Speech Acts

To speak is to act.

• Every time a speaker utters a sentence, s/he is attempting to accomplish something with the words; specifically, s/he intends to have some effect on the listener and wants the listener to recognize this intention.

People do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances.

(1) You`re fired.The utterance can be used to perform the act

of ending your employment. However, the actions performed by utterances do not have to be dramatic or unpleasant.

• In many ways, the circumstances are the ones that determine the interpretation of the Speech Act.

• e.g. The weather is really cold. The tea tastes great.

Definition of speech acts

• A speech act is a functional unit in communication (Cohen, A.D.)

• It’s an act that a speaker performs when making an utterance.

Definition of speech acts

• Austin (1962) and Searle (1981) established that whenever we say something, three simultaneous acts are performed:

• It is the act of saying or writing something in a language.

• It is the choice of actual words spoken. • It is the “intention” we have when saying or

writing something.

• J.L Austin observed that many utterances do not communicate information, but are equivalent to actions, e.g.

• I apologise… • I promise…. • I will… (at a wedding) • I name this ship…

• Austin called such utterances performatives, which he saw as distinct from statements that convey information (constatives).

I name this ship The Queen Elisabeth (performative).Maurice Garin won the Tour de France in 1903 (constative)

• Performatives cannot be true or false.

• Explicit performatives are performative utterances that contain a performative verb that makes explicit what kind of act is being performed.

I promise to come to your talk tomorrow afternoon.

• implicit performatives are performative

utterances in which there is no such verb.

I’ll come to your talk tomorrow afternoon.

Common Speech Acts:

• apology, promise, agreement, acceptance

• advice, suggestion, warning

• requests, voting

• According to Austin’s theory of speech acts (1962), utterances have three kinds of meaning.

1.Propositional/locutionary: literal meaning of an utterance

2.Illocutionary meaning: particular intention in making the utterance

3.Perlocutionary force: production of a particular effect in the addressee

The action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts:

• LOCUTIONARY ACTS (basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression)e.g. The coffee tastes great.

• ILLOCUTIONARY ACT is performed via the communicative force of an utterance

• E.g. The coffee tastes great.• The example might be

– to invite for a cup of coffee– to offer a cup of coffee– or simply as statement of fact

• PERLOCUTIONARY ACTS (we create an utterance to produce an effect on the hearer)– e.g. The coffee tastes great.

The hearer, on hearing the sentence above might react by accepting a cup of coffee if interprets this act as perlocutionary.

• Example: Give me an apple.

• Locutionary act: the utterance itself.• Illocutionary act: Request, command.• Perlocutionary act (presumably): A passes B

an apple.

It’s stuffy in here. • The locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal

meaning “There isn’t enough fresh air in here”. • The illocutionary act can be a request of the

hearer to open the window. • The perlocutinary act can be the hearer’s opening

the window or his refusal to do so. In fact, we might utter (1) to make a statement, a request, an explanation, or for some other communicative purposes. This is also generally known as the illocutionary force of the utterance.

• a. Husband: That’s the phone. b. Wife: I’m in the bathroom. a. Husband: Okay.

• (b) Illocutionary acts are: • (i) a refusal to comply with the request • (ii) a request to her husband to answer the

phone instead.

SEARLE´S CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH ACTS

• Declarations: which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic insititutions (excommunicating, declaring war, christening, firing from employment)I now declare the meeting open.

I appoint you chairman of the committee. I fire you!

Class dismissed (students get up and leave) .

• Expressives: which express a psychological state (thanking, apologizing, welcoming, congratulating)

I’m sorry for the mess I have made. It’s really kind of you to have thought of me.• I am very disappointed. • What a great day!!! • Oh my, that’s terrible.

• representatives: which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition (paradigm cases: asserting, concluding, etc.)

(I swear) I have never seen the man before. (I state) The earth is a globe.

• I went to the Affandi painting exhibition. There are about twenty paintings on display. Some are very classic and extraordinarily awesome.

• directives: which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something ( requesting, questioning)Open the window!

You’d better go to the clinic. Your money or your life! Would you like to go to the picnic with us?

