Synthetic Gasoline....................................................... 58217.8 Reformulated Gasoline (RFG) in the United States ................... 58317.9 Gasoline Additives ...................................................... 58417.10 Blending Optimiation ................................................... 585References ....................................................................... 585

18 Catalytic ReformingPierre-Yves le Goff, William Kostka, Joseph Ross ............................. 58918.1 Objective of Catalytic Reforming ....................................... 58918.2 Feedstock Characteristics and Treatment .............................. 59218.3 Main Reforming Reactions.............................................. 59418.4 Reforming Catalyst Overview ........................................... 60218.5 Contaminants and Unit Troubleshooting .............................. 60418.6 Reforming Evolution .................................................... 60718.7 Catalyst Regeneration ................................................... 61318.8 Conclusions .............................................................. 615References ....................................................................... 615

19 Fluid-Bed Catalytic CrackingJames G. Speight ................................................................ 61719.1 Catalytic Cracking Chemistry ............................................ 61919.2 Feedstocks and Products ............................................... 62219.3 Reactor Design ........................................................... 62419.4 Catalysts .................................................................. 63219.5 Process Options .......................................................... 63919.6 Options for Heavy Oil and Residua ..................................... 64119.7 Environmental Aspects and the Future ................................ 644References ....................................................................... 646

20 Sulfur Removal and RecoveryPaul R. Robinson ................................................................ 64920.1 About Sulfur ............................................................. 65020.2 Sulfur Sources............................................................ 65120.3 Sulfur from Petroleum and Natural Gas ............................... 65420.4 Conversion of H2S to Elemental Sulfur ................................. 65920.5 Sulfur Uses ............................................................... 66320.6 Pollution from Sulfur.................................................... 66520.7 Conclusion ............................................................... 671References ....................................................................... 671

21 Modern Approaches to Hydrotreating CatalysisJoo-Il Park, Isao Mochida, Abdulazeem M. J. Marafi, Adel Al-Mutairi...... 67521.1 Overview ................................................................. 67621.2 Hydrotreating Process ................................................... 68321.3 Bases for Hydrotreating ................................................. 68421.4 Deep Hydrodesulfurization of Diesel................................... 69921.5 Development Base of AR Hydrotreatment ............................. 70021.6 Current Aims in Development of Residue Hydrotreatment........... 703

Contents XVII

21.7 Role and Design of Catalyst Support for Residual HDM............... 70421.8 Novel Hydrotreatment Processes for Residue Upgrading ............. 70521.9 Challenges in Hydrotreatment.......................................... 707References ....................................................................... 708

22 HydrocrackingPaul R. Robinson, Geoffrey E. Dolbear ......................................... 71322.1 Role of Hydroprocessing in Petroleum Refining ...................... 71422.2 Feedstock Molecules .................................................... 71922.3 Process Variables ........................................................ 72222.4 Hydrotreating Chemical Reactions ..................................... 72522.5 Hydrocracking Chemical Reactions ..................................... 73122.6 Hydroprocessing Catalysts .............................................. 73622.7 Catalyst Cycles............................................................ 74022.8 Hydroprocessing Thermochemistry .................................... 74522.9 Hydroprocessing Kinetics ............................................... 74722.10 Hydroprocessing Process Descriptions ................................. 75422.11 Economics................................................................ 76222.12 Safety, Reliability, and Protection of the Environment............... 76222.13 Conclusion ............................................................... 77522.14 Additional Reading...................................................... 775References ....................................................................... 775

23 Hydroprocessing Reactor InternalsF. Emmett Bingham, Douglas E. Nelson, Daniel Morton ..................... 77723.1 Elements of Hydroprocessing Reactor Design ......................... 77723.2 Liquid Distribution Tray Design ......................................... 77823.3 Quench Mixing Chamber Design ....................................... 78123.4 Manway Access and Faster Access Options ............................ 78223.5 Example of Reactor Internals Revamp ................................. 78323.6 Conclusion ............................................................... 785References ....................................................................... 786

24 Hydrogen ProductionM. Andrew Crews, B. Gregory Shumake........................................ 78724.1 Thermodynamics of Hydrogen.......................................... 78824.2 Technologies for Producing Hydrogen ................................. 79024.3 Design Parameters for SMRs ............................................ 80024.4 Environmental Issues ................................................... 80424.5 Monitoring Plant Performance ......................................... 80724.6 Plant Performance Improvements ..................................... 80824.7 Economics of Hydrogen Production .................................... 80924.8 Conclusion ............................................................... 81424.9 Further Reading ......................................................... 814

