REFERENCE C O W Do Not Remove from the Librar

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Research Ccn5er

FWSIOBS-82111.25 700 Cajun Dome tSouleyfard JUIY 1984 -rR EL-82.4 Lafayette, Louisiana 70506

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Atlantic)

ATLANTIC STURGEON

Coastal Ecology Group Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

FWS/OBS-82111.25 TR EL-82-4 J u l y 1984

Species P r o f i l es : L i f e H i s t o r i e s and Environmental Requirements of Coastal F ishes and I n v e r t e b r a t e s (South At1 a n t i c )

ATLANTIC STURGEON

Michael J. Van Den Avy le Georgia Cooperat ive F i she ry Research U n i t

School o f Fo res t Resources U n i v e r s i t y o f Georgia

Athens, GA 30602

P r o j e c t Manager L a r r y Shanks

P r o j e c t O f f i c e r Norman Benson

Na t i ona l Coasta l Ecosystems Team U. S. F i s h and W i l d l i f e Serv ice

1010 Gause Boulevard S l i d e l l , LA 70458

Performed f o r Coasta l Ecology Group

Waterways Experiment S t a t i o n U.S. Army Corps o f Engineers

Vicksburg, MS 39180

and

Na t i ona l Coasta l Ecosystems Team D i v i s i o n o f B i o l o g i c a l Serv ices

Research and Development F i s h and W i l d l i f e Serv ice

U. S. Department o f t h e I n t e r i o r Washington, DC 20240

This ser ies should be referenced as fo l l ows :

U.S. F ish and W i l d l i f e Service. 1 9 8 3 - 1 9 . Species p r o f i l e s : l i f e h i s t o r i e s and environmental requirements of coasta l f i shes and inver tebra tes . U. S. F i sh Wildl . Serv. FWSIOBS-82/11. U.S. Army Corps o f Engineers, TR EL-82-4.

This p r o f i l e should be c i t e d as fo l l ows :

Van Den Avyl e, M. J. 1984. Species p r o f i l e s : 1 i f e h i s t o r i e s and environmental requirements o f coasta l f i s h e s and i nve r teb ra tes (South At1 a n t i c ) -- At1 a n t i c sturgeon. U.S. F ish Wi ld l . Serv. FWS/OBS-82111.25. U.S. Army Corps o f Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 17 pp .

PREFACE

This species p r o f i l e i s one o f a se r i es on coasta l aqua t i c organisms, p r i n c i p a l l y f i s h , o f spor t , commerci a1 , o r ecol og i ca l importance. The p r o f i l es a r e designed t o p rov ide coasta l managers, engineers, and b i o l o g i s t s w i t h a b r i e f comprehensive sketch o f t he b i 01 og i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and environmental r equ i re - lnents o f t h e species and t o descr ibe how popu la t ions o f t he species may be expected t o r e a c t t o environmental changes caused by coasta l development. Each p r o f i l e has sec t ions on taxonomy, 1 i f e h i s t o r y , eco log ica l r o l e , environmental requirements, and economic importance, i f appl i cab le . A t h ree - r i ng b inde r i s used f o r t h i s se r i es so t h a t new p r o f i l e s can be added as they are prepared. This p r o j e c t i s j o i n t l y planned and f inanced by t h e U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and t h e U.S. F ish and W i l d l i f e Service.

Suggestions o r quest ions. regard ing t h i s r e p o r t should be d i r e c t e d to :

I n fo rma t i on Trans fer S p e c i a l i s t Nat iona l Coastal Ecosys tems Team U.S. F ish and W i l d l i f e Serv ice NASA-Sl i d e l 1 Computer Compl ex 1010 Gause Boul evard Sl i d e l 1 , LA 70458

U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment S t a t i o n A t ten t i on : WESER Post O f f i c e Box 631 Vicksburg, MS 39180

CONVERSION FACTORS

M e t r i c t o U.S. Customary

m i l 1 ime te rs (mn) cent imeters (cm) meters (m) k i 1 ometers ( km)

square meters (m2) 10.76 square k i 1 ometers ( km2) 0.3861 hec ta res (ha) 2.471

To Obta in

inches inches f e e t m i 1 es

square f e e t square m i l e s acres

l i t e r s ( 1 ) cub ic meters (m3) cub ic meters

0.2642 gal l ons 35.31 . cub i c f e e t 0.0008110 ac re - f ee t

mi 11 i grams (mg) 0.00003527 grams ( g ) 0.03527 k i 1 ograms ( kg ) 2.205 m e t r i c tons ( t ) 2205.0 m e t r i c t ons 1.102 k i 1 ocal o r i es ( kca l ) 3.968

ounces ounces pounds pounds s h o r t tons B r i t i s h thermal u n i t s

Cel s i us degrees 1.8(C0) + 32 Fahrenhei t degrees

U.S. Customary t o M e t r i c

inches 25.40 inches 2.54 f e e t ( f t ) 0.3048 f a t homs 1.829 m i l e s (m i ) 1.609 n a u t i c a l m i l es (nmi ) 1.852

square f e e t ( f t 2 ) acres square mi 1 es (mi 2,

ga l 1 ons ( g a l ) cub i c f e e t ( f t 3 ) a c r e - f e e t

ounces (oz ) 28.35 pounds ( I b ) 0.4536 s h o r t tons ( t o n ) 0.9072 B r i t i s h thermal u n i t (BTU) 0.2520

m i l 1 imeters cen t imeters meters meters k i lometers k i 1 ometers

square meters hectares square k i l ome te rs

1 i t e r s cub ic meters cub ic meters

grams k i 1 ograms m e t r i c tons k i 1 oca l o r i e s

Fahrenhei t degrees 0.5556(F0 - 32) Ce ls ius degrees

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii CONVERSION TABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v i

NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 REASON FOR INCLUSION I N SERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIFE HISTORY 3 Spawning and M i g r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Eggs and Larvae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 J u v e n i l e s and A d u l t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Longev i t y and M o r t a l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 THE FISHERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catch 9 Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Stock Abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

ECOLOGICALROLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Compet i t i on and Other Eco log i ca l I n t e r a c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LITERATURE CITED 14

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We a r e g r a t e f u l f o r the reviews by Mr. Don Marchette, South Carol ina Wild- 1 i f e and Marine Resources Department, Char1 eston, and Mr. Jack Buckley, Massa- chusetts Cooperative Fishery Research U n i t , Anherst.

Figure 1. At1 a n t i c sturgeon.

ATLANTIC STURGEON

S c i e n t i f i c name . . . . . . Acipenser ox r h nchus oxyrhynchus + Prefer re common name . . . . A t l a n t i c sturgeon (F igure 1 )

Other common names . . . . . . Common sturgeon, sharp-nosed sturgeon, sea sturgeon, b i g sturgeon

Class . . . . . . . . . . Osteichthyes Order . . . . . . . . Acipenseri formes Fami 1 y . . . . . . . . Aci penseridae

Geographic range: The A t l a n t i c s t u r - geon i n h a b i t s t he western North A t l a n t i c i n f resh- , brackish, and sa l twa te r f rom Labrador and Newfoundland southward t o t h e St. Johns River, F l o r i d a (Backus 1951; Vladykov and Greeley 1963). The g u l f coast subspecies (A. oxyrhyunchus desotoi ) i n h a b i t s r i v e r s e n t e r i n e Gu l f o f Mexico and southward t o t he A t l a n t i c coast o f Centra l and nor thern South America (Hu f f

1971)'. The species i s anadro- mous, and major centers o f abun- dance are associated w i t h 1 arge r i v e r s (F igure 2) .

MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS

Mate r i a l i n t h i s sec t i on i s taken from V l adykov and Greeley (1963). The body i s f u s i f o r m and has f i v e rows o f bony scutes: one dorsal , two l a t e r a l , and two ven t ra l . Scutes are sharp ly po in ted i n young specimens, bu t become

1 The species A. ox r h nchus

M i t c h i l l i s ~ r e s e n t f i reaar + ed as havinq two s u b s p e c i e s ~ t h e A t l a n t i c sturgeon and the gu l f coast sturgeon (A. oxyrhynhus desoto i ). Th is Species P r o f i e emphasizes t h e At lan- t i c subspecies. In fo rmat ion f o r t h e Gu l f o f Mexico subspecies i s inc luded i n sect ions where i n fo rma t ion on the A t l a n t i c subspecies i s inadequate.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

WINYAH BAY

MILES

KILOMETERS

Commudd Iyvest arm

Figure 2. Major r i v e r s support ing A t l a n t i c sturgeon i n the south A t l a n t i c Region.

b l u n t o r a r e absorbed w i t h age. Snout i s p r o t r u d i n g and mouth i s subterminal w i t h f o u r ba rbe l s i n f r o n t . Mouth w i d t h i s l e s s than 55% o f t h e i n t e r - o r b i t a l w id th ; t h e number o f g i l l r ake rs i s 17-27 (average 21.6); pos tdorsa l and preanal s h i e l d s occur i n p a i r s . Appearance changes consid- e r a b l y w i t h age o r s i z e : t h e snout becomes r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t e r and b l u n t - e r , t h e scutes become smoother, and t h e l owe r l obe o f t h e caudal f i n becomes re1 a t i v e l y longer . Sexes a re e x t e r n a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e o n l y f o r mature i n d i v i d u a l s d u r i n g t h e spawning season, when females have g r e a t l y swo l len abdomens f u l l o f r i p e eggs.

The A t l a n t i c s turgeon i s sympat- r i c w i t h t h e shor tnose sturgeon (Acipenser b r e v i r o s t r i s ) throughout most o f i t s range and w i t h t h e l a k e sturgeon (Ac i enser fu lvescens) i n arts o f t +awrence e R i v e r and o t h e r n o r t h e r l y areas. V l adykov (1955) and Vladykov and Greeley (1963) p rov ided keys f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the species. R e l a t i v e t o t h e shor tnose sturgeon, t h e A t l a n t i c s turgeon has a narrower mouth, fewer g i l l rakers, and g r e a t e r maximum s i ze . I n t h e A t l a n t i c s turgeon the scu tes i n f r o n t o f t he anal f i n a r e p a i r e d ( s i n g l e row i n shor tnose) and t he v i s c e r a a re unpig- mented o r p a l e ( b l a c k i s h i n s h o r t - nose). Vladykov and Greeley (1963) caut ioned t h a t many t r a i t s change w i t h f i s h s i z e and t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g young specimens i s ext remely d i f f i c u l t .

Vladykov (1955) c la imed subspeci- f i c s t a t u s f o r t h e A t l a n t i c and G u l f o f Mexico sturgeons on t h e bas i s of d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e l a t i v e head leng th , spleen leng th , p e c t o r a l f i n - ray l eng th , and shape o f t h e do rsa l scutes. V ladykov 's d e s c r i p t i o n o f t he g u l f sturgeon, however, was based on o n l y two specimens, and recent , comprehensive work has shown t h e groups t o d i f f e r on l y accord ing t o r e l a t i v e sp leen l e n g t h (C. Wooley, personal communication, U.S. F i s h and Wild1 i f e Serv ice, O f f i c e o f F i she ry

Assis tance, Panama C i t y , F l o r i d a ) .

Some au thors cons ider t h e A t l a n t i c s turgeon o f Nor th America t o be t h e same species as Ac i enser s t u r i o Linneaus o f Europe, b u t -I+-- t i s i s n o t g e n e r a l l y accepted a t p resent (Magnin and Bea le iu 1963, c i t e d by Murawski and Pacheco 1977). Vladykov and Greeley (1963) summarized d i f f e r e n c e s between these species.

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES

The A t l a n t i c s turgeon once suppor ted s i g n i f i c a n t commercial f i s h e r i e s i n r i v e r s a long t h e A t l a n t i c seaboard of Nor th America, b u t s tocks have dec l i ned because of a combinat ion o f o v e r f i s h i n g , d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f water qua1 i t y , and damming o f r i v e r s . The spec ies ' s low r a t e o f ma tu ra t i on and i t s use of es tua r i es , coas ta l bays, and upstream areas of r i v e r s make A t l a n t i c s turgeon s tocks vu lne rab le t o h a b i t a t a1 t e r a t i o n s i n many areas. Recent ly increased e x p l o i t a t i o n o f mature females t o produce c a v i a r may add pressure on l o c a l popu la t ions .

LIFE HISTORY

Previous comprehensive rev iews o f A t l a n t i c s turgeon b i o l o g y i n c l u d e Vladykov and Greeley (1963), H u f f (1975), Murawski and Pacheco (1977), and Ru l i f son and Huish (1982).

Spawning and M ig ra t i ons

A t l a n t i c s turgeon are anadromous: they spawn i n f reshwater r i v e r s , and t he young descend g r a d u a l l y t o sea, where they grow and mature. No r e p o r t s have been pub l i shed about exac t spawning l o c a t i o n s , t im ing , and assoc ia ted envi ronmenta l c o n d i t i o n s i n r i v e r s a long t h e South A t l a n t i c B igh t ; spawning pe r i ods can o n l y be i n f e r r e d f rom repo r ted t i m i n g o f spawning migra t ions . M i g r a t i o n s beg in d u r i n g February i n South Ca ro l i na and t he St. Marys River , Georgia (Smith e t a l .

1982), and d u r i n g A p r i l i n Chesapeake Bay (Smith 1907; Hi ldebrand and Schroeder 1928). Vladykov and Greeley (1963) i n d i c a t e d t h a t spawning m ig ra t i ons begin p rog ress i ve l y l a t e r a t h i ghe r l a t i t u d e s . I n t h e Delaware R iver , m ig ra t i ons beg in i n l a t e A p r i l , and Borodin (1925) suggested t h a t sturgeon spawned a t water temperatures of 13.3"-17.8" C. Adu l t sturgeon f i r s t appeared i n t h e Winyah Bay system, South Caro l ina , d u r i n g t h e second o r t h i r d week o f February i n 1979, 1980, and 1982, when water temperatures were 7"-8" C (Smith e t a l . 1982). H u f f (1975) repo r ted t h a t Gu l f o f Mexico sturgeon i n t h e Suwannee River , F l o r i d a , began u p r i v e r m ig ra t i ons i n February and spawned f rom March through e a r l y May.