• 1) I need/ want that car. • 2) Give me your pen. • 3) Could you give me your pen, please? • 4) May I have some soda? Is there any milk

left? • 5) This has to be done over. What about the

renovation?

• commissives: which commit the speaker to some future course of action (Promising, threatening, offering)

I promise to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.• Maybe I can do that tomorrow. • Don’t worry, I’ll be there.

All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force.

Close the door! Will you close the door! Can you close the door! Do you mind closing the door? I would be very grateful if you could close the

door! The door is open. The door, please!

• Shut the door!• Could you shut the door?• It’d help to have the door shut.• It’s getting cold in here. Shall we keep out the

draught?• Now, Jane, what have you forgotten to do?

Brrr!

Speech act functions

• 1) Exchange factual information • The plain departs at 7:10. • 2) Exchange intellectual information• These arguments are correct. • 3) Exchange emotional attitudes • I’m worried about my term papers.

• 4) Exchange moral attitudes • I appreciate your help. • 5) Persuasion• Hand in your assignments. • 6) Socializing • Hi, Larry, how are you?

Felicity conditions (Austin)

• For performative utterances, whether they are true or not is not at issue; rather, we might ask whether they work (felicitous) or not (infelicitous).

• There must exist an accepted conventional procedure having a conventional effect, that includes the uttering of certain words by certain persons in certain circumstances.

• The procedure must be executed by all participants both correctly and completely.

Sincerity condition

• In addition, he formulates a sincerity condition, specifying that the persons must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, as specified in the procedure.

• If the sincerity condition is violated, there is a case of what Austin calls an ‘abuse’. Examples of abuse include:

• – congratulating someone when one knows that they have passed an examination by cheating, or making a promise when one already intends to break it.

Summary of Austinian felicity conditions

– A PREPARATORY CONDITION, meant to establish whether or not the circumstances of the speech act and the participants in it are appropriate to its successful performance.

– An EXECUTIVE CONDITION, meant to determine whether or not the speech act has been properly executed.

Summary of Austinian felicity conditions

– A SINCERITY CONDITION involves Speaker's responsibility for the illocutions in the utterance. Normally, Hearer will assume that Speaker is being sincere unless s/he has good reason to believe otherwise.

– A FULFILMENT CONDITION determined by the perlocutionary effect of the speech act.

How can a performative ‘go wrong’?

• I name this ship the Wreck• • There’s not a ship in sight• The ship has a name already• I don’t have the authority• This name is not allowed• It’s the wrong formula (развалина, risipitură)• It’s not the right moment

• Commissive: “I promise to repay the money I owe.” (but the speaker does not intend to keep the promise)

• Directive: “Go and close the door.” (said by a private to the general)

• Expressive: “I am sorry that I ran over your cat.” (but the speaker does not really feel any remorse)

• Assertive: “I did not eat the chocolate cake.” (but the speaker is lying)

Searle’s felicity conditions for well-formed promises

“I promise that I will pay your tuition next quarter”.

Illocutionary clause↓

1.Sincerity condition

2.Essential condition

Propositional clause↓

3.Futurity condition4.Ability condition5.Non-expectancy condition6.Benefit condition

1. Sincerity rule

Speaker must be sincere:

State-of-mind condition – speaker intends to carry out the promised act

“I will help you with your physics homework.”(I intend to help you with your physics homework.)

2. Essential rule

Speaker (in making the promise) has conveyed to the hearer that the speaker has made a commitment

In other words, the hearer is aware that the speaker is committing him/herself to do what he/she promises to do

“(I promise) I will help you with your physics homework.”

3. Futurity rule

• The act that is to be performed must take place in the future

“I promise you that I will repair your car.”“I promise you that George will repair your car.”

NOTE: The speaker must be the one who is to perform the future act (or else will see to it that someone else will do the act)

4. Ability rule

The speaker must have the necessary ability (mentally, physically, and/or financially) to perform the act promised(and must do something in furtherance of the performance).

“I will help you with your calculus homework.”

5. Non-expectancy rule

The speaker would not be obligated to perform the act in the ordinary course of events.