25 Hydrogen Network OptimizationNick Hallale, Ian Moore, Dennis Vauk, Paul R. Robinson .................... 81725.1 Background .............................................................. 81725.2 Assets and Liabilities .................................................... 81925.3 It’s All About Balance ................................................... 82025.4 Put Needs Ahead of Wants.............................................. 821

XVIII Contents

25.5 Beyond Pinch ............................................................ 82525.6 Investing versus Saving ................................................. 82825.7 Conclusion ............................................................... 830References ....................................................................... 831

26 Model-Predictive Control FundamentalsPaul R. Robinson, Dennis Cima ................................................ 83326.1 Useful Definitions ....................................................... 83426.2 Overview of Economics.................................................. 83526.3 Sources of Benefits ...................................................... 83626.4 Implementation ......................................................... 83726.5 Costs versus Benefits .................................................... 838References ....................................................................... 839

27 Modeling Refining ProcessesTeh C. Ho ......................................................................... 84127.1 Partition-Based Lumping ............................................... 84227.2 Composition-Based Modeling.......................................... 84327.3 Mathematical Reduction of System Dimension ....................... 84927.4 Kinetics–Hydrodynamics Tradeoff...................................... 85427.5 Total Lumping: Continuum Approximation............................ 85527.6 Conclusions .............................................................. 859References ....................................................................... 860

28 Refinery-Wide OptimizationDale R. Mudt, Clifford C. Pedersen, Maurice D. Jett, Sriganesh Karur,Blaine McIntyre, Paul R. Robinson ............................................. 86528.1 Overview of Suncor...................................................... 86528.2 Refinery-Wide Optimization (RWO) .................................... 86628.3 Rigorous Models for Clean Fuels........................................ 86828.4 Conclusion ............................................................... 876References ....................................................................... 877

29 Rigorous Kinetics Modeling of Hydrogen SynthesisMilo D. Meixell Jr ................................................................ 87929.1 Steam Reforming Kinetics............................................... 88029.2 Heat Transfer Rates and Heat Balances ................................ 88729.3 Pressure Drop ............................................................ 89029.A Appendix: Simulation Results .......................................... 89529.B Appendix: Case Study of Effects of Catalyst Activity

in a Primary Reformer .................................................. 897References ....................................................................... 900

30 Delayed CokingKeith Wisecarver ................................................................. 90330.1 History of Thermal Processing .......................................... 90330.2 Delayed Coking Process ................................................. 90430.3 Other Thermal Processes ................................................ 91230.4 Future Challenges ....................................................... 913References ....................................................................... 913

Contents XIX

31 Transitioning Refineries from Sweet to Extra Heavy OilMartin R. Gonzalez .............................................................. 91531.1 The Evolving Refinery ................................................... 91531.2 Characterization of Extra-Heavy Crudes ............................... 91731.3 Crude Desalting .......................................................... 91731.4 Aromatics Content Affecting Diesel and Jet Fuel Production ......... 91831.5 High Aromatics Content Affecting Gas Oil Conversion................. 91831.6 Vanadium and Nickel in Crude and Gas Oil ........................... 91931.7 Asphaltene and Clay Precipitation ..................................... 92031.8 Fouling in Gas-Oil Hydrotreaters ....................................... 92131.9 Sulfur and Nitrogen in Bitumen-Derived Crudes ..................... 92231.10 Hydrodesulfurization and Hydrodenitrogenation of Gas Oils ........ 92331.11 Production of ULSD and Jet Fuel ....................................... 92431.12 Fouling in Naphtha Hydrotreaters ..................................... 92531.13 Sulfur and Nitrogen Removal from Naphtha .......................... 92631.14 Choice of Resid Conversion Technology ................................ 92731.15 Other Investment........................................................ 92731.16 Conclusion ............................................................... 928References ....................................................................... 929

32 Carbon Dioxide MitigationSultan M. Al-Salem, Xiaoliang Ma, Mubarak M. Al-Mujaibel ............... 93132.1 Main Sources of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission

in Petroleum Refineries................................................. 93332.2 Case Study: CO2 Emission Estimation from a Refinery

in the State of Kuwait................................................... 94432.3 Challenges in Carbon Capture and Mitigation

for Petroleum Refineries ................................................ 95032.4 Concluding Remarks .................................................... 952References ....................................................................... 952