Knowledge o f spawning 1 oca t ions i s based p r i m a r i l y on c o l l e c t i o n s o f r i p e females i n no r the rn r i v e r s . Borodin (1925) repor ted t h a t sturgeon i n t h e Delaware R iver apparent ly gathered f o r spawning i n an u p r i v e r area where cu r ren ts were s t rong and bot tom subs t ra tes were hard c l ay . Spawning has been observed d u r i n g l a t e May and e a r l y June i n downstream areas of t h e Pee Dee River , South Caro l ina , t h a t a re bordered by cypress / tupe lo swamps (D. E. Marchette, personal communication, South Caro l ina Wild1 i f e and Marine Resources Department, Marine Resources Research I n s t i t u t e , Char leston) . The spawning s i t e s a re cha rac te r i zed by r e l a t i v e l y low c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s , t u r b i d water, and sand and s i l t bottom subs t ra tes w i t h an abundance o f o rgan ic debr is .

Avai 1 ab le , evidence i n d i c a t e s t h a t eggs a r e broadcast i n t o f l o w i n g water and become widespread a f t e r f e r t i 1 i z a - t i o n . Dees (1961) i n d i c a t e d t h a t A t l a n t i c sturgeon spawn i n runn ing b rack i sh o r f reshwater as deep as 3 m over smal l r ubb le o r g rave l . Vladykov and Greeley (1963) speculated t h a t A t l a n t i c sturgeon spawn i n poo ls below w a t e r f a l l s of c e r t a i n St. Lawrence ,River t r i b u t a r i e s . No data on water temperature, s a l i n i t y , c u r r e n t v e l o c i -

ty, o r d i sso l ved oxygen concent ra t ions associated w i t h spawning are repor ted.

It i s poss ib le t h a t spent f i s h r e t u r n gradual l y t o sa l twa te r (Vladykov and Greeley 1963). Sco t t and Crossman (1973) repo r ted t h a t sturgeon m i g ra ted downstream f rom September through November i n t h e St. Lawrence River ; g u l f sturgeon m ig ra te downstream f rom October through December i n F l o r i d a ( H u f f 1975).

Eggs and Larvae

Eggs a re demersal and adhesive and occas iona l l y occur i n s t r i n g y c l u s t e r s o r r ibbons (Murawski and Pacheco 1977). Eggs a t t a c h t o weeds, stones, and, o the r types o f submerged s t r u c t u r e s ( V l adykov and Greel ey 1963). Hu f f (1975) a t t r i b u t e d h i s f a i l u r e t o c o l l e c t spawned sturgeon eggs i n d r i f t ne t s t o t h e i r demersal, adhesive nature. Ripe ( u n f e r t i l i z e d ) eggs a re g lobu la r , l i g h t t o dark brown, and 2.5-2.6 mm i n d iameter (Ryder 1890; Borodin 1925). F e r t i l i z e d eggs a re 2.0-2.9 mm i n diameter, s l a t e g ray o r l i g h t t o dark brown, and are i n i t i a l l y g l o b u l a r b u t become ova l w i t h development (Jones e t a1 . 1978).

Jones e t a l . (1978) p rov ided an i 1 l u s t r a t e d summary o f egg developmen- t a l stages o r i g i n a l l y repor ted by Dean (1893). Reported i ncuba t i on per iods are: w i t h i n 94 h r a t about 20" C (Dean 1895); 168 h r a t 17.8" C (Vladykov and Greeley 1963); 92 h r a t an unspec i f i ed temperature (Dean 1893); and 121-140 h r a t about 18" C, 10 mg/l d i sso l ved oxygen, and pH 7.0 (Smith e t a l . 1980). E f f e c t s o f most environmental f a c t o r s on i ncuba t i on o r egg s u r v i v a l a re unknown.

Few data on f e c u n d i t y a re a v a i l - able. Smith e t a l . (1982) est imated fecund i ty f o r 11 females (48-104 kg t o t a l we igh t ) f rom South Caro l ina . They c a l c u l a t e d a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e number o f eggs (Y) versus body weight ( X , i n kg) t o be: Y = 233,064

+ 13,307 X ( r = 0.84). Females i n t h e Delaware R ive r conta ined 800,000-2,400,000 eggs (Ryder 1890), and North Caro l ina females conta ined 1 m i l l i o n t o 2.5 m i l l i o n eggs (Smith 1907). V l adykov and Greeley (1963) repor ted a f ecund i t y range o f 1.0 m i l l i o n f o r a 75-kg female t o 3.8 m i l l i o n f o r a 160-kg specimen.

No i n fo rma t i on , i s a v a i l a b l e regard ing l a r v a l 1 i f e h i s t o r y . Yo1 k- sac l a r v a e were descr ibed by Ryder (1890), who repor ted newly hatched f r y t o be 11 mm long. Smith e t a l . (1980) descr ibed hatchery-reared 1 arvae; sac f r y averaged 7.1 mm i n l e n g t h and 4 mg wet weight. Larvae doubled i n l eng th a f t e r 15 days and reached 15 mm i n l eng th and 4.6 g i n weight by 131 days o f age.

Juven i les and Adu l ts

Most i n fo rma t i on on j u v e n i l e s i s based on c o l l e c t i o n s o f r a t h e r l a r g e specimens taken by g i l l n e t t i n g , t r a w l - ing , o r i n c i d e n t a l l y i n commercial gear. Accuracy o f some pub l ished i n fo rma t i on has been quest ioned because shortnose sturgeon, which r a r e l y exceed 100 cm i n t o t a l l e n g t h (Vladykov and Greeley 1963), may have been m i s i d e n t i f i e d and inc luded as j u v e n i l e A t l a n t i c sturgeon. Smith e t a1 . (1982) captured young-of-the-year sturgeon f rom nursery areas i n t h e Ed i s to and Waccamaw Rivers, South Carol ina . 'The nursery areas were broad reaches o f t h e r i v e r s i n downstream, t i d a l l y i n f l uenced t r a n s i - t i o n zones having hard sand o r shale substrates. S a l i n i t i e s i n these areas ranged from 1 t o 5 p a r t s per thousand (pp t ) i n t h e Ed i s to R i ve r and from 0 t o 3 p p t i n t h e Waccamaw River. A t l a n t i c sturgeon r e t a i n j u v e n i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s up t o 122 cm fo rk l e n g t h (FL) and the young may spend several years i n f reshwater be fo re m i g r a t i n g t o sea (Murawski and Pacheco 1977). F ischer (1980) captured 34- t o 77-cm FL irrmature sturgeon emigra t ing f rom the Cape Fear R i ve r i n 1975 and one 60.5-cm FL immature specimen i n

1979. Vladykov and Greeley (1963) i n d i c a t e d t h a t some tagged immature f i s h remained i n f r esh - and brack ish waters of t h e St . Lawrence R ive r w h i l e o the rs moved several hundred k i 1 o- meters from t h e i r p o i n t s o f re lease. Recaptures of tagged f i s h i n d i c a t e d movements toward f reshwater i n sp r i ng and back t o s a l t w a t e r i n t h e f a l l .

