species diversity of trees in uep(final proposal)

8/2/2019 Species Diversity of Trees in UEP(Final Proposal)

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SPECIES DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF TREES IN THE

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES, UNIVERSITY TOWN,

CATARMAN NORTHERN SAMAR

A thesis Proposal

Presented to the Faculty

of the College of Science

University of Eastern Philippines

University Town, Catarman Northern Samar

In Partial fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science in Biological Sciences (MSBio.Sci)

Florencio Peru Mahinay


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CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Recent thrust on biodiversity conservation necessitates a comprehensive knowledge on

the flora, their distribution and abundance which are important prerequisites for management of

protected areas and reserve forests. Tropical forests often are referred to as one of the most

species-diverse terrestrial ecosystems. Their immense biodiversity generates a variety of natural

resources which help sustain the livelihood of local communities. (Mishra, 1968; Khan et al.

1977; Kumar et al., 2002)

However, many tropical forests are under great anthropogenic pressure and require

management intervention to maintain the overall biodiversity, productivity and sustainability

Kumar et al., (2002).

Understanding species diversity and distribution patterns is important for helping

managers evaluate the complexity and resources of these forests. Trees form the major structural

and functional basis of tropical forest ecosystems and can serve as robust indicators of changes

and stressors at the landscape scale. (Mishra, 1968).

University of Eastern Philippines (U.E.P) is the only State University in the province of

Northern Samar. It was created by virtue of Republic Act 4136 (R.A. 4136). It is located in the

Northeastern part of Catarman, Northern Samar.

This institution has a total land area of 419 hectares which was a diversity of resources of

Flora particularly trees species several decades. At present the rich and bounty resources of this

university turn to scare due to physical and structural development. Various species of trees

species vanished and the green and healthy environment was adversely affected.


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The land utilization record of the university indicated that 22.9 percent or 95.95 hectares

of land were forest reserve and water shed areas 16.8 percept or 70.35 hectares coconut land and

14 percent or 58.7 hectares Riceland, 11.5 percent utilized as built areas and 9 percent for

experimental areas. However, from the period the university was established until today, no

studies have been conducted to determine the species diversity and distribution patterns of trees.

Hence this study.

Statement of the Problem

This study will focus on tree species composition and population structure which will be

useful as a source of ecological information, analyzing distribution and abundance pattern of tree

species and the researcher will present empirical data on diversity of tree species in the in the

University of Eastern Philippines. Specifically this study will attempts to:

1). What are the different species of trees growing in the University of Eastern Philippines,

Catarman Northern Samar?

2). What are the community structure of trees species in terms of density, frequency, dominance

and importance value.

3. What are the environmental parameters in terms of soil and water salinity, soil and water

temperature, soil and water pH, type of substrate?

4). What are the distribution pattern of species of trees in the study area?

5). What is the species diversity index of trees species in the study area?


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Objectives of the Study

This thesis proposal on the species diversity and distribution patterns of trees species will

be conducted in the University of Eastern Philippines. Specifically this study will aim to:

1). Identify the trees species in the sampling sites.

2). Determine the community structure of trees species in terms of density, frequency,

dominance and importance value.

3). Determine the environmental parameters in terms of soil and water salinity, soil and

water temperature, soil and water pH, type of substrate.

4). Identify the distribution pattern of species of trees in the study area.

5). Measure the species diversity index of trees using the Shannon-Weiner function.

Significance of the Study

This study will be conducted to know and identify the species diversity and distribution

patterns of trees growing in the University of Eastern Philippines, Catarman Northern Samar.

The findings of this study will be significant in providing information to students,

teachers, to the people living in the community and to the researchers who wanted to know and

study the species diversity and distribution patterns of trees species in the University of Eastern

Philippines.

This will serve as a reference to any one who wanted to conduct a similar research study.


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Scope and Limitations of the Study

The scope of this thesis proposal will be on the species diversity and distribution patterns

of tree species which will be conducted in the University of Eastern Philippines, Catarman

Northern Samar.

This will focus in achieving the set of objectives of the study. Other factors which are

not included on the set of objectives of the study will not be included. The entire area of the

University of Eastern Philippines will be divided into four sampling sites namely; Zone I, Zone

II, Zone III, and Zone IV. Zone I will be comprises the area from the white beach (Boundary of

the municipality of Mondragon) up to sunrise village. Zone II, will be comprises the seaside

areas in the north and along the national highway toward the boundary of Cawayan. Zone III will

be comprises the hillside, bukid tabor, the scout city and the forest reserved to the south and

Zone IV will include the campus area which will be comprises the school and academic sites.

Only tree species in public places, along the roads and on wayside will be included in the

survey. Tress species within the residential areas will not be included. Photo documentation will

be done to facilitate plant identification. Actual survey will be conducted on December 2011 to

February 2012. It is limited only to the identified sites for reasons of accessibility, time and

financial constraints.


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Definition of Terms

The following terms will be defined theoretically and operationally for purposes of

clearer understanding of important terms in this study.

Clumped distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature. In

clumped distribution, the distance between neighboring individuals is minimized. This type of

distribution is found in environments that are characterized by patchy resources. Clumped

distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature because animals need certain

resources to survive, and when these resources become rare during certain parts of the year

animals tend to clump together around these crucial resources. Individuals might be clustered

together in an area due to social factors such as selfish herds and family groups. Organisms that

usually serve as prey form clumped distributions in areas where they can hide and detect

predators easily(Creel et.al, 1995; and Purvis, et.al., 2000). In this study, the same definition will

be used.

Collection, as used in this study, this will refer to the act of gathering trees species

present in the study area, particularly representative samples of the trees species.

Density refers to the number of individual of species occurs in an area sampled (Smith

1986). In this study this will refer to the number of individual trees sampled in a 4,000 square

meter area.

Diversity refers to a variety, kind or species of plant or animals in an area. In this

study, this will refer to the different trees species in the study area.

Frequency refers to the number of sampled species occur in a transect intervals (Smith

1986). In this study this refers to the number of trees species sampled in a 200 transect intervals.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfish_herdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfish_herd


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Herbarium Preparation refers to the collection of plants or part of plant which has

been dried, usually flattened under moderate pressure