Part D Petrochemicals

33 Conventional Lube Base StockBrent E. Beasley.................................................................. 95733.1 Lube Base Stock Manufacturing ........................................ 95833.2 Key Base Stock Properties ............................................... 95933.3 Lube Oil Chemistry....................................................... 96033.4 Typical Lube Processes .................................................. 96033.5 Key Points in Typical Lube Plants....................................... 96233.6 Base Stock End Uses ..................................................... 96333.7 Lube Business Outlook .................................................. 96333.8 Feedstock Selection ..................................................... 96333.9 Lube-Crude Assays ...................................................... 96433.10 Vacuum Distillation ..................................................... 96533.11 Pipestill Troubleshooting ............................................... 97033.12 Solvent Extraction ....................................................... 97133.13 Corrosion in NMP Plants ................................................ 97833.14 Analytical Tests for Extraction .......................................... 978

XX Contents

33.15 Dewaxing ................................................................ 97833.16 The Role of Solvent in Dewaxing ....................................... 97933.17 Ketone Dewaxing Processes ............................................ 98033.18 Process Variable Effects ................................................. 98233.19 Solvent Composition .................................................... 98233.20 Scraped Surface Equipment ............................................ 98533.21 Filters ..................................................................... 99333.22 Cold Wash Distribution.................................................. 99733.23 Wash Acceptance ........................................................ 99833.24 Wash Efficiency .......................................................... 99833.25 Filter Hot Washing....................................................... 100033.26 Dewaxed Oil/Wax-Solvent Recovery.................................... 100133.27 Solvent Dehydration..................................................... 100133.28 Solvent Splitter .......................................................... 100233.29 Two-Stage Dewaxing.................................................... 100233.30 Deoiling .................................................................. 100333.31 Propane Dewaxing ...................................................... 100533.32 Two-Stage Propane Dewaxing.......................................... 100733.33 Analytical Tests in Dewaxing ........................................... 100733.34 Dewaxing Aids ........................................................... 100733.35 DWA Mechanism ......................................................... 100833.36 Asphaltene Contamination ............................................. 100933.37 Regulatory Requirements............................................... 100933.38 Glossary .................................................................. 1009References ....................................................................... 1013

34 Premium Lubricant Base Stocks by HydroprocessingStephen K. Lee, John M. Rosenbaum, Yalin Hao, Guan-Dao Lei ............ 101534.1 Key Base Stock Properties ............................................... 101634.2 Base Stock Categories ................................................... 101834.3 Why the Need for Premium Base Stocks? .............................. 101934.4 Lube Base Stock Manufacturing Technologies......................... 102034.5 All-Hydroprocessing Route for Lubricant Base Stocks ................ 102134.6 Hydrotreating/Hydrocracking ........................................... 102334.7 Dewaxing ................................................................ 103334.8 Hydrofinishing........................................................... 103934.9 Integrating Hydroprocessing with Solvent Plants – Hybrid Plants .. 104034.10 GTL Base Oils ............................................................. 1041References ....................................................................... 1042

35 Synthetic Lubricant Base StockMargaret M. Wu, Suzzy C. Ho, Shuji Luo ....................................... 104335.1 Background .............................................................. 104335.2 Overview of Synthetic Base Stocks ..................................... 104635.3 Synthetic Base Stock – Chemistry, Production Process,

Properties, and Use ..................................................... 104735.4 Conclusion ............................................................... 1060References ....................................................................... 1060

Contents XXI

36 Catalytic Processes for Light Olefin ProductionGenquan Zhu, Chaogang Xie, Zaiting Li, Xieqing Wang ..................... 106336.1 Fundamentals of the Cracking Mechanism

for Light Olefin Production ............................................. 106436.2 Catalysts .................................................................. 106636.3 New Technology ......................................................... 106836.4 Prospects ................................................................. 1077References ....................................................................... 1078