Hol 1 and and Ye1 ve r ton (1973) summarized recapture i n fo rma t i on f o r j uven i 1 e sturgeon tagged a long the Nor th Carol ina coast. Several recap- t u r e s were made i n ad jacent sounds and i n l e t s , i n d i c a t i n g no abso lu te a f f i n i - ty by t h e f i s h f o r t h e system i n which they were o r i g i n a l l y tagged. Recap- t u r e d f i s h tended t o move southward a long t h e coast d u r i n g November through January and northward du r i ng l a t e w i n t e r and e a r l y spr ing . One 9.5-kg i n d i v i d u a l moved 645 km n o r t h - ward t o Long I s l a n d i n 65 days.

Smith e t a l . (1982) conducted i n t e n s i v e n e t t i n g t o s tudy j u v e n i l e m ig ra t i ons and d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e f o l l ow ing t h r e e regions o f t he Winyah Bay system, South Carol ina: ( 1 ) t i d a l l y i n f l uenced brack ish t o h i g h - s a l i n i t y areas i n t he ocean- es tuary zone; ( 2 ) t i d a l l y in f luenced freshwater areas i n upper es tua r i es and lower r i v e r s ; and (3 ) s t r i c t l y f reshwater r i v e r i n e areas w i t h no t i d a l i n f 1 uence. They concluded t h a t j u v e n i 1 e sturgeon general l y occupied t i d a l l y i n f l uenced f reshwater areas du r i ng warmer months and moved t o b rack ish es tua r i es du r i ng co lde r per iods.

Smith e t a l . (1982) tagged 35 j u v e n i l e sturgeon (38-78 cm f o r k l e n g t h ) i n South Caro l ina and repo r ted s i x recaptures. One tagged i n t h e Ed i s to R i ve r moved about 600 km northward t o Pamlico Sound, Nor th Caro l ina , i n 326 days; one tagged i n Winyah Bay t r a v e l e d about 2,100 km i n 80 days t o Chesapeake Bay; and f o u r were recaptured w i t h i n 60 km o f t h e i r tagg ing s i t e s i n Winyah Bay.

Vladykov and Greeley (1963) sum- marized publ i shed r e p o r t s about s t u r - geon i n Hudson R iver , Chesapeake Bay, and t h e Delaware River . They conclud- ed t h a t immature s turgeon up t o 8 yea rs o f age and 100 cm i n l e n g t h 1 i v e d i n upstream f reshwater areas, downstream es tua r i es , and nearby s a l t - water areas th roughout most o f t h e year . They a1 so concl uded, however, t h a t sooner o r l a t e r immature s turgeon probab ly move o u t t o sea where growth i s g r e a t l y acce le ra ted . H u f f (1975) suggested t h a t j u v e n i l e G u l f o f Mexico sturgeon p a r t i c i p a t e d i n pre- and postspawning m ig ra t i ons i n t h e Suwannee R i v e r even though they were immature. Juven i l es have been r e p o r t - ed t o range t o a maximum depth of about 20 m (Vladykov and Greeley 1963).

Age and s i z e a t m a t u r i t y va ry w i t h gender and l o c a l i t y . Vladykov and Greeley (1963) concluded t h a t females a r e n o t mature u n t i l they weigh a t l e a s t 68 kg and a r e 10 years o l d . The sma l l es t r i p e male they encountered i n t he St . Lawrence R i ve r was 175 cm l ong and weighed 32 kg. I n South Caro l ina , males f i r s t spawned a t 5-13 years o f age, and females f i r s t spawned a t 7-19 years o f age (Smith e t a l . 1982). I n t h e Suwannee R i ve r , F l o r i d a , female G u l f o f Mexico sturgeon were sexual l y d i f f e r e n - t i a t e d as young as age V I I I , b u t some remained immature u n t i l age X I I ; corresponding ages f o r males were V I I and X ( H u f f 1975). Sexes began t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e a t 50-70 cm i n length; the youngest r i p e specimens were age X I 1 ( female) and I X (male). H u f f (1975) speculated t h a t spawning may be delayed f o r 1 o r 2 years a f t e r ma tu r i - t y i s reached (as has been repo r ted f o r t he l a k e sturgeon [Roussow 19571). Vladykov and Greeley (1963) suggested t h a t some females spawn o n l y once every 2 o r 3 years. Smith e t a l . (1982) a1 so noted p e r i o d i c spawning f o r s turgeon f rom South Carol ina. On t h e average, 4.5 and 1.6 years elapsed between t h e f i r s t and second and t h e second and t h i r d spawnings

f o r males w h i l e 5.4 and 3.5 years elapsed between these spawns f o r females.

A v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on d i s t r i - b u t i o n p a t t e r n s o f a d u l t s ma in ly r e l a t e s t o f i s h c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g spawning m ig ra t i ons (as summarized above). D i s t r i b u t i o n i n s a l t w a t e r i s known o n l y f rom occasional catches o f a d u l t s i n c i d e n t a l t o commercial ne t - t i n g i n t h e Nor th A t l a n t i c B igh t . Vladykov and Greeley (1963) repo r ted t h a t most a r e caught i n coas ta l areas, b u t some a re taken f rom s h e l f waters and o f f s h o r e f i s h i n g grounds a t depths down t o 50 m.

Longev i ty and Mor ta l i t y

Longev i ty may va ry w i t h l a t i t u d e (Murawski and Pacheco 1977), b u t no es t imates o f average l i f e expectancy have been made. Reported maximum ages (genera l l y meaning t h e o l d e s t spec i - mens c o l l e c t e d ) a r e about 42 yea rs f o r t he G u l f o f Mexico s t u r eon i n t he Suwannee R iver , F l o r i d a ?Huff 1975); over 12 i n t h e Hudson R i ve r (Greeley 1937); and 60 i n t h e St. Lawrence R i ve r (Magnin 1964, c i t e d by Murawski and Pacheco 1977). Ages I V through X V I I were r e g u l a r l y represented i n H u f f ' s (1975) c o l l e c t i o n s f rom t h e Suwannee R iver . I n South Caro l ina , t h e commercial ca tch i nc l uded sturgeon t h a t were 5 t o 30 years o l d and research c o l l e c t i o n s i nc l uded spec i - mens up t o 4 years of2 age (Marchet te e t a1 . , unpubl ished MS ).

M o r t a l i t y es t imates a re publ i shed o n l y f o r t h e G u l f o f Mexico subspecies i n t h e Suwannee R iver . The average

' ~ ~ e - ~ r o w t h , m a t u r i t y , and mor- t a l i t y o f t h e A t l a n t i c s t u r eon, Ac i enser ox r h nchus itchil ill! i n ?Zii%CGol*ette, D. E., R. A. Smiley, and T. I. J. Smith, South Carol i na W i 1 d l i f e and Marine Resources Department, Marine Resources Research I n s t i t u t e , Char leston, SC 29412.

annual s u r v i v o r s h i p computed f o r ages V I I I through X I1 was 53.7% (Hu f f 1975).

There a re no data adequate f o r de te rmin ing e f f e c t s o f envi ronmenta l f a c t o r s on rec ru i tmen t . The l ong p e r i o d r e q u i r e d t o reach m a t u r i t y , p o s s i b l y i r r e g u l a r spawning p e r i o d i c i - t y a f t e r m a t u r i t y i s reached, and pro longed re1 iance on r i v e r systems make j u v e n i l e and a d u l t s turgeon h i g h l y suscep t i b l e t o h a b i t a t a l t e r a - t i o n s , p o l l u t i o n , and o v e r e x p l o i t a - t i o n .

