SPRING 2012

HISTORY 3401AMERICA TO 1877

BROOKLUN COLLEGEBRENDAN O’MALLEY, INSTRUCTOR

George Catlin, Buffalo Hunt (ca. 1832)

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American Nationalism

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismSTABLIZING ECONOMIC GROWTH – ECONOMIC PROBLEMS Postwar Economic Problems: The War of 1812 revealed the deep inadequacies

of the young republic’s financial and transportation infrastructures, and after the war’s conclusion, national economic development became a foremost political issue.

Currency and the Bank: During the war, state banks had issued a large quantity of paper money, making it almost impossible to know how much any bill was really worth. In addition, counterfeiting was endemic. The U.S. also had mounting debts due to the war. This situation reinvigorated calls for a second National Bank (the twenty-year charter of the first National Bank had lapsed in 1811, and the vote to renew it failed by one vote in the House of Representatives).

Growth of Domestic Manufacturing: Jefferson’s Embargo helped to stimulate domestic manufacturing. From 1807 to 1815, the number of cotton spindles in the country expanded from 8,000 to 130,000. Boston merchant Francis Cabot Lowell also created the first textile mile in Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1813, using a power loom that was superior to its British counterparts. Previous U.S. mills made yarn or thread, not cloth. Lowell had memorized the workings of a British textile mill on a trip.

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The Boston Manufacturing Company’s Waltham Mill ca. 1830

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STABLIZING ECONOMIC GROWTH – ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

Threat to Domestic Manufacturing: The postwar flood of underpriced British manufactured goods through the nation’s ports threatened nascent manufacturing in the U.S. In 1816, protectionists in Congress passed a tariff bill that prevented American manufacturers’ goods from being undersold by imported British ones.

STABLIZING ECONOMIC GROWTH – TRANSPORTATION Need for Better Transportation: Transportation infrastructure

could not keep up with the expanding nation, leading to debates about whether or not the federal government should fund “internal improvements.” For example, in 1807 the Jefferson administration pushed for a bill that used funds from federal land sales to build a “National Road” stretching from the Potomac River to Ohio.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismSTABLIZING ECONOMIC GROWTH –

TRANSPORTATION Steamboats on the Mississippi: By 1816, steamboats

were plying the Mississippi river system, traveling up the Ohio River as far as Pittsburgh. Steamboats quickly became the main carriers of cargo on the rivers.

Debating Internal Improvements: John C. Calhoun’s bill to have the federal government fund certain internal improvements in 1817 passed the House and Senate, but was vetoed by President Madison on his last day in office. Madison believed that Congress lacked the authority to pass bills on internal improvements unless there was a constitutional amendment. Can anyone guess why?

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismSTABLIZING ECONOMIC GROWTH – TRANSPORTATIONExcerpts from the statement attached to Madison’s veto:“The legislative powers vested in Congress are specified and enumerated in the

eighth section of the first article of the Constitution, and it does not appear that the power proposed to be exercised by the bill is among the enumerated powers…”

“[The view of the Constitution the bill provides] would have the effect of excluding the judicial authority of the United States from its participation in guarding the boundary between the legislative powers of the General and the State Governments, inasmuch as questions relating to the general welfare, being questions of policy and expediency, are unsusceptible of judicial cognizance and decision.”

“If a general power to construct roads and canals, and to improve the navigation of water courses, with the train of powers incident thereto, be not possessed by Congress, the assent of the States in the mode provided in the bill can not confer the power. The only cases in which the consent and cession of particular States can extend the power of Congress are those specified and provided for in the Constitution.”

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EXPANDING WESTWARDThe Great Migration: By 1820, white settlers were making their Way across the Mississippi River. What were some of the factors behind this movement?

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismEXPANDING WESTWARDThe Great Migration: By 1820, white settlers were pouring

across the Mississippi River. What were some of the factors behind this?

Population Growth: Between 1800 and 1820, the U.S. population almost doubled from 5.3 to 9.6 million. Most white Americans were farmers, and agricultural lands in the east were either overcrowded or depleted.

Growth of Southern Plantations: The expansion of plantations in the South pushed smaller farmers off the land.

Land Becoming More Plentiful: The U.S. government continued its policy of pushing Indian tribes westward, opening up more western land for white settlement.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismEXPANDING WESTWARD White Settlers in the Old Northwest: White settlers came via

river to Cincinnati (Ohio had become a state in 1803), and began settling the territory that became the states of Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), Michigan (1837), and Wisconsin (1848). Families would construct crude cabins or lean-tos and clear the land. Since labor was scarce, settlers developed systems of mutual aid. Families tended to be highly mobile, often moving to new land every few years. People already in the west tended to be the first settlers of new territory.

Plantation System in the Old Southwest: The Old Southwest contained a broad zone where cotton could thrive, mainly in the central Alabama and Mississippi, the area that became known as the Black Belt. Small farmers were usually the first settlers; they cleared the land. Then big planters would but the land from smaller farmers. This rapid expansion led to Mississippi becoming a state in 1817 and Alabama in 1819.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismEXPANDING WESTWARDTrade and Trapping in the Far West Mexico Opens for Trade: Mexico, which controlled California and

Texas, won its independence from Spain in 1821, opening its territories up for greater trade with the U.S. American traders began to displace Indian and Spanish traders in the region. American merchants were able to sell better quality American goods at a lower price than inferior Mexican goods.