37 PolyolefinsDavid Fiscus, Antonios Doufas, Sudhin Datta ................................. 108137.1 Olefin Feedstocks and Derived Polymers .............................. 108237.2 Polymerization Mechanism............................................. 108337.3 Polymerization Processes ............................................... 108437.4 Postpolymerization Process............................................. 108537.5 The Structure of Polymers............................................... 108637.6 Synthesis and Processing of Polyethylene............................. 108837.7 Polyethylene Process and Catalysts .................................... 109037.8 Structure of Polyethylene ............................................... 109137.9 Polyethylene Processing ................................................ 109137.10 Synthesis and Processing of Polypropylene ........................... 109437.11 Polypropylene Process and Catalysts................................... 109437.12 Polypropylene Fabrication .............................................. 109837.13 Synthesis and Processing of Elastomers ............................... 110537.14 Polybutadiene (BR) ...................................................... 110637.15 Styrene–Butadiene Rubber (SBR) ...................................... 110737.16 Ethylene–Propylene Rubber (EPR/EPDM) .............................. 110937.17 Butyl (IIR) and Halobutyl Rubber ...................................... 111237.18 Conclusion ............................................................... 1113References ....................................................................... 1113

38 Biomass to Liquid (BTL) FuelsGary Brodeur, Subramanian Ramakrishnan, Chang Samuel Hsu ........... 111738.1 Lignocellulosic Biomass ................................................. 111938.2 Biomass Processing Routes ............................................. 112038.3 Biomass Oil and Petroleum Oil Co-processing ........................ 112738.4 Conclusion ............................................................... 1130References ....................................................................... 1130

39 Renewable Diesel and Jet FuelsHenrik Rasmussen ............................................................... 113339.1 Processing Renewable Feeds: Consequences for Hydrotreating ..... 113439.2 Renewable Diesel: Feeds, Products and Reaction Pathways......... 113539.3 Development of Catalysts for Conversion of Renewable Feeds ...... 113739.4 Choosing the Right Main Bed Catalyst when Coprocessing .......... 113839.5 Simplified Process Diagram............................................. 113839.6 Catalysts for Dewaxing of Renewable Diesel .......................... 113939.7 Conclusion ............................................................... 1140References ....................................................................... 1140

XXII Contents

40 Small Scale Catalytic Syngas Production with PlasmaAdam A. Gentile, Leslie Bromberg, Michael Carpenter........................ 114140.1 Plasma ................................................................... 114240.2 Partial Oxidation Reformation Using Cold Plasma .................... 114740.3 Cold-Plasma-Assisted Experimentation ............................... 115640.4 Analysis and Discussion................................................. 115940.5 Synergistic Benefits of Plasma.......................................... 116040.6 Conclusion ............................................................... 1161References ....................................................................... 1162

41 Hydrocarbon Processing by PlasmaRobert J. Wandell, Bruce R. Locke .............................................. 116341.1 Historical Aspects ........................................................ 116441.2 Properties of Plasma – Thermal versus Nonthermal ................. 116441.3 Commercial Viability of Plasma Processes ............................. 116541.4 Challenges in Performing Selective Organic Reactions with Plasma. 116541.5 Strategies to Induce Selectivity ......................................... 116641.6 Radical Chemistry in Various Plasma Discharges...................... 116741.7 Pure Organic Compounds in Direct Contact with Plasma Discharge . 116841.8 Functionalization of Hydrocarbons

with Plasma-Generated Radical Species .............................. 116841.9 Functionalization of Liquid Hydrocarbons with Oxygen Plasma..... 116941.10 Functionalization of Liquid Hydrocarbons with Water Plasmas ..... 117341.11 Conclusions and Future Trends ......................................... 1174References ....................................................................... 1175

Important Conversion Factors in Petroleum Technology ................. 1183Glossary of Defining Terms ..................................................... 1185About the Authors ................................................................ 1208Subject Index ...................................................................... 1220

XXIII

List of Abbreviations

1-D one-dimensional2-D two-dimensional3-D three-dimensional4,6-DMDBT 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene4-D four-dimensional4-MDBT 4-methyldibenzothiphene5-D five-dimensional

A

A/D analog to digitalAARD average absolute relative deviationABE acetone-butanol-ethanolABS acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene

terpolymerACDA aminocyclopentene dithiocarboxylic acidACM Aspen Custom ModelerADU atmospheric distillation unitAEBP atmospheric equivalent boiling pointAED atomic emission detectorAFR air/fuel ratioAGO atmospheric gas oilAGR acid gas removalAH-GO Arabian heavy gas oilAKI anti-knock indexAL-GO Arabian light gas oilALKY alkylationALT array laterolog toolAM-GO Arabian medium gas oilAMD acid mine drainageAMW average molecular weightAPC advanced process controlAPCI atmospheric pressure chemical ionizationAPCI MS atmospheric pressure chemical ionization

mass spectrometryAPGC atmospheric pressure gas

chromatographyAPI American Petroleum InstituteAPLI atmospheric pressure laser ionizationAPPI atmospheric pressure photo ionizationAPR aqueous phase reformingAR atmospheric residueARC advanced regulatory controlARD acid rock drainageARDS atmospheric residue hydrodesulfurizationART asphalt residual treatingAS acrylonitrile styreneASA amorphous silica aluminaASAT aromatics saturationASO acid-soluble oilAST array sonic logASTM American Society for Testing and

