spiritual Lifemaps: A Client-CenteredPictorial Instrument for Spiritual Assessment,

Planning, and InterventionDavid R. Hodge

Although some consumers desire to integrate spirituality into the cHnical dialogue, few-resources have appeared in the literature to help practitioners operatioiialize spiritual strengths.

This article introduces and orients practitioners to a new pictorial instrument—the spirituallifemap—that can be used for spiritual assessment. The instrument facilitates a smooth

transition from assessment to exploring and planning interventions.The author provides a casestudy and suggestions on how to use the instrument in clinical settings. A numher of common

spiritual interventions, drawn from a wide variety of theoretical approaches, are highlighted.The author discusses several applications and possible value conflicts that may arise when

assessing spirituality.

KEY WORDS; assessment; religion; spiritual lifemaps; spirituality;strengths

AsThayne (1998) observed.consumers'spiri-tual cosmologies can be a powerful re-source in helping consumers deal with life's

challenges. Indeed, major reviews on spirituality andreligion have found a generally positive associationbetween these two constructs and a wide array ofsalutary characteristics (Johnson, 2002; Koenig,McCullough, & Larson, 2001; Pargament, 1997).Furthermore, many consumers desire to integratetheir spiritual belief systems into the therapeuticdialogue. Gallup data reported by Bart (1998), forinstance, indicated that 81 percent of respondentswanted to have their spiritual values and beliefsintegrated into the counseling process.

Although these developments have helped sparkan interest in reintegrating spirituality into clinicalsettings, surveys have repeatedly found tbat mostsocial workers bave received little training on bowto assess or operationalize consumers' spiritualstrengtbs (Canda & Furman. 1999; Murdock, 2004),Without instruction on spiritual assessment, socialworkers are unlikely to tap consumers' spiritualstrengtbs (Ronnau & Poertner, 1993). Accord-ingly, this article introduces practitioners to a newpictorial instrument for spiritual assessment-—tbespiritual lifemap.

Altbough spirituality and reUgion have beendefmed in a number of ways, tbey are generallyunderstood to be overlapping altbougb distinctconstructs (Canda, 1997; Carroll, 1997). For tbepurposes of this 3irtic\t, spirituality is defined as anexistential relationship witb God (or perceived Tran-scendence) tbat fosters a sense of meaning, pur-pose, and mission in life. In turn this relationshipproduces salutary change, such as an increased senseof other-centered love, which has a discernible ef-fect on an individual's relationship to self, others,and God (Hodge, 2000a).

Conversely, religion flows from spirituality, ex-pressing the existential spiritual relationship inparticular forms, rituals, beliefs, and practices tbatbave been developed in community witb otherindividuals who share similar pbenomenologicalexperiences ofTranscendence (Hodge, 2000a).Al-tbougb many exceptions exist, for most consum-ers spirituality is expressed through religion(Pargament, 1997).

SPIRITUAL LIFEMAPS: PHILOSOPHYAND ADVANTAGESAs a client-constructed pictorial narrative of a spiri-tualjourney,spiritual lifemaps are animated by what

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spiritual lifemaps are a pictorial delineationof consumers spiritual journeys.

Hoyt (1998) refers to as tbe constructivist perspec-tive,a family ofpostmodcrn tberapeutic approachestbat sbare a number of underlying assumptions re-garding tbe client-practitiontr relationsbip. In tbisperspective, bierarchical relationships tbat privilegepractitioners' status are de-empbasized in favor of amore egalitarian alliance in which clients are con-sidered to be experts on tbeir own situations.Tbera-peutic goals are coconstructed and consumers'strengtbs, as opposed to deficits, are understood tobe central to tbe clinical process. Empatbic respectfor divergent constructions of reality and a belief intbe power of tbe tberapeutic dialogue to fosterempowering narratives are also stressed.

More specifically, tbe pbilosophical roots of tbeinstrument can be traced back through 16 centu-ries of tradition in spiritual direction to tbe Africanwriter Augustine (354-430/1991) and bis seminalwork, tbe Confessions, wbicb is widely consideredto be the first autobiographical work in recordedhuman bistory (Clark, 1993). In wbat Clark refersto as "an act of tberapy," tbis spiritual biograpbychronicles Augustine's spiritual journey.

Spiritual lifemaps are a pictorial delineation ofconsumers'spiritual journeys. At its most basic level,a drawing pencil is used to sketch spiritually sig-nificant life events on paper. Thus, mucb like roadmaps, spiritual lifemaps tell us wbere we have comefrom, wbere we are now, and where we are going.The method is analogous to approaches drawn fromart and family tberapy in wbicb a cHent's bistory isdepicted on a "lifeline" (Tracz & Gebart-Brtioks,1999). However, as in the Confessions, the narrative-is based on the consumer's spiritual pilgrimage andassociated events. Put simply, a spiritual lifemap isan illustrated account of tbe consumer's relation-ship with God over time—a map of bis or ber spiri-tual life.