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS

Growth da ta f o r hatchery-reared l a r v a e and j u v e n i 1 es a r e summarized i n Table 1. L i t t l e i s known about growth of young i n n a t u r a l s e t t i n g s . S c o t t and Crossman (1973) considered spec i - mens c o l l e c t e d f rom the S t . Lawrence R i ve r i n August a t 6.5-11 cm l o n g and 0.7-4.2 g i n we igh t t o be l e s s than 1 yea r o l d . F i s h c o l l e c t e d i n October of t h e same yea r ranged f rom 13 t o 20 cm i n l e n g t h and f rom 7 t o 48 g i n weight .

A t l a n t i c s turgeon have been aged from growth r i n g s on o t o l i t h s and o s s i f i e d rays f rom p e c t o r a l f i n s (V l adykov and Greel ey 1963). A1 though

Table 1. Growth of c u l t u r e d A t l a n t i c s turgeon ( f r om Smith e t a l . 1980).

Age Mean l e n g t h Mean we igh t (days) (mm) (ms

growth r i n g s have been assumed t o correspond t o annual marks, s t u d i e s v a l i d a t i n g t h i s assumption f o r A t l an - t i c s turgeon have n o t been repor ted . Huf f (1975) reviewed t h e 1 i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h ag ing o f s turgeons ( i n c l u d i n g papers by C u e r r i e r 1951; Probst and Cooper 1954; Pycha 1956; Roussow 1957; and P r i ege l and W i r t h 1971) and chose t o use f i n r a y sec- t i o n s i n h i s p r o j e c t . Huf f determined ages o f 17 G u l f o f Mexico sturgeon by o p e r c u l i and f i n rays and found t h a t ages f rom f i n rays averaged 3.1 years (range o f 2-7 y e a r s ) o l d e r than ages determined f rom opercul i . He concl ud- ed t h a t annual marks on o p e r c u l i became obscured w i t h age. H u f f was unable, however, t o use t h e spacing of a n n u l i on f i n r ays t o back c a l c u l a t e 1 ength-at-age because o f problems r e l a t e d t o r a y morphology and t h e p o s i t i o n and angle a t which t h e f i n r ays were sect ioned. Smith e t a l . (1982) used pec to ra l f i n r a y sec t i ons t o age sturgeon i n South Carol i na , p n d Marchet te e t a1 . (unpub- l i s h e d MS ) used f i n r a y sec t i ons t o back c a l c u l a t e l eng ths o f 160 specimens.

Pub1 i shed s ize-at -age da ta f o r A t l a n t i c s turgeon are summarized i n Table 2. Re la t i onsh ips between f o r k l eng th and t o t a l leng th , f o r k l e n g t h and age, and we igh t and l e n g t h a re summarized i n Table 3. Car lander (1969) a l s o summarized we igh t - leng th r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

The maximum s i z e of A t l a n t i c s turgeon has been the s u b j e c t o f much specu la t i on . Ryder (1890) found t h a t females averaged about 244 an t o t a l l e n g t h (TL) and sometimes reached 305 an, whereas ma1 es ranged from 183 t o 213 an. Vladykov and Greeley (1963) gave accounts o f severa l no tab le specimens, i n c l u d i n g one 427-an female weighing 368 kg from the St. John River , New Brunswick. The l a r g e s t i n d i v i d u a l s tend t o be females ( S c o t t and Crossman 1973).

Table 2. Average f o r k l e n g t h (FL i n cm) observed a t age f o r t h e A t l a n t i c s turgeon (sexes combined).

Age Local i t y

St . John R i v e r St. Lawrence Hudson South Suwannee (years

New ~ r u n s w i c k ~ Ri v e r Ri verC Carol i na R ivere b

1 36 2 0 26 44 35 2 47 2 5 4 1 5 0 5 1 3 5 2 3 1 5 4 5 5 64 4 6 3 3 7 5 9 6 1 7 5 5 9 6 44 5 7 109 83 6 9 7 5 1 6 3 106 7 101 58 73 138 110 8 109 6 6 143 118 9 108 7 6 165 149 123

10 101 79 166 152 127 11 112 86 2 08 162 132 12 92 163 147 13 96 170 136 14 101 182 158 15 105 182 155 16 186 135 17 193 149 18 196 19 202 20 198 2 1 195 22 201 23 203 2 4 199 2 5 21 1

4 6 226

60 232

P ~ u r a w s k i and Pacheco (1977) r epo r ted these da ta and c i t e d M. Dadswel l , pers. corn.

b ~ a g n i n (1964) r epo r ted t o t a l leng ths ; da ta were conver ted t o FL by Murawski and Pacheco (1977) us ing a r e l a t i o n s h i p f rom Magnin (1964).

' ~ r e e l e ~ (1937) r epo r ted t o t a l leng ths ; Murawski and Pacheco (1977) conver ted t o FL as i n f o o t n o t e b.

d ~ m i t h e t a1 . (1982). e ~ u f f (1975).

THE FISHERY us ing techniques such as snagging be1 ow dams, have developed (e.g.,

No s i g n i f i c a n t s p o r t f i s h e r y f o r Burgess 1963, c i t e d by H u f f 1975). t he A t l a n t i c s turgeon e x i s t s , b u t some There i s , however, a long h i s t o r y o f a r e taken i n c i d e n t a l l y t o o t h e r commercial exp1 o i t a t i o n i n Nor th species; a few l o c a l i z e d f i s h e r i e s , America. Records i n d i c a t e use b y

Table 3. Re la t i onsh ips between measures o f body s i z e and age f o r A t l a n t i c sturgeon.

Re la t i onsh ip -

Equation Loca t i on Source

Fork l e n g t h (FL) vs. FL = 0.867 TL + 10 S t . Lawrence Magnin t o t a l l e n g t h (TL) (FL and TL i n mm) R i v e r ( 1 9 6 2 ) ~

Weight (W) vs. t o t a l W = (1.14 x 1 0 ' ~ ) TL 3.18 s t . ~ a w r e n c e Magnina l e n g t h (W i n Kg, TL i n cm) R i ve r (1962)

Fork l e n g t h vs. age FL = 36.9233 AGE 0.5284 Suwannee R i ve r H u f f ( 1 9 7 5 ) ~

FL = 3.91 + 117.98 (AGE) South Ca ro l i na Smith g t a l . (FL i n cm, AGE i n yea rs ) (1982)

Weight vs. f o r k l e n g t h

Sexes combi ned W = (1.1471 x F L ~ * ~ ~ ~ Suwannee R i ve r H u f f ( 1 9 7 5 ) ~

Males o n l y W - (2.8667 x lom4) F L ~ ' ~ ~ ~ Suwannee R i v e r H u f f ( 1 9 7 5 ) ~

Sexes combined W = (5.46 x lom6) FL 3.10 Nor th Ca ro l i na Ho l land and (W i n kg, FL i n cm) Ye1 ve r ton

(1973)

a ~ s c i t e d by Murawski and Pacheco (1977). b ~ u l f o f Mexico subspecies; r e l a t i o n s h i p s v a l i d f o r f i s h 1 - 17 yea rs o f age. ' ~ e l a t i o n s h i ~ v a l i d f o r f i s h 7 - 25 yea rs o f age.

a b o r i g i n a l Americans (R i t c h i e 1969) and canmercial e x p l o i t a t i o n i n t h e 17 th cen tury t o suppor t an expo r t i n d u s t r y t o Europe (see Murawski and Pacheco 1977 f o r a d d i t i o n a l accounts o f h i s t o r i c a l f i s h e r i e s ) .