MaterialsATF automatic transmission fluidATR autothermal reforming

AVO amplitude variations with offsetAVR Athabasca vacuum residue

B

B-acid Brønsted acidBACT best available control technologyBCF bulked continuous filamentBDC bottom dead centerBHC borehole compensatedBHGM borehole gravity meterBHT bottom-hole temperatureBHTV borehole televiewerBIIR brominated butyl rubbersBKB brown coal briquettesBO butylene oxideboe barrel of oil equivalentBPD barrels per dayBPSM basin and petroleum system modelingBR butadiene rubberBSI British Standards InstitutionBSR Beavon sulfur removalBSW basic sediment and waterBTL biomass-to-liquidBTU British thermal unitBTX benzene, toluene, and xyleneBWR boiling-water reactor

C

C–C carbon–carbonCAD collisional activated dissociationCAE computer-aided engineeringCAL caliperCAP combustion air preheat unitCAST circumferential acoustic scanning toolCAT catalyst average temperatureCat-Ox catalytic oxidationcat/oil catalyst/oilCBA cold-bed adsorptionCBM coal bed methaneCCC critical clustering concentrationCCD carbonate compensation depthCCR Conradson carbon residueCCS carbon capture and storageCDR cold dilution ratioCDU crude oil distillation unitCDW catalytic dewaxingCEOS cubic equation of stateCFC chlorofluorocarbonCFD computational fluid dynamicsCFR combined feed ratioCHNS carbon–hydrogen–nitrogen–sulfur

contentsCHOPS cold heavy oil production with sand

XXIV List of Abbreviations

CHPS cold high-pressure separatorCI chemical ionizationCIIR chlorinated butyl rubbersCMI compact microimagerCMP common midpointCNAC critical nanoaggregate concentrationCNL compensated neutron logsCNT carbon nanotubeCOC Cleveland open-cup methodCOD crude oil distillationCOS carbonyl sulfideCOT coil outlet temperatureCPI carbon preference indexCPOX catalytic partial oxidationCPP catalytic pyrolysis processCR controlled rheologyCRU catalytic reforming unitCSM chloro sulfonated rubberCSO clarified slurry oilCSS cyclic steam stimulationCSTR continuous stirred tank reactorCTO catalyst-to-oil

D

DAFVA dialkyl fumarate-vinyl acetateDAO deasphalted oilDAWNT dilute acid with NMMO treatmentDBD dielectric barrier dischargeDBE double-bond equivalentDBT dibenzothiopheneDCC deep catalytic crackingDCS distributed control systemDCU delayed coking unitDDL direct digital loggingDDT dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethaneDEA diethanolamineDFA downhole fluid analysisDFT density functional theoryDGA diglycolamineDilbit diluted bitumenDIPA di-isopropanolamineDLA diffusion limited aggregationDMDBT dimethyldibenzothiopheneDMDS dimethyl disulfideDME dimethyl etherDMR dry methane reformationDMT dimethyl terephthalatedP pressure dropDST drill stem testDWA dewaxing aidsDWO dewaxed oil

E

e-bed ebullated bedE-SBR emulsion SBREAF electric arc furnaceECBM enhanced coal-bed methane

ECR electron cyclotron resonanceEDP emergency depressuringEF expanded fluidEFI electronic fuel injectionEG ethylene glycolEI electron-impact ionizationELSD evaporative low-angle light scattering

detectorEMI electrical microimagingENB 5-ethylidene-2-norborneneEO ethylene oxideEoS equation of stateEPDM ethylene–propylene–diene terpolymerEPM ethylene-propylene monomerEPR ethylene–propylene rubberES electrical surveyESI electrospray ionizationESP electrical submersible pumpESR electron spin resonanceETBE ethyl tertiary butyl etherEVA ethylene vinyl acetateE&P exploration and production