The Fur Trade: After the War of 1812, John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company and other firms extended their reach beyond the Great Lakes, introducing a small but significant white presence to the Far West. At first the traders simply trading with Indians for pelts, but increasingly white trappers began competing with the Indians. Solitary white trappers often married Indian and Mexican women. The Rocky Mountain Fur Company, founded in 1822, created a system of regular re-supply for the “mountain men.”

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismTHE ERA OF GOOD FEELING Rising Nationalism: Economic growth and white settlement and trade in

the West gave rise to growing sense of nationalism. What do we mean by this term?

The Virginia Dynasty: Ever since the election of 1800, the presidency had been held by a Virginian, creating the so-called “Virginia Dynasty” (Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe). Many northerners resented the Virginians’ dominance of the office.

“American System”: Speaker of the House Henry Clay advocated a program he called the “American System,” which called for a high protective tariff, a national bank to encourage commerce, and federal funding for “internal improvements.”

James Monroe’s Election: When Monroe entered office in 1817, he hoped to realize the dream of governing in an environment without partisan politics, and with the decline of the Federalists, this vision seemed possible. Monroe’s gesture of appointing John Quincy Adams as secretary of state signaled this, while he made South Carolinian John C. Calhoun the secretary of war.

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THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING

“Goodwill Tour”: Monroe embarked on a goodwill tour across the country, and a New England Federalist newspaper, noting the president’s favorable reception, noted that an “era of good feeling” had arrived. In his 1820 campaign, Monroe faced no serious opposition as the Federalists had ceased to exist and was easily reelected.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismTHE ERA OF GOOD FEELING John Quincy Adams and Florida: Like his father, the second

president, John Quincy Adams spent a great deal of his career in diplomatic service. As secretary of state under Monroe, his first task was to gain the whole peninsula (U.S. settlers had already claimed the territory known as West Florida). In 1817, he began negotiations with the Spanish minister, Louis de Onís.

The Seminole War: Exerting pressure in Adams favor was the fact that General Andrew Jackson had used border raids by Seminole Indians to invade Florida, seizing the Spanish forts of Pensacola and St. Marks.

Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819: Seeing the U.S. easily could seize the territory by force, Onís came to an agreement with Adams. The U.S. gained Florida and Spain gave up its claims in the Pacific Northwest, and for the moment, the U.S. gave up its claims to Texas.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismTHE ERA OF GOOD FEELINGThe Panic of 1819: State banks, “wild cat” banks, and even the Second

Bank of the United States (chartered in 1816; the first bank’s charter expired in 1811) made credit easily available in the postwar years, in part fueled by land speculation in the West. Bad loans and counterfeiting took off. To combat an overheating of the economy, new management of the Bank of the United States tightened credit, calling in loans and foreclosing on many, causing many state banks to fail. This banking collapse initiated a six-year depression that made the Bank highly unpopular in the South and the West.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismSECTIONALISM AND NATIONALISM The Missouri Compromise: Missouri applied for statehood in 1819, and

slavery was already well established there, causing sectional tensions to arise that seemed to threaten the continued existence of the Union.

Tallmadge Amendment: When statehood was proposed, Representative James Tallmadge of New York put forth an amendment that would cut off further importation of slaves into the state, setting up provisions for the gradual emancipation of slaves already there. Missouri upset the balance in which a slave state had always entered simultaneously with a free state, and Tallmadge sought to address the issue.

Maine: Maine, a part of Massachusetts, applied for statehood around this time, and the Southerners threatened to block it if Missouri was not admitted as a slave state.

The Compromise: Maine and Missouri would enter under the same bill, one as slave and one as free. Senator Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois proposed an amendment that would create a boundary across the Louisiana purchase (36˚30’ latitude), north of which would be free and south of which would be slave. This resolution seemed to work at least for the tiem being.

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MISSOURI COMPROMISE OF 1820

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismMARSHALL AND THE COURT John Marshall: Serving as chief justice of

the Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835, he shaped the development of the Constitution more than anyone outside of the original framers.

Inviolability of Contracts: The Marshall Court was dedicated to promoting commerce, and to do so, the Court maintained that not even government authorities could interfere with contracts. In Fletcher v. Peck (1810), the Court rejected the

that the Georgia legislature could repeal an earlier act that granted land to the Yazoo Land Companies under shady circumstances. In Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), the Court rejected the New Hampshire state legislature’s attempt to revise the charter of Dartmouth College—a private institution—to make it a public one, deeming the charter an inviolable contract.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismMARSHALL AND THE COURT Supreme Court and the State Courts: In Cohens v. Virginia

(1821), Marshall affirmed the right of the U.S. Supreme Court to review the decisions of state courts, against the protests of many states’ rights advocates.

“Implied Powers”: In the McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) decision, Marshall confirmed the “implied powers” of Congress by upholding the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States. The case asked if Congress had the right to charter a national bank, and if states had the right to ban or tax it. The Court confirmed that the Constitution did allow for “implied powers” to accomplish the expressed powers, so that a functional national government could be created.

Interstate Commerce: The case Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) struck down the monopoly on steamboat ferry service between New York and New Jersey that had been granted by the New York state legislature as unconstitutional. Aaron Ogden had taken over Robert Fulton’s company with its monopoly, while Thomas Ogden had started a competitive company with a license granted by Congress.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismTHE COURT AND THE TRIBES Indians Lands: In Johnson v. McIntosh (1823), the Court

ruled that individual settlers did not have the right to buy land from Indians; only the federal government had the power to do this.

Tribes and the States: In Worcester v. Georgia (1832) decision, the Court ruled that states could not regulate access of U.S. citizens to Indian territory; only the federal government could do that. Tribes were sovereign entities that had the right to remain free from the authority of state governments.

Tribal Rights Affirmed: Marshall’s Court affirmed that tribes held basic property rights and were not subject to state governments, and held that the federal government had ultimate authority over Indian affairs, much like a legal “guardian” has over its “ward.”

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismTHE LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTION & THE

MONROE DOCTRINE U.S. Foreign Policy: U.S. diplomacy was geared toward Europe, but

concerns about European intentions in 1820s made American policymakers begin to look to the south toward Latin America. The Spanish Empire seemed to be disintegrating as almost all of South and Central America seemed to be in revolt. In 1815, the U.S. declared neutrality in the conflicts between Spain and its colonies.

Recognizing New States: In 1822, Monroe established diplomatic relations with five new nations—La Plata (later Argentina), Chile, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico—making the U.S. the first country to do so.

The “Monroe Doctrine”: Monroe announced a policy in December 1823 that declared that the American continents “…are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.” This policy later became known as the “Monroe Doctrine” even though it was primarily the work of the secretary of state, John Quincy Adams. The doctrine was a warning to Britain to keep out of Cuba, and established the idea of the United States as the hegemonic power in the Western Hemisphere.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismTHE REVIVAL OF THE OPPOSITIONTHE 1824 ELECTION “King Caucus” Overthrown: Up until 1824, party caucuses in

Congress selected presidential candidates, a process often called “King Caucus.” But in 1824, this system broke down, with candidates being nominated by state legislatures and irregular mass meetings. Candidates nominated included William H. Crawford of Georgia, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Speaker of the House Henry Clay, and a recently elected senator from Tennessee and military hero named Andrew Jackson.

Disputed Election: Jackson received more popular votes and electoral college votes than any other candidate, but did not receive a majority. Under the rules of put forth by the Twelfth Amendment (passed to prevent a repeat of the 1800 election), Congress had to select the candidate from the three candidates with the most electoral college votes. Clay was out of the running, but he had enormous influence. He gave his support to Adams since he viewed Jackson as his most formidable rival from the West, and also because Adams was an ardent nationalist in favor of the American system program.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismTHE REVIVAL OF THE OPPOSITIONTHE 1824 ELECTION “Corrupt Bargain”: As president, John Quincy Adams

named Clay his secretary of state, an office viewed as a step to the presidency. Jacksonians, infuriated by this apparent deal between Adams and Clay, calling it the “Corrupt Bargain.”

THE SECOND PRESIDENT ADAMS Economic Policy: Adams pursued a policy of economic development that

resembled Clay’s American System, but the Jacksonians in Congress blocked most of it.

“Tariff of Abominations”: The Adams administration promoted a high tariff in 1828 that originated with the demands New England manufacturers of woolen goods. To get Southern and Western support, the administration had to accept duties for other goods, which alienated manufacturers since they had to pay more for imported raw materials. The Adams administration had gained a reputation for not being able to get anything done.

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismTHE REVIVAL OF THE OPPOSITION Two Parties Emerging: By the time of this election, a new two-party system had started to emerge. Those

who supported Adams, including most remainingFederalists, called themselves “Nationalist Republicans,” while those that supported Jackson called themselves“Democratic Republicans.” Jackson united a broadcoalition that opposed “economic aristocracy.”

Personal Attacks: Jacksonians accused Adams of gross waste and extravagance while in office, while Adams supporters portrayed Jackson as a murderer since he had supposedly executed militiamen for desertion during the War of 1812 (not to mention a man he had killed in a duel). They also accused his wife of bigamy, since Jackson had married his wife when she technically was still married to her former husband (they both thought he divorce had already gone through—the shock of the accusation made his wife fall ill, and she died a few weeks later).

Jackson Triumphant: Jackson won a decisive victory, but it was sectional: Adams had swept New England and had a strong showing in the Mid-Atlantic states, but Jackson swept the West and South. Jackson proclaimed his victory would usher in “an era of the common man.”

CHAPTER EIGHTVarieties of American NationalismTHE REVIVAL OF THE OPPOSITION

1828 ELECTIORAL MAP