The h i s t o r y o f e f f o r t , ha rves t methods, land ings , and value o f t h e ca tch have been summarized by Wraws k i and Pacheco (1977) f o r most o f t h e A t l a n t i c seaboard and t h e G u l f o f Mexico and by Ru1 i f s o n and Huish (1982) f o r t h e South A t l a n t i c B i g h t and t h e G u l f o f Mexico. Most of t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i s taken from

these summaries.

Catch

Commercial land ings f rom the A t l a n t i c seaboard and t h e Gulf o f Mexico dec l i ned d r a s t i c a l l y i n t h e l a t e 19 th cen tury , remained r e l a t i v e l y low i n most areas through World War 11, and increased somewhat t h e r e a f t e r . The major f i s h e r i e s were i n New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware; these crashed i n about 1900 and land ings now a re o n l y about 1% o f former l e v e l s . Landings i n t h e South A t l a n t i c B i g h t a l s o f e l l a t t h e t u r n

o f t h e cen tu ry , b u t t h e r e g i o n now such as shad o r s t r i p e d bass; hence, p rov ides t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e Un i t ed da ta on e f f o r t a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e . S ta tes harves t . S ince 1965, catches f r om Nor th and

South Carol i n a have c o n t r i b u t e d N r a w s k i and Pacheco (1977) i n d i - 70%-75% o f t o t a l eas te rn seaboard

cated t h a t much o f t he p resen t A t lan- l and ings o f sturgeon; catches f rom t i c s turgeon catch i s i n c i d e n t a l t o Georgia and t h e e a s t coas t o f F l o r i d a f i s h e r i e s d i r e c t e d t o o t h e r species have been r e l a t i v e l y m inor (Tab le 4).

Table 4. Harves t o f s turgeona f rom Sta tes a long t h e South A t l a n t i c B i g h t i n thousands o f pounds and va lue i n thousands o f d o l l a r s .

No r t h South F l o r i d a Carol i n a Caro l i n a Geor i a ( e a s t coas t )

Year Harves t Value Harves t Value h Harvest Value

a ~ a t a p r i o r t o 1973 i n c l u d e catches o f shor tnose s turgeon (Murawski and Pacheco 1977). Data f o r 1939-1975 f rom summary by Rul i f s o n and Huish (1978). Data f o r 1976-1978 a r e f rom Na t i ona l Mar ine F i s h e r i e s Se rv i ce (1978a, 1978b, 1978c, 1979a, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c, 1981).

Sturgeon harvest p resen t l y i s a minor component o f t o t a l commercial f i n f i s h value i n t he South A t l a n t i c Bight . Data summarized by Rul i f s o n and Hui sh (1982) showed t h a t the dockside value o f sturgeon i n t he t o t a l commercial f i n f i s h harves t has been l e s s than about 0.5% annua l ly i n North Caro l ina , 4.0% i n South Carol ina, 0.8% i n Georgia, and 0.01% along the eas t coast o f F lo r i da .

Gear -

Various gears have been used t o harvest sturgeon, i n c l u d i n g t raps , pound-nets, d r i f t ( g i l l ) nets, trammel nets, o t t e r t r a w l s , harpoons, and seines. The major technique c u r r e n t l y used i n t he South A t l a n t i c B igh t i s g i l l n e t t i n g i n r i v e r s and coas ta l areas (Ru l i f son and Huish 1982). Commercial gear i s regu la ted t o some ex ten t i n most States by r e q u i r i n g a l i c e n s e f o r each n e t (e.g., South Carol ina; Smith 1979) o r mesh s i z e r e s t r i c t i o n s , as descr ibed i n t he Management sec t ion .

Stock Abundance

Catch data p rov ide the on l y a v a i l a b l e index o f popu la t i on abun- dance; t rends i n land ings suggest t h a t major dec l ines i n s tock s i z e du r i ng the l a t e 1800's were due t o a combina- t i o n o f o v e r f i s h i n g , p o l l u t i o n , and dam cons t ruc t i on . Murawski and Pacheco (1977) summarized o t h e r pub1 i c a t i o n s desc r i b i ng decl ines i n A t l a n t i c sturgeon abundance. Smith (1907) s ta ted t h a t changes i n h a b i t a t , o v e r f i s h i n g , and d e s t r u c t i o n of young sturgeon caught by shad f ishermen and o t h e r commercial opera tors were respons ib le f o r dec l i nes i n Nor th Caro l ina . Remaining Nor th Caro l ina f i s h i n g areas i nc lude the Nuese R ive r d r i f t - n e t f i s h e r y , a t r a w l f i s h e r y i n the ocean n o r t h o f Cape Hat teras, and g i l l - n e t f i s h e r i e s i n Bogue I n l e t , Bear I n l e t , and Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds (Rul i f s o n and Huish 1982).

Leland (1968) reviewed the

h i s t o r y o f sturgeon stocks i n South Caro l ina and s t a t e d t h a t m i l l dams and water supply dams blocked f i s h passage on many systems, l i m i t i n g sturgeon t o lowland sec t ions o f the r i v e r s . The coinc idence o f shad and sturgeon f i s h i n g seasons and the k i l l o f young sturgeon by shad fishermen could be a major f a c t o r i n t he d e c l i n e o f s t u r - geon popu la t ions (Leland 1968). Remaining South Carol i n a sturgeon f i s h e r i e s inc luded ( i n 1968) o f f s h o r e n e t t i n g near t h e mouth o f Winyah Bay (which inc ludes the Waccamaw , Back, PeeDee, and Sampit R i ve rs ) and d r i f t - o r g i l l - n e t t i n g i n t he Santee, Cooper, Edi s to , and Savannah Rivers.

Remaining sturgeon stocks i n Georgia and F l o r i d a a re small and f i s h e r i e s operate i n 1 i m i t e d areas w i t h i n t he Savannah, A1 tamaha, Ogeechee, and St. Marys R ivers (Ru l i f son and Huish 1982). A survey o f Georgia coas ta l waters du r i ng 1970-73 (Mahood e t a l . 1974a, 1974b, 1974c, 1974d) i n d i c a t e d low numbers o f sturgeon i n Ossabaw, Doboy, St. Andrews , and Sapel o Sounds. W i l 1 iams and Grey (1975, c i t e d by Ru l i f son and Huish 1982) repor ted t h a t t he re p resen t l y i s no sturgeon popu la t ion i n the St . Johns R iver , F lo r i da , bu t t h a t sturgeon are occas iona l l y captured i n c i d e n t a l l y t o a shad f i s h e r y i n t h e St . Luc ie R iver , F lo r i da .