F

F-theory friction theoryF/E feed/effluent exchangerFAME fatty acid methyl esterFAR fused aromatic ringFCC fluid catalytic crackingFCE flares carbon emissionFD field desorptionFE formation evaluationFEA finite element analysisFF feed-forwardFFR filter feed rateFHZ Flory–Huggins–ZuoFI field ionizationFIC flow-induced crystallizationFID flame ionization detectorFLNG floating liquid natural gasFMI formation micro-imagerFPS floating production systemFPSO floating production, storage and

offloadingFPU feed preparation unitFSO floating storage and offloading systemFT Fischer–TropschFT-ICR Fourier-transform ion cyclotron

resonanceFT-ICR MS Fourier-transform ion cyclotron

resonance mass spectrometry

G

GBS gravity-based structureGC gas chromatographyGC�GC comprehensive two-dimensional gas

chromatography

List of Abbreviations XXV

GC-AED gas chromatography-atomic emissiondetection

GC-FID gas chromatography-flame ionizationdetection

GC-ICP-MS gas chromatography-inductively coupledplasma-mass spectrometry

GC-MS gas chromatography mass spectrometryGC-MS-MS gas chromatography-tandem mass

spectrometryGC-TOF gas chromatography-time of flightGCD gas chromatographic distillationGCU gas concentration unitGHG greenhouse gasGNT gamma ray neutron toolGOD gas oil desulfurizationGOHT gas oil hydrotreaterGOR gas-to-oil ratioGPC gel permeation chromatographyGPR general purpose rubberGR gamma rayGTL gas-to-liquid

H

H/C hydrogen-to-carbonH2OR hydrogen-to-oil ratioHAP hazardous air pollutantHC hydrocrackingHCA hierarchical clustering analysisHCC Houdry cracking unitHCFC hydrochlorofluorocarbonHCGO heavy coker gas oilHCO heavy cycle oilHCU hydrocracking unitHDA hydrodearomatizationHDEO heavy duty engine oilHDM hydrodemetalationHDN hydrodenitrogenationHDO hydrodeoxygenationHDPE high-density polyethyleneHDS hydrodesulfurizationHDT hydrotreatingHECO heterophasic copolymerHF hydrofluoric acidHFA hydrofluoric acid alkylationHHPS hot high-pressure separatorHI hydrogen indexHLPS hot low-pressure separatorHMS high melt strengthHN heavy naphthaHOT heavy oil treatingHPS high pressure separatorHRTEM high-resolution transmission electron

microscopyHSE health, safety, environmentHSQC two-dimensional heteroatom single

quantum coherenceHSR heavy straight runHTE high-throughput experimentation

HTSC high-temperature shift converterHTU hydrotreating unitHue-GRZ Hue-gamma ray zoneHVGO heavy vacuum gas oilHWEP hot-water extraction process

I

I/O isobutane-to-olefinIBP initial boiling pointICE internal combustion engineICP-MS inductively coupled plasma-mass

spectrometryIEA International Energy AgencyIFA in situ fluid analyzerIFO intermediate fuel oilIIR isobutylene–isoprene rubberIMEP instantaneous mean effective cylinder

pressureIP invasion percolationIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

ChangeiPP isotactic polypropyleneIPR inflow performance relationshipIR infraredIRR internal rate of returnISBL inside-battery limitsISIP instantaneous shut-in pressureISO International Organization for

StandardizationISOM isomerization

K

KD kerosene desulfurizationKEC Kuwait export crudeKHT kero hydrotreaterKPS permeability, porosity, saturation

L

L2MS laser desorption, laser ionization massspectrometry

L-acid Lewis acidLAB linear alkyl benzeneLAO linear alpha-olefinLC liquid chromatographyLCA lube crude approvalLCB long-chain branchingLCGO light coker gas oilLCO light cycle oilLDI laser desorption ionizationLDI MS laser desorption ionization mass

spectrometryLDPE low-density polyethyleneLDU lube deasphalting unitLEC ligand-exchange chromatographyLFC lower far crudeLFER linear free energy relationship

XXVI List of Abbreviations

LGO light gas oilLGR local grid refinementLHHW Langmuir–Hinshelwood/Hougen–WatsonLHSV liquid hourly space velocityLHV lower heating valueLIAD laser induced acoustic desorptionLIAD-MS laser induced acoustic desorption-mass

spectrometryLID lithodensity identificationLIFDI liquid injection field

desorption/ionizationLL laterologLLDPE linear low-density polyethyleneLLV liquid–liquid–vaporLN light naphthaLNG liquefied natural gasLOR lean oil recoveryLPG liquefied petroleum gasLPS low-pressure separatorLSD low-sulfur dieselLSFO low-sulfur fuel oilLSV liquid space velocityLTSC low-temperature shift converterLVGO light vacuum gas oilLWD logging while drillingLWR light-water reactor