“(I promise) I will help you with your calculus homework.”Husband to wife: “I promise to come home tonight.”

6. Benefit ruleThe promised act will be of benefit to the promisee.“I will take you to Disney Land tomorrow.”(I have reason to think that you would like to go to Disney Land.)

Well-formedness ConditionsPromisor (Speaker)

Promisee (Hearer)

1) Sincerity rule 2) Essential rule

# 3) Futurity rule

# 4) Ability rule

# 5) Non-expectancy rule

# 6) Benefit rule

• (a) Futurity condition: Each party is to perform (or refrain from performing) a future act.

• (b) Ability condition: Each party is able (physically, mentally and/or financially) to perform the required act and will do something to further that performance.

• (c) Non-expectancy condition: A party is not expected to do the act in the ordinary course of affairs.

• (d) Benefit condition: Each party sincerely wants the other party’s performance of the act and it is that desire that motivates entering into a bargain.

Indirect speech acts

• Understanding the motives behind utterances is often crucial to successful communication. But the relationship between the surface form of an utterance -- the actual words spoken -- and it underlying purpose -- the speaker's intentions -- isn't always straightforward. Consider:

• Can you pass the salt?

• This is an interrogative and so expresses a question.

• Usually the speaker's goal in asking a questing is to get an answer.

• But Can you pass the salt? has a different purpose: it's a request, where the speaker's goal is for the header to pass the salt.

• This is an indirect speech act, which is an utterance in which one speech act is performed indirectly by performing another. Requesting the hearer to pass the salt is performed indirectly by performing another communication act - asking about the hearer's ability to pass the salt.

There are several ways to determine if an utterance is an indirect speech act.

• First check to see whether there is a performative verb in the sentence, since only direct speech acts are accomplished using performative verbs, never indirect speech acts.

• If there is no performative verb in the sentence, check to see whether any felicity conditions are violated. If there are violations of the literal but not the intended meaning, then the sentence must be indirect.

• Finally, we can imagine a context in which the utterance is used and consider the way people normally respond to it.

• Different speech acts arouse different responses. Listeners respond to an assertion by a signal or acknowledgement, such as a nod or a verbal response such as Oh, I see. People respond to a question by a confirmation or denial, or by giving the information being solicited.

• People respond to a request or command by either carrying out the action accordingly or refusing with some explanation.

• If the response to an utterance is different than its literal meaning would be, then it is used to perform an indirect speech act.

• For example, the literal interpretation of Can you pass the salt? is a question.

• But compare it with something like Can you lift 200 pounds?

• You can respond to this question by simply saying Yes, I can or No, I can't.

• But it isn't appropriate, felicitous, or polite to respond to Can you pass the salt? this way.

• This shows that Can you lift 200 pounds? is a direct speech act of questioning

• while Can you pass the salt? is an indirect speech act of requesting.

Indirect speech acts• “Could you move over a bit?”

• “Yes” (without moving is inappropriate)

• Moving (without “Yes” is appropriate)

• NOTE: “Could you move over a bit” is a precondition to the actual speech act, “Move over.”

• Do you know what time it is?

• Do you have the correct time?

• Can you tell me how to get to the hotel?

• Do you see the salt anywhere?

• It’s cold in here.

• Why can’t you shut up?

(2) a. It’s cold outside. b. I hereby tell you about the weather. c. I hereby request of you that you close the door.

• Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a direct speech act.

• Ex., a declarative used to make a statement is a direct speech act, but a declarative used to make a request is an indirect speech act.

(2) a. It’s cold outside. b. I hereby tell you about the weather. c. I hereby request of you that you close the door.

• As illustrated in (2), the utterance in (2a) is a declarative.

• When it is used to make a statement, as paraphrased in (2b), it is functioning as a direct speech act.

• When it is used to make a command/request, as paraphrased in (2c), it is functioning as an indirect speech act.

• I strongly suggest you shut your mouth.

• Sometimes it’s a good idea to shut up.

• I wonder if you really should do all that talking.

• I wouldn’t say more, if I were you.

• Remember the proverb, “Speech is silver….?”

• How about if you just shut up?