Management

Previous management o f At1 a n t i c sturgeon has inc luded gear r e s t r i c - t i o n s , c losed seasons, minimum s i z e l i m i t s , and c losed areas. Ru l i f son and Huish (1982) repor ted the f o l l o w - i n g methods f o r p r o t e c t i n g and manag- i n g t he species i n t h e Southeastern Un i ted States. South Caro l ina f i s h e r - men must purchase a l i c e n s e f o r each n e t (minimum ne t s i z e i s 10 inches s t r e t c h mesh) and submit monthly catch repo r t s ; the season i s open March 1 t o October 1 (Smith 1979). South Caro l ina dea lers a re requ i red t o purchase a processing and market ing l i cense. I n Georgia, t h e sturgeon

season g e n e r a l l y i s January t o J u l y ( s u b j e c t t o l e g i s l a t i v e change annu- a l l y ) , and t h e minimum bar-mesh s i z e i s 6 inches. The minimum l e g a l mesh s i z e i n F l o r i d a i s 10- inch s t r e t c h measure. No r t h Ca ro l i na has no management program o r r e g u l a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g s turgeon.

C u l t u r i n g young s tu rgeon f o r s t o c k i n g i n n a t u r a l h a b i t a t s was a t tempted i n t h e l a t e 1800 's (Ryder 1890; Cobb 1900), b u t development o f techn iques s u f f e r e d because of prob- lems w i t h s imu l taneous ly o b t a i n i n g r i p e males and females. The presence o f r e p r o d u c t i v e l y i n a c t i v e o r s e x u a l l y immature s tu rgeon i n spawning runs o f t e n l e d t o c o l l e c t i o n and s a c r i f i c e o f many specimens b e f o r e s u i tab1 e r i p e p a i r s were ob ta ined . T h i s p r a c t i c e may have caused g r e a t e r l o sses t han t h e ga i ns r e s u l t i n g f rom subsequent s t ock i ng .

Smi th e t a l . (1980) r e p o r t e d t h e o n l y success fu l a r t i f i c i a l l y induced spawning o f A t l a n t i c s turgeon. Rul i f s o n and Huish (1982) suggested t h a t c u l t u r e o f j u v e n i l e s and h o l d i n g o f brood s t ock i n ponds may be f e a s i - b l e .

The shor tnose s tu rgeon i s p ro tec - t e d by t h e Endangered Species Ac t and cannot be taken l e g a l l y . Th i s may o f f e r some p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e A t l a n t i c s t u y e o n s i nce t hey resemble s hor tnose s tu rgeon o f t he same s i ze .

ECOLOGICAL ROLE

Feeding

No r e p o r t s o f s tu rgeon food h a b i t s i n t h e South A t l a n t i c B i g h t were l oca ted . The l i m i t e d amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n pub l i shed f rom o t h e r areas, however, suggests t h a t s tu rgeon a r e o p p o r t u n i s t i c f eede rs and w i 11 l i k e l y consume whatever t ypes o f bot tom-dwel l i n g organisms a r e p resen t . I n t h e sea, l a r g e s tu rgeon f eed on mo l l usks and o t h e r bo t tom organisms.

Ryder (1890) s t a t e d t h a t s turgeons r o o t i n t h e sand o r mud w i t h t h e i r snouts , u s i n g t h e i r b a r b e l s as organs o f touch, and draw t h e s u b s t r a t e and organisms i t c o n t a i n s i n t o t h e i r mouths. B ige low and Schroeder (1953) r e p o r t e d t h a t s tu rgeon a t e mol l u sks , po lychae te worms, gast ropods, shr imps, i sopods, amphi pods, and sma l l bottom- d w e l l i n g f i s h e s such as launce (Ammo- dy tes spp. ). A d u l t s appa ren t l y do n o t e a t w h i l e m i g r a t i n g upstream t o spawn ( S c o t t and Crossman 1973).

V l adykov and Greel ey (1963) r e p o r t e d t h a t "ha1 f-grown" s tu rgeon taken i n s a l t w a t e r a t e po lychae te worms, gast ropods, shr imps, amphi pods, and isopods. Sturgeon t hey c o l 1 ec ted f rom f r eshwa te r areas o f t h e St. Lawrence R i ve r , however, a t e a q u a t i c i n s e c t s , amphipods, 01 igochae te worms, and l a r v a e o f t h e bu r row ing m a y f l y (Hexagenia) .

H u f f (1975) no ted t h a t G u l f o f Mexico s tu rgeon c o l l e c t e d i n one area o f t h e Suwannee R i v e r con ta i ned p a r t i a l l y d i ges ted f i b r o u s v e g e t a t i o n and occas iona l c r a b ha rd p a r t s . H u f f be1 i e v e d t h e f ragments t o be from b l u e c rabs ( C a l l i n e c t e s sa idus ) ; t h e i r r e l a t i v e impor tance i n + t e d i e t was n o t q u a n t i f i e d . Stomach con ten t s i n ano ther Suwannee R i v e r area were p r i m a r i l y gammarid amphi pods t y p i c a l l y assoc i a t ed w i t h subs t r a t es s i m i l a r t o t h e submerged t i d a l sand bank where t h e s tu rgeon were c o l l e c t e d (Huf f 1975).

Prey use by l a r v a e o r age 0 s tu rgeon f r om n a t u r a l s e t t i n g s has n o t been descr ibed. Smi th e t a l . (1980) f e d ha t che ry r ea red s a c - f r y a v a r i e t y o f foods, i n c l u d i n g l i v e b r i n e shr imp (Ar temia ) naupl i i , b e e f 1 i v e r puree mixed w i t h salmon mash, f r e e z e - d r i e d Daphnia, squ id pe l l e t s , and asso r t ed t r o p i c a l f i s h f l a k e s . A f t e r yo1 k sacs were absorbed, t h e bee f l i v e r and salmon mash m i x t u r e and l i v e Ar temia were used as food. A f t e r t h e young were 54 days o l d , a salmon mash d i e t was used, b u t t h e omiss ion of beef

1 i v e r appa ren t l y s t r essed t h e f i s h , and t h e d i e t was aga in supplemented w i t h 1 i v e r .

Compet i t i on and Other Eco log i ca l I n t e r a c t i o n s

Very 1 i t t l e i s documented regard - i n g compe t i t o r s o r p reda to r s o f t h e s turgeon. Many spec ies o f f i s h i n h a b i t t h e same r i v e r s and e s t u a r i e s occupied by t h e A t l a n t i c s turgeon, and t h e r e i s a p o t e n t i a l f o r compe t i t i on w i t h bo t tom-dwe l l i ng spec ies and f o r p r e d a t i o n on e a r l y l i f e s tages. The apparent n o n s e l e c t i v e f e e d i n g o f j u v e n i l e and a d u l t s turgeons may reduce t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r species.

The l a r g e s i z e and armor of j u ve - n i 1 es and adul t s p rec l ude p r e d a t i o n by most f i s h e s . S c o t t and Crossman (1973) s t a t e d t h a t s tu rgeon a r e a t t a c k e d and sometimes k i l l e d by lampreys (Petromyzon mar inus) .