M

MABP mean average boiling pointMALDI matrix-assisted laser

desorption/ionizationMCH methylcyclohexaneMCHA methylcyclo-hexylamineMCHE methylcyclohexeneMCHT methylcyclohexanethiolMCO medium cycle oilMCPBA m-chloroperbenzoic acidMCR micro-carbon residueMDEA methyl diethanolamineMDO marine diesel oilMDT modular formation dynamic testerMEA monoethanolamineMEK methyl ethyl ketoneMFR melt flow rateMGO marine gas oilMIBK methyl isobutyl ketoneMIC methyl isocyanateMID metric matrix identificationMIR mid-infrared spectroscopyMLDW™ Mobil Lube DewaxingMLL microlaterologMMSCFD million standard cubic feet per dayMMT methylcyclopentadienyl manganese

tricarbonylMODU mobile offshore drilling unitMOF metal–organic frameworkMON motor octane number

MOR middle-of-runMPC model-predictive controlMPSG mercaptopropyl silica gelMRIL magnetic resonance imaging logMRM multiple-reaction monitoringMRS microresistivity scannerMRT maximum recording thermometerMRV mini-rotary viscosityMS mass spectrometryMSDS material safety data sheetMSFL microspherically focused logMSSV microscale sealed vessel pyrolysisMTBE methyl tert-butyl etherMTG methanol-to-gasolineMTO methanol-to-olefinMtoe million tonnes of oil equivalentMUGC makeup gas compressorMV manipulated variableMVGO middle vacuum gas oilMW molecular weightMWD molecular weight distributionMZCR multizone circulating reactor

N

N slip nitrogen slipNA nanoaggregateNBR natural butyl rubberNCD nitrogen chemiluminescence detectorNEO net effective overburdenNHT naphtha hydrotreaterNIM nuclear instrument moduleNIR near-infraredNKD naphtha, kerosene and distillate fuel oilNLL neutron lifetime logsNMAZ NiMo/alumina-zeoliteNMI nuclear magnetic imagerNMMO N-methyl morpholine N-oxideNMO normal moveoutNMP N-methylpyrrolidoneNMR nuclear magnetic resonanceNO nitric oxideNOx nitrogen oxidesNPD nitrogen phosphorus detectorNPG neopentylglycolNR natural rubberNRTL nonrandom two liquidNSO nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen

O

OBM oil-based mudOCC olefins catalytic crackingOCR on-stream catalyst replacementOCT olefins conversion technologyOD optical densityOECD Organization for Economic Cooperation

and Development

List of Abbreviations XXVII

OGC oil–gas contactOHV overhead valveOP opening positionOPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting

CountriesOPEX operating costOSP oil-soluble PAGOWC oil-water contact

P

PA proton affinityPAA polyalkyl acrylatePAG polyalkyleneglycolPAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonPAMA polyalkyl meth acrylatePAN peroxyacetyl nitratePAO polyalphaolefinPASH polycyclic aromatic sulfur heterocyclePBN peroxybenzoyl nitratePBR polybutadienePCA principal component analysisPCB polychlorinated biphenylPCC propylene catalytic crackingPCR principal component regressionPD photodetectorPDF process-derived fuelPDH paraffin dehydrogenation processPDI polydispersity indexPE polyethylenePEF photo-electric factorPEL permissible exposure limitPEM polymer electrolyte membranePET polyethylene terephthalatePFR plug flow reactorPHWR pressurized heavy-water reactorPI photoionizationPIB polyisobutylenePID proportional-integral-derivativePINA normal paraffinic, branched paraffinic

(iso-paraffins), naphthenic, and aromaticPKN Perkins–Kern–NordgrenPM particulate matterPO propylene oxidePONA paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, and

aromaticsPOX partial oxidationPP polypropylenePPE personal protection equipmentPPM proton precession magnetometerPRT power-recovery turbinePS polystyrenePSA pressure swing adsorptionPTA purified terephthalic acidPVC polyvinyl chloridePVT pressure, volume, temperaturePWR pressurized water reactorPX paraxylene

Q

QMS quadrupole mass analyzer orspectrometer

QSRR quantitative structure–reactivityrelationship

QSSA quasi-steady state approximationQTOF MS quadrupole time-of-flight mass

spectrometer

R

RBOB reformulated gasoline before oxygenateblending

RCC reduced crude conversionRDD radiological dispersion deviceREAC reactor effluent air coolerREL recommended exposure limitsREMPI resonance enhanced multiphoton

ionizationRFCC residue fluid catalytic crackingRGC recycle gas compressorRHC raffinate hydroconversionRHG Raymer–Hunt–GardnerRI refractive indexRIT reactor inlet temperatureRLA reaction limited aggregationRON research octane numberROP rate of penetrationROT riser outlet temperatureRPVOT rotating pressure vessel oxidation testRTO real-time optimizerRVP Reid vapor pressureRWO refinery-wide optimization

S

S slip sulfur slipS-PAC sulfur-containing polycyclic aromatic

compoundSAA sulfuric acid alkylationSAFT statistical associating fluid theorySAGD steam-assisted gravity drainageSALDI surface-assisted laser desorption

ionizationSANS small angle neutron scatteringSAOS small angle oscillatory shearSAPO silica-alumina phosphateSAPS sulfated ash, phosphorus, and sulfurSAR Si–Al ratioSARA saturates, aromatics, resins, and

asphaltenesSAXS small angle x-ray scatteringSBL structure-based lumpingSBR styrene–butadiene rubberSC shielding coneSCAL special core analysis laboratorySCD sulfur chemiluminescence detector

XXVIII List of Abbreviations

SCFOGIP standard (temperature and pressure)original gas in place

SCR selective catalytic reductionSCWR supercritical-water reactorSDA solvent deasphaltingSFC supercritical fluid chromatographySFE supercritical fluid extractionSimDist simulated distillationSLS sodium lauryl sulfateSM styrene monomerSMR steam methane reformingSNO solvent neutral oilSOL structure-oriented lumpingSOR start-of-runSOx sulfur oxidesSPA solid phosphoric acidSPD slurry-phase distillateSPI single photon ionizationSPR strategic petroleum reserveSR straight runSR LGO straight-run light gas oilSRGO straight run gas oilSRU sulfur recovery unitSSC scraped surface chillerSSE scraped surface exchangerSSOT single-stage once-thru hydrocrackerSSREC single-stage with recycle hydrocrackerSTG+ syngas-to-gasoline plusSTL syngas-to-liquidsSTOOIP stock tank original oil in placeSTP standard temperature and pressureSUS Saybolt universal secondsSWC side wall coreSWS sour-water strippersyncrude synthetic crude

T

TAME t-amyl methyl etherTAN total acid numberTBP true boiling pointTCC Thermofor catalytic crackingTCD thermal conductivity detectorTD total depthTDC top dead centerTDS total dissolved solidsTEL tetraethyl leadTGTU tail-gas treating unitTI temperature indicatorTIP total isomerization processTLC thin-layer chromatographyTLP tension-leg platformTLV threshold limit valuesTMP trimethylolpropaneTMT tube metal temperatureTOC total organic carbonTOF time-of-flightTOF MS time-of-flight mass spectrometryTOST turbine oil stability test

tpa tons per annumTPE thermoplastic elastomerTPO thermoplastic olefinTR transformation ratioTRFD time-resolved fluorescence depolarizationTSP thermosprayTSS third-stage separatorTTR truck tape recorderTVD true vertical depthTWIM thin-wall injection molding

U

UCO unconverted oilUHMWPE ultrahigh molecular weight polyethyleneULSD ultra-low-sulfur dieselUS ultra-stable

V

VAM vinyl acetate monomerVBI viscosity blend indexVDU vacuum distillation unitVG viscosity gradeVGO vacuum gas oilVI viscosity indexVLDPE very low-density polyethyleneVLE vapor–liquid equilibriumVLT vapor-lift trayVM viscosity modifierVOC volatile organic compoundVPO vapor pressure osmometryVPS vacuum pipestillVR vacuum residueVSP vertical seismic profilingVSS vortex separation systemVUV vacuum-ultraviolet laser light

W

WABT weighted average bed temperatureWART weighted average reactor temperatureWAXS wide angle x-ray scatteringWBM water-based mudWGS water gas shiftWHR waste heat recoveryWHSV weight hourly space velocityWPC World Petroleum CouncilWTI West Texas intermediate

X

XRD x-ray powder diffractionXRF x-ray fluorescence spectrometry

Z

ZSM-5 Zeolite Socony Mobil–5