Building on the strengths of the constructivistperspective, spiritual lifemaps offer users a numberof advantages. By placing a client-constructed me-dia at the center of assessment, consumers are in-volved in the tberapeutic process in a significantway from the beginning of therapy. Through thecreation of a lifemap, the message is implicitly com-

municated tbat the client is a proactive.self-directed,fully engaged participant in the therapeutic process.

Resistance and anxiety may also be amelioratedthrough the use of a nonverbal, pictorial medium.CJiven tbe highly personal nature of spirituality formany clients, and workers' limited training regard-ing spiritual cosmologies (Canda & Furman. 1999),practitioners may inadvertently offend clients,jeopardizing the therapeutic relationship, whenusing verbally based spiritual assessment approaches.Tbe pictorial instrument affords practitioners tbeopportunity to focus on building tberapeutic rap-port by providing an atmospbere tbat is accepting,nonjudgmental, and supportive during the initialassessment (Kahn, 1999).

In addition, individuals who are not verballyoriented may find pictorial expression more con-ducive to tbeir personal communication styles(McNiff, 1992). Furtbermore, consumers may findit less threatening having a concrete object thatfunctions as tbe focus of subsequent conversationratber tban the client (Moon, 1994).

Finally, given the amorphous, subjective natureofspirituality,pbysical depiction may belp concretizeconsumers' extant strengtbs (Hodge, 2()()()a).Theprocess of conceptualizing and depicting anindividual's spiritual journey may belp focus andobjectify spiritual assets, which can tben be dis-cussed and marsbaled to address problems.

Broaching the Topic of Spiritualitywith ClientsBecause many consumers desire to incorporatetheir spirituality with tberapeutic concerns, clientsoften spontaneously mention spiritual resources(for example, God, cburcb, prayer, and so fortb)during initial sessions. Practitioners can acknowl-edge and validate these statements and briefly ex-plore the salience of spirituality in the client's life(for example,"How important is spirituality or re-ligion to you?"). If it appears that a spiritual assess-ment might be appropriate, the worker should ex-plain the basic concept of a lifemap to theconsumer, bighligbting how it might be used tooperationalize spiritual strengths to overcome pre-senting difficulties.

Alternatively, workers can ask at the start oftberapy, or at a later junction, if spirituality or reli-gion serves as a resource in the client's life. If work-ing in a mental health setting accredited by tbeJoint Commission on Accreditation of Healtbcare

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Organizations (JCAHO), workers may wisb to con-sider the brief assessment model developed byHodge (2004), wbicb was designed to satisfy tbeJCAHO requirements for conducting an initialexploratory spiritual assessment. If an initial explo-ration suggests tbat a more in-depth assessment iswarranted, the instrument can be explained. In ei-tber case, it is important to procure consumers'consent before proceeding witb a spiritual assess-ment and tbe drawing of tbe lifemap (Doberty,1999).

Creating the LifemapsIn keeping witb evidence tbat suggests informa-tion is stored and organized narratively in tbe mind(Strickland, 1994), events are usually depicted cbro-nologically, from birtb to the present and usuallycontinuing on to death and the client's transitionto the afterlife. More specifically, a patb, a roadway,or a single line is commonly used to represent tbespiritual sojourn. One way to proceed is to drawtbis path on the paper first, break tbe patb intoyears or decades, and then fill in events along tbepatb, a metbod tbat ensures tbat equal space is al-lotted to all points along tbe lifecyle. Conversely,others might prefer a more freeform approacb inwbicb tbeir patb and life events are sketched to-getber. Among tbe advantages of tbis approacb istbe opportunity to devote more space to signifi-cant time periods during the spiritual walk.

Symbols drawn from tbe client's spiritual cos-mology are typically used to mark key events alongthe journey. For instance, a cross might be used bya Cbristian to portray a spiritual conversion, wbereasa depiction ofthe Lingam andYoni might be usedby a Hindu to represent her relationship to Siva.Similarly, a stick figure in a meditative pose envel-oped in a sunbeam might signify a time of enlight-enment for a New Age adherent.

Concurrendy, because most spiritual cosmologiesconceive material existence to be an extension ofthe sacred reality (Richards & Bergin, 1997), im-portant "secular" incidents are usually included. Botbpositive (for example, marriage and the birtb of acbild) and particularly negative events (for example,death, loss of a job, and otber trials) may be por-trayed.The ultimate goal is depiction of all eventsperceived to be of spiritual significance by the cli-ent on tbe lifemap.

To fully operationalize tbe potential of tbe in-strument, it is important to ask consumers to high-

light the trials they bave encountered and the spiri-tual resources they have used to cope in the courseof their journey. As noted earlier, symbolic depic-tions can be effectively used. Hills, bumps and pot-holes, rain, clouds, lightning, and other items mightbe used to portray difficult waystations along thespiritual sojourn, and symbols migbt also be de-veloped to represent spiritual assets that bave fa-cilitated coping. Finally, although the socialworker can provide general guidelines and, ifnecessary, specific tips for tbe construction oflifemaps, client creativity and self-expression sbouldbe encouraged.

To assist consumers in tbe creative expression oftheir spiritual journeys, it is important to bave agood supply of media readily available (Horovitz-Darby 1994). Drawing instruments might includedrawing pencils (specifically no. 1) and erasers (MarsStaetler and gum), colored drawing pencils (a 12-color set), fine and broad-nibbed colored markers(an eigbt-color set), and large and small crayons (atleast 16 colors). It is also helpful to provide a cboiceof white and manila paper (sizes 8.5" x 11" to 24"X 36"), as well as colored construction paper (sizes8.5" X 11" and 12" x 18"). Practitioners may alsowish to make available scissors, glue sticks, and rul-ers, as well as a variety of magazines and newspa-pers. Consumers may decide to clip items from tbelatter media (for example,"AUTO ACCIDENT")and paste them onto the lifemap to illustrate eventstbat bold meaningful places in their spiritual walk.Because ofthe amount of data lifemaps elicit, it isusually best to use a large sheet of paper on wbicbto sketcb the map.

Some clients, when faced with a large blank sheetof paper, may experience "stage fright" and havedifficulty beginning or, later on in the process, mayfeel inadequate to express a certain event or con-cept. In such cases, it is generally appropriate toencourage individuals to plunge ahead and draw(McNiff, 1992), noting tbat there is no correct wayto draw a lifemap. It may also help to stress that tbecentral function of lifemaps is to express and com-municate a spiritual reality rather than to assesssomeone's artistic talent (Kahn, 1999). A drawingusing stick figures is just as valid as one witb moreelaborate portrayals.

As implied in the preceding section, during tbecreation of a lifemap, practitioners adopt a second-ary, supportive role, assisting and encouraging tbeclient as needed.Tbe goal is to help consumers tell

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their stories while nurturing an affirming,empathetic relationship. For example, workers mightoffer to clip out material from magazines if clientselect to use such media.

Conducting an Assessment with LifemapsOn completion of tbe lifemap, the worker shouldgenerally ask the consumer to explain his or bercreation ("Would you tell me about your spirituallifemap?"). As clients express their spiritual jour-neys, it is critical tbat workers demonstrate interest,curiosity, and even fascination with tbeir clients'narratives. Minimal verbal prompts ("but?" "and?""yes"), accent responses (in which a word or shortpbrase is repeated in a questioning tone), in con-junction with typical emphatic responses shouldbe used during this stage of tbe assessment(Hepwortb, Rooney, & Larsen, 2002). Workerssbould attempt to place their own beliefs on tbesbelf and seek to understand consumers'pbenom-enological spiritual reality.

Social workers should be aware tbat many con-sumers may be hesitant to trust practitioners be-cause of concerns tbat workers will not bonor thatwbicb tbey bold to be sacred (Furman, Perry, &

Goldale, 1996). To a great extent, tbis appreben-sion can be alleviated by expressing genuine em-pbatic support. Furtbermore, respecting consum-ers'spiritual reality as an eqtiaily valid constructionof reality on a par witb the dominant materialisticframework helps to foster an environment in whichspiritual interventions can be more productivelyexplored.

Case ExampleFigure 1 indicates wbat a completed lifemap mightlook like on a smaller scale. Tbe client, a 42-year-old black man referred to as Darrin, grew up as anonly cbild in a two-parent middle-class bome. Hisformative years were cbaracterized by beavy in-volvement in sports and warm, caring relationsbips.However, on leaving bome at 18, it was as if beentered a different, more tumultuous, reality. Seem-ingly aimless wandering, a stormy relationsbip, andan inability to break out of repetitive, often-un-bealtby patterns marked his life during bis early tomid-20s.After breaking offtbe relationship, he ex-perienced a series of forks, wrong turns, and deadends, wbicb led bim to cry out to God in despera-tion. His life continued to spiral out of control until

Figure 1: Darrin's Lifemap

Spmttul StrengthsPromise KeepersMentoring program

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be ended up at tbe foot of tbe cross, figuratively,"dead on arrival."

At 29, Darrin experienced a spiritual awakeningtbac resulted in bis entering another reality. Tbisexperience marked a sharp turning point in bis life.A year later be joined a Pentecostal cburch andexperienced a new infilling of tbe Holy Spirit, sym-bolized by tbe dove, wbicb opened an additionaldimension ofthe spiritual world. In addition to hisrelationship with Jesus, he lists his spiritual strengthsas prayer,cburcb fellowsbip, worsbip,and Bible study.

Although being fired from bis job was a difficultexperience, bis churcb fellowsbip played an instru-mental role in belping him through tbe situation.More difficult to deal witb was tbe sudden death ofhis parents when be was 32, which bit him like anemotional lightning bolt.

Over tbe next few years, otber difficultiesemerged, sucb as friction with some church mem-bers, close friends moving away, and fewer spiritu-ally vibrant times of prayer and Bible study Even-tually, the sense of God's presence slowly left him.As he reached the point of questioning his rela-tionship witb God, his existence, and tbe validity ofhis own life, Darrin experienced a series of eventstbat altered tbe course of bis life. Tbrougb theseevents, wbicb he saw as providential, be realizedtbat God bad not abandoned him. Soon after tbat,his "dark nigbt" of tbe soul ended as he fully real-ized God's love for him.

At 36, Darrin married a woman from his cburcb.A couple of years later, be was presented with amentoring award on behalf of bis efforts withtroubled youths. Although be finds the relationsbipsdraining at times, his friendships with tbe otbermen and tbe youths are also invigorating. Similarly,be also draws strengtb from tbe male intimacy befinds in his Promise Keepers group, which hejoinedabout the same time. He enjoys tbe opportunity thegroup provides for black men to share their expe-riences witb racism witb a receptive audience ofwhite people, in addition to the encouragement hereceives to be a better busband. Finally, in additionto tbese and tbe resources mentioned earlier, Darrinbas recently found a significant source of spiritualstrength meditating on meaningful Bible verses.

Planning InterventionsAs tbe case example implies, spiritual lifemaps aredesigned to unfold consumers'orienting frameworkto practitioners. Spiritual cosmologies, like all ori-

enting systems, provide adherents witb a generalframework for interpreting tbe world. Similarly,during times of stress, situations in wbicb individu-als are more likely to encounter social workers, tbeseframeworks help clients understand the challengesthey face. As a result, it is important that workershave some understanding of tbese frameworks sothat tbey are aware of how clients approacb tbedifficulties tbey encounter.

Furtbermore, during acute trials, tbese frame-works for understanding reality frequently becomemore salient (Pargament, 1997). Put differently,problems often serve to reorient individuals towardtbeir metaphysical reality and increase its level ofpersonal importance—tbe "no atheists in foxholes"effect. Consequently, spiritually based coping pro-vides individuals witb another resource to addressdifficulties (Pargament). However, it is also true thatclients can become so mired in present, oftenchronic, challenges that tbey overlook potentialresources tbat may solve current obstacles (Saleebey,1997), hence, tbe need for assessment and inter-vention that can increase tbe operative salience ofspiritual strengtbs.

Thus, when considering interventions based onclients' spiritual lifemaps, two questions are of par-ticular interest to workers. First, how have clientsculled various resources from tbeir frameworksduring past difficulties to ameliorate problems?Second, wbat unaccessed resources are available intbis framework that can be marshaled to addresscurrent problems?

In practice settings, this means that therapistsmake a smooth transition from general inquiry toexploring bow consumers have dealt with pasttrials as well as tbe strengths that exist in theconsumers spirituality. Tbus,practitioners might askclients to elaborate on the trials tbey bave delin-eated on tbeir lifemaps and to identify assets thatcan be used to address current obstacles, in tbe caseexample, a practitioner might wisb to explore inmore detail how Darrin's spiritual strengths helpedhim deal with his past trials and bow tbey mightbe used to address his present difficulties. "How"questions (for example. How did you cope withthat event?) and embedded questions (for example,I'm interested in knowing more about wbat youconsider to be your spiritual strengths?) can oftenbe effectively used to elicit further information.

Hodge (2000b) delineated a number of patb-ways tbrough which spirituality may engender

HODGE / Spiritual lifemaps: A Client-Centered Pictorial Imtrument for Spiritual Auessment, Planning, and htervemion 8l

salutary outcomes. Paraphrased pathways that maybe of particular importance are the individual's re-lationship to God (or perceived Transcendence),spiritual beliefs, spiritual rituals or practices, andcburcb-based (or other faith community) socialsupport. These pathways, which are empiricallybased and found in most faith traditions, provideguidance for eliciting spiritual strengtbs. (Table 1provides a list of common questions that migbt beasked to help operationalize clients'spiritual assets.)

The questions delineated inTable 1 are not meantto be asked in any specific order, nor sbouid w^ork-ers necessarily retain tbeir exact wording. Rather,workers should be familiar with the questions and

Table 1: Exploratory Questions forClarifying Spiritual Assets

Relationship with God

"How did your relationship with God help you to addressthat problem?"

"What did God teach you about that situation?'

Have you been able to apply those lessons in othersituations?"

"How has God supported you in times ot crises?"

"What are the spiritual strengths of your relationship withGod?"

"How docs God view you/feel about you?"

Spiritual Beliefs

"What does your faith teach about trials?"

"Is there a metaphysical reason for life's challenges?"

"What are your favorite scriptures?"

"Are there certain scriptures that really speak to you duringtimes of stress?"

"What spiritual principles have you learned from life'sexperiences?"

Spiritual RItuais

"Are there certain ritual.s or regular spiritual practices thathelp you cope with life's trials?" "Arc some rituals particularlyeffective in certain situations?"

"Are there particular rituals that strengthen your relationshipwith God?"

Church-Based Social Support

"What rote has your church or faith commutiity playedduring the crisis?

"Are there telationships in yout church that are particularlysupportive?"

"Has there beet) a spiritual mentor in your life that has beenparticularly significant?"

"How have these individuals assisted you in coping withtrials?"

interface them with clients' lifemaps in tbe naturalflow of conversation. It is probable that consumerswill depict a number of tbe four patbways on tbeirlifemaps in some form. The questions should beadapted to facilitate tbe exploration of key eventsand tbemes with tbe lifemap serving as the focalpoint ofthe discussion.

In instances where some ofthe four pathways donot appear on the lifemap, or in subsequent discus-sion, workers should consider inquiring about tbeirsalience. As mentioned earlier, tbese pathways arefound in most traditions.Thus, it is likely tbat tbeybave played some role in consumers' spiritual jour-neys. In such cases, tentative praising sbould be used(for example, I was wondering if there are particu-lar rituals that have nurtured your spirituality insome instances during your spiritual journey?). Inlight of subsequent inquiry, consumers may wisb toadapt their lifemap.

Finally, wben asking questions, and in generalwhen interacting witb consumers, practitionerssbould allow clients to fill in tbeir terminology. Forexample, altbougb tbe questions delineated use tbeterm "God" in keeping with tbe beliefs of mostclients in tbe United States (Canda & Furman, 1999),this and otber terminology sbould be adapted toreflect the terms ofthe client's spiritual cosmology.More specifically, a worker would not use tbe term"God" wben working with adherents of Buddhisttraditions who generally do not affirm God as anexpression of the Transcendent, As implied in tbepreceding section, during assessment practitionerssbould attempt to understand consumers" spiritualcosmologies and incorporate the resulting termsand concepts into subsequent discussion.

POSSIBLE INTERVENTiONSTo a large degree, tbe interventions tbat are mutu-ally decided on depend on tbe consumer's spiritu-ality and tbe theoretical orientation ofthe practi-tioner. There are, however, several mterventions ofwbicb workers may wish to be cognizant.

Spiritual Holding EnvironmentFor practitioners flimiliar with self-psychology, tbistheoretical framework, with its concept of self-ob-jects and holding environments offers what couldbe considered tbe ideal mirroring intervention(Elson, 1986). In many spiritual traditions, God canbe understood as tbe ideal self-object—a caring,loving, benevolent, and compassionate Being. As

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implied, for instance, in the Christian framework,God is beld to bave so deeply loved individuals thatthe life of bis Son was sacrificed on their behalf.

If assessment indicates that such a view of God isheld, problems can be ameliorated by encouragingconsumers to enter into a nurturing bolding envi-ronment tbrough increased prayer and meditationon Gods traits that are similar to those of ideal self-objects. Such bolding environments can foster in-creased ego cohesion, integration, and mastery{Elson, 1986) and may be particularly effective withdisadvantaged populations, such as African Ameri-cans, who often experience relatively fewer posi-tive affirmations in the wider culture (Ellison, 1993).

Spiritual ReframingSpiritual reframing can be a powerful intervention.As suggested earlier, in tbe midst of material diffi-culties, consumers often forget tbe supersedingmetaphysical reality. In a forest of troubles, clientscan lose sight of tbe spiritual trutb tbat gives tbenihope and meaning and helps them endure trialsand persevere through hardship.

As Pargament (1997) suggested, practitioners canexplore alternative frames that accentuate theconsumer's spiritual reality. By altering tbe mean-ings consumers attacb to events, the significance ofthe event can be changed. A situation that onceseemed unfathomable and unbearable, by cbang-ing the attributions, can be endured, explained, andeven become a valuable experience.

Spiritual lifemaps and subsequent exploration canbe used to identify spiritual beliefs that help clientsre-envision tbeir current circumstances tbrougb aspiritual lens. Indeed, as illustrated above, this beliefis often implicitly higbligbted by spiritual lifemaps.During Darrin's dark nigbt of tbe soul period, bisrealization that God, in His sovereignty, had a planfor his life and had allowed the difficult events heexperienced to touch bis life for an underlyingpurpose dramatically altered his perceptions. Al-though it is important to acknowledge tbe affec-tive component of tbe present troublesome event,by reframing it as an opportunity for spiritualgrowtb, a more salutary oudook can be fostered(Pargament. 1997).

Cognitive ReframingA related intervention is cognitive reframing. Intbis approach, unhealthy beliefs are identified inkeeping witb tbe tenets of standard cognitive tberapy.

Salutary beliefs drawn from tbe individual's spiri-tual cosmology are then substituted for the delete-rious beliefs. For example, witb Muslims, unpro-ductive beliefs may be modified or replaced withbeliefs derived from tbe Quran.Some researcb sug-gests tbat tbis approach may be effective in address-ing anxiety disorders, bereavement, and depressionwith Muslims, and depression with botb Christiansand Mormons (Hodge, in press).

Solution-Focused RitualsRituals tbat are spiritual strengtbs can be interfacedwith solution-focused approaches to address prob-lems. For example, in tbe case example, exceptionsto problems may occur after participation in a par-ticular church function,devotional activity, or Prom-ise Keepers meeting. Participation in tbese eventscan be substituted for tbe problem-causing activity,facilitating tbe adoption of new, more beneficialpatterns of interaction {Hodge, 2000a).

Many rituals bave been associated witb positivemental health outcomes Qobnson, 2002; Koeniget al., 2001; Pargament, 1997). For example,Jacobs(1992) noted that the regular gathering of thePlains Ojibwa to publicly confess their sins fosterslower levels of anxiety and greater social bonding.Accordingly, enbancing tbe significance of ritualsin clients' lives may foster positive ripple effects.Tbus, independent of any existing therapeutic ap-proach, the adoption of rituals can be consideredan intervention.

Leveraging Church-Based Social SupportThe social support obtained in faitb-based settingscan be qualitatively and quantitatively superior tothat found in other settings, and may be particu-larly efficacious among disadvantaged populationsthat may have fewer resources to draw upon (Ellison& George, 1994; Haigbt, 1998; Perry, 1998).Churches and allied organizations frequently pro-vide a network of unique faith-based services andprograms to assist individuals.

Practitioners can belp consumers explore tbeoptions tbat may exist in tbis area. In addition toexploring current resources, lifemaps may revealassets tbat clients had not accessed because oftbe overwbelming nature of tbeir current situa-tions. It may also be possible to leverage existingor past assets to address present problems. For ex-ample, in the context ofthe case example, a workermight explore the possibility of leveraging churcb

HODGE / Spiritual Lifemaps: A Clieni-Centered Pictorial Instrumfnt fir Spiritual Assessment, Planning, and Intervention

resources, which were so effective in helpingDarrin cope with bis employment loss, to addresspresent difficulties.

Brevity of Life ReflectionSpiritual lifemaps are also well suited for interven-tions innovated in existential therapeutic traditionsthat focus on tbe brevity of life. By promoting arealistic appraisal of tbe brevity of life, the availableopportunities, and the identification of achievablegoals, significant change can be fostered. Similarly,by guiding consumers into a positive confrontationwitb deatb, a new appreciation for life and an aware-ness ofthe preciousness of present and future timecan be engendered, which in turn helps clients ac-cept the challenge of solving present problems, set-ting new goals, and deciding to experience life inall its tumultuous fullness (Fllerman, 1999).

It is important to note tbat caution sbould beexercised when using brevity of life interventions.Workers should ensure that consumers" affectivestate is compatible with such interventions. Thisbeing said, lifemaps are ideally suited for existentialinterventions as they intrinsically highlight the tran-sitory nature of life and the inevitability of deatb,especially in systematic portrayals of tbe full Hfecyle. As was illustrated in the case example, infreeform maps, clients may neglect to depict theirfuture. Practitioners can move into tbis area by bigb-ligbting tbe proportion of life lived compared withthe client's remaining time given current life ex-pectancy rates. Similarly, heightening awareness ofdeatb and impending accountability in the afterlifecan increase motivation to change existing patterns.

Workers may also be able to foster an increasedwillingness to accept the existential anxiety of life,a greater willingness to accept life's experiences,both positive and negative, by focusing on tbeprovidential care of God. As in tbe case example,in many instances lifemaps reveal that consumersbelieve that life is lived under the care of God andtbat notbing bappens to tbem apart from Godswill. Belief in this reality can provide an added in-centive to abandon tbe self to the existential full-ness of life.

LIFEMAPS AS AN INTERVENTIONIt is important to note that the process of creatinga spiritual lifemap, in addition to delineating mate-rial tbat can be used for planning interventions, isitself an intervention. As mentioned earlier.

Augustine's Confessions, tbe animating concept oflifemaps, can be understood as "an act of therapy"(Clark, 1993). Hence the concept's widespread usein spiritual direction, an approach that shares manysimilarities witb psychotherapy (Ganje-Fling &McCarthy, 1991).Therefore, I present a number oftherapeutically beneficial traits tbat lifemaps mayengender ni tbis article.

Being asked to create, to visually depict a spiri-tual lifemap, may promote self-esteem and enbanceself-image (Burke, 1985). By requesting that theconsumer construct an important therapeutic mod-ule, the social worker sends tbe message that theclient is capable, important, and bas a significantrole to play. It is empowering in tbe sense tbat itimpUcitly calls on clients to take responsibility fortbeir personal growtb by taking an active part intbe therapeutic process. In addition, constructing alifemap sets in place a pattern of successfully tack-ling and completing tasks from tbe beginning oftberapy.

Tbe depiction of life events can foster significantreappraisal of earlier events tbat bad been evaluatedin a negative light. Physically illustrating situationscan help refi-ame unconscious attributions tbat shapecurrent actions (Weishaar, 1999). For instance. Damnmay have internalized parental messages believinghe was a failure tor "wasting" his youth and notobtaining a college degree. Yet, after viewing bisspiritual walk be may change his perceptions andsee himself as a successfial individual who has achieveda number of accomplishments (for example, leader-ship roles in church activities, the mentoring pro-gram. Promise Keepers'groups, and so forth).

Furthermore, viewing past events through thelens of one's spiritual journey can help engenderhope for the fiiture. For example, reflecting on pastfailures as part of God's plan often enables indi-viduals to discern the Divine's underlying reasonfor allowing tbe "failures" to occur. On deUneatingbis sojourn,Darrin may realize his"dazed and con-fused" period was instrumental to his later work intbe mentoring program because it allowed him toform stronger bonds witb the youths. Knowing thatpast difficult events bad a discernible purpose givesconsumers confidence tbat current events also havea reason, which frequently reduces tbe perceivedsize ofthe present difficulty and fosters motivationto address the present situation.

Similarly, spiritual lifemaps can belp shrink con-sumers' existential vacuum. Emotional symptoms

SocialWork VOLUME 50, NUMBER I JANUARY 1005

and problems can flourish when consumers feel anabsence of meaning and purpose (Lantz, 1998).Helping tbe client remember, recover, and becomefully aware of past meaningful events helps to re-duce tbe sense of existential nieaninglessness.

Lifemaps,by taking a subjective, mysterious, elu-sive reality, a reality that may even be inaccessibletbrough traditional verbal forms of communica-tion, and transforming tbem into a concrete ob-servable depiction, are an especially effective meansof recovering meanings tbat may bave been ob-scured (Moon,! 994). Furtbermore,focusing on thespiritual nature of life is likely to increase percep-tions of purpose and meaning (Pargament, 1997).

Lifemaps can also help free consumers from tbedominant discourses that restrict their choices(Ricbert, 1999). By depicting an alternative,strengths-based spiritual discourse, a new reality isfostered wbicb, in turn, allows for new, previouslyunseen options to be accessed. As clients chart theirspiritual narratives, old disempowering stories canseem less attractive and may be discarded for tbenew empowering stories they depict.

Finally, it should be noted that workers can en-bance tbe intrinsic benefits of lifemaps tbroughspecific interventions. For example, with the casestudy, practitioners migbt heighten tbe sense ofmeaning and coherence in Darrin's life by asking ifbis "dazed and confused" period is now being usedby God in his mentoring ministry Indeed, many oftbe interventions delineated earlier in this articledovetail with tbe material presented in tbis section.In sbort, practitioners are encouraged to incorpo-rate interventions from tbeir own theoretical ori-entations that are congruent with the strengths oftbe instrument to enbance its effectiveness as anintervention.

Other ApplicationsOtber applications should be briefly mentioned. Insituations vi/bere conserving tberapeutic time iscrucial, some practitioners may wish to assign tbecreation of a lifemap as a homework assignment.The completed lifemap could tben be discussed inthe next therapeutic session. Alternatively, someworkers may wisb to conduct spiritual assessmentsusing other instruments, such as a spiritual eco-map (Hodge, 2000a), which may offer a faster as-sessment approach while highlighting relationsbipsto present spiritual domains; to construct a spiritualgenogram (Hodge,2001b), wbicb underscores tbe

generational flow of spirituality in tbe family sys-tem; or to conduct a spiritual bistory (Hodge.20()la),a nondiagrammatic approacb tbat may appeal tomore verbally oriented cUents.

An important tenet in solution-focused thera-peutic modalities is to reinforce salutary changesthat occur (Kok & Leskela, 1996).Lifemaps can beused to track changes tbat occur during therapy.For instance, the current section of tbe spiritualjourney can be blown up off to one side, like voicecaptions in cartoons, so tbat tbe present tberapeu-tic endeavor can be sketcbed in greater detail. Pro-posed interventions can be drawn on the lifemapalong with their completion. Used in tbis way,lifemaps can serve as pictorial cbronology of tbetherapeutic process.

Consequently, in the termination phase oftherapy, lifemaps can then be used to conclude tbesessions on a positive note by documenting thechanges tbat bave occurred during tberapy. Fur-thermore, they can be used for relapse prevention.Consumers could, for example, be asked to peri-odically review tbeir lifemaps to reinforce the gainsthey bave made during counseling.

VALUE CONFLICTSWhen discussing spirituality, it is imperative thatconsumers' autonomy be respected. Social workerssbould carefully monitor tbeir own and client re-sponses to ensure tbat self-determination is pre-served. Workers must be particularly sensitive wheninteracting with clients from faith traditions thatdiffer froin their own.

Genia (2000) bigbligbted tbe issue of religiouscountertransference. Consistent with other samplesof belping professionals, 44 percent of Sheridan andassociates' (1992) sample of clinical social workers(N = 109) no longer participated in the religiousaffiliation of their childhood, witb the change inreligious affiliation occurring predominantly in ashift from Christianity, to "none" or "other." In ad-dition, more than one in three (36 percent) of tbesocial workers in this Virginia sample reportedambivalent to negative feelings about their religiousbackgrounds (Sheridan etal., 1992). Since, as notedat tbe beginning of tbis article, graduate educa-tional programs are unlikely to have addressed tbeneed to work tbrougb negative feelings that mayexist before interacting with Christians, Genia sug-gested that sucb social workers may be susceptibleto religious countertransference biases tbat can

HODGE / Spiritual Ufemaps: A Client-Centered Pictorial Instrument for Spiritual Asseismem, Planning, and Intervention

imperil the therapeutic relationship. Similarly, gay,lesbian, feminist, and other practitioners who be-lieve that traditional Cbristian values are morallywrong, should consider their ability to work witbdevout Christians m a comtructive fashion,as shouldtbe latter population when the seating at tbe thera-peutic table is reversed.

Concern is also warranted when the value sys-tems of practitioner and consumer are similar. Asnoted previously, tbe philosophy animating tbelifemap is derived from the spiritual direction tra-dition, hence the instrument's ability to foster alarge amount of clinically salient spiritual data.Yet,altbougb there is a high degree of congruency be-tween therapy and spiritual direction (Ganje-Fbng& McCarthy, 1991), it is important to remain fo-cused on solving consumers'problems and to avoidfalling into spiritual direction, in whicb tbe goal isto help individuals deepen their intimacy with Godratber than ameliorate problems. This temptationmay be particularly strong wben the practitionerand the consumer are fkim the same spiritual tradi-tion and the worker has an interest in spirituality.

CONCLUSIONSpiritual lifemaps offer practitioners several waysto integrate consumers' spirituality into the tbera-peutic dialogue. Lifemaps can be used as an assess-ment tool, to plan spiritually based interventions,and they can stand alone as an intervention.Theymay be used in clinical settings or assigned as home-work. Tbey provide insigbt into bow consumersconstruct their reality while providing a method tooperationalize clients' spiritual strengtbs. Perbapsmost important, spiritual lifemaps may help practi-tioners provide more client-centered services. tHiJ

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David R. Hodge, PhD, MSU^ is a postdoctoral fellow.

University of Pamsyhwiia, Program for Research on

Religion and Urban Civil Society, Leadership Hall, 3814

Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19W4; e-mail: dhodge@

sas. upenn. edu.

Original manuscript received April 19, 2000Final revision received August 18, 2000Accepted September 26. 2000

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