No accounts o f A t l a n t i c s tu rgeon p a r a s i t e s o r d iseases i n t h e South A t l a n t i c B i g h t were l oca ted . Appy and Dadswel l (1978) found f i v e spec ies o f h e l m i n t h p a r a s i t e s and one p a r a s i t i c a r t h ropod i n A t l a n t i c s tu rgeon f r om t h e St . John R i ve r , New Brunswick. The two mature s tu rgeon c o l l e c t e d were i n f e s t e d w i t h mar ine p a r a s i t e s and two o f f o u r j u v e n i l e s were i n f e s t e d w i t h one spec ies o f f r eshwa te r p a r a s i t e . I n f e s t a t i o n by some p a r a s i t e s was a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i r presence i n sna i 1 s, which served as i n t e r m e d i a t e hos ts , consumed by t h e s turgeon. Appy and Dadswell (1978) concluded t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p a r a s i t e s o f A t l a n - t i c and shor tnose s tu rgeon i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e h o s t spec ies had d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e r i v e r system t h e s t ud i ed . Murawski and Pacheco (1977 r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e t rematode Dero r i s

7 t i s h i s p i d a has been found i n np-' t a n t i c s tu rgeon taken f r om R a r i t a n Bay, New Jersey.

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

A1 though dec l i nes i n s turgeon s t ocks have been a t t r i b u t e d , i n p a r t , t o c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b a r r i e r s across r i v e r s and t o p o l l u t i o n , t h e r e i s e s s e n t i a l l y no q u a n t i t a t i v e in fo rma- t i o n on responses o f A t l a n t i c s tu rgeon t o thermal , chemical , o r f l o w - r e l a t e d c o n d i t i o n s . Problems assoc i a t ed w i t h t h e spec ies ' l a r g e s i z e and t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f sma l l j u v e n i l e s have p rec luded l a b o r a t o r y e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e e f f e c t s o f temperature, s a l i n i t y , d i s s o l v e d oxygen concen t ra t i ons , e t c .

The s t u rgeon ' s mode o f f e e d i n g r e f l e c t s an adap ta t i on t o g a t h e r i n g food f r om r e l a t i v e l y so f t - bo t t om subs t ra tes . The demersal , adhesive n a t u r e o f t h e eggs suggests t h e need f o r minimum f l ow v e l o c i t i e s o f oxygen- a t e d water , l ow l e v e l s o f suspended s o l i d s d u r i n g i ncuba t i on , and r e l a - t i v e l y hard-bot tom subs t r a t es i n spawning areas (such as c l a y , r u b b l e o r g rave l , as r e p o r t e d by Vladykov and Greel ey 1963).

V l adykov and Greeley (1963) s t a t e d t h a t advanced j u v e n i l e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c s tu rgeon had a remarkable c a p a b i l i t y f o r making r a p i d t r a n s i - t i o n s between f r e s h - and s a l t w a t e r , b u t n o t h i n g i s r e p o r t e d about s a l i n i t y t o l e rances f o r e a r l y 1 i f e s tages. Vladykov and Greeley (1963) s t a t e d t h a t a d u l t s spawn i n b o t h f r e s h - and b r a c k i s h wa te rs and p o s s i b l y p r e f e r b r a c k i s h areas. Other au thors , how- ever , have a t t r i b u t e d s t o c k d e c l i n e s t o c o n s t r u c t i o n o f dams t h a t b a r access t o upstream spawning grounds (see Murawski and Pacheco 1977), sugges t ing t h a t access t o u p r i v e r f reshwate r areas i s e s s e n t i a l .

Concen t ra t ions o f PCB's t h a t g e n e r a l l y exceeded Food and Drug A d m i n i s t r a t i o n g u i de l i n e s f o r human consumption were r epo r t ed i n s tu rgeon f r om t h e S t . Lawrence and Hudson R i ve r s (Murawski and Pacheco 1977). E f f e c t s o f PCB's o r o t h e r contaminants on s tu rgeon have n o t been evaluated.

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Species P r o f i l e s : L i f e H i s t o r i e s and Environmental Requirements o f Coastal Fishes and Inver tebra tes (South A t l a n t i c ) -- A t l a n t i c -

8. Performing Organization Rept. No.

Michael J. Van Den Avvle

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

1 9. Performing Organization Name and Address

Georgia Cooperat ive F ishery Research U n i t School o f Forest Resources Uni ve r s i t y o f Georgia Athens, GA 30602

1 lo. Pro~ect/Task/Work Unit No.

3. Recipient's Accession NO.

4. Title and Subtitle

NO.

FWS/OBS-82/11.25*

111. contract(c) or GranllC) No.

5. R e w r l Date

2.

*U.S. Army Corps o f Engineers Report No. TR EL-82-4

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address

Nat ional Coastal Ecosystems Team U.S. Army Corps o f Engineers F ish and W i l d l i f e Serv ice Waterways Experiment S ta t i on U.S. Department o f the I n t e r i o r P. 0. Box 631 Washington, DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180

- 16. Abstract (Limit: 200 words)

13. Type of Report h Period Covered

-- 1 4 .

Species p r o f i l e s are 1 i t e r a t u r e summaries o f taxonomy, 1 i f e h i s t o r y , and environmental requirements o f coasta l f i shes and aquat ic i n ve r t eb ra tes . They are prepared t o a s s i s t w i t h impact assessment. The A t l a n t i c sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrhync;rus gxyrhynchus, i s an anadromous species t h a t occupies r i v e r s , es tuar ies , and nearshore waters along t he e n t i r e At1 a n t i c coast o f the Un i ted States. The species once supported s i g n i f i c a n t commercial f i s h e r i e s throughout i t s range, b u t stocks have decl i ned because o f ove r f i sh i ng, de te r i o ra - t i o n o f water qua1 i t y , and damming o f r i v e r s . A t l a n t i c sturgeon spawn i n r i v e r s and the young remain i n f reshwater f o r several years p r i o r t o emig ra t ion t o the ocean. L i t t l e i s known about spawning areas and assoc ia ted environmental f ac to r s . Females t y p i c a l 1 y do. no t mature u n t i l .age X and the age a t f i r s t spawning ranges from 5 t o 13 years f o r males and 7 t o 19 years f o r females. Longevi ty may f r equen t l y exceed 25 j e a r s . Imnature and a d u l t sturgeons are bottom feeders and consume a v a r i e t y o f mol lusks, crustaceans, worms, and o t h e r small bottom-dwell i ng i nve r t eb ra tes and f i shes . L i t t l e i s known about competi tors, predators, o r e f f e c t s o f environmental f a c t o r s on rec ru i tment . The long p e r i od requi r ed t o reach matur i t y , possbi 1 y i r regu l a r spawni ng t he rea f t e r , and pro1 onged re1 iance on r i v e r systems make j u v e n i l e and a d u l t ' At1 a n t i c sturgeon high1 y suscep t ib le t o h a b i t a t a1 t e r a t i ons, po l 1 u t i on , and overexp lo i t a t i o n .

15. Supplementary Notes

17. Document Analysis a. Descriptors

Anadromous f i shes M ig ra t i on Spawni ng Growth

1 u n c l a s s i f i e d - I

! (See ANSI-Z39.18) OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-71

(Formerly NTIS-35)

b. Identlfiers/Open-Ended Terms

A t l a n t i c sturgeon Acipencer oxyrhynchus Hab i t a t requirements Temperature requirements L i f e h i s t o r y

c. COSATl Fie ldlGmup

Oepanment 01 Commerce

18. Availability Statement 19. Secvr~ty Class (Thns Report)

Unc lass i f i ed Unl i m i t e d

21. No. of Pages

17 -- 22. Price

REGION 1 Regional Director U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lloyd Five Hundred Building, Suite 1692 500 N.E. Multnornah Street Portland, Oregon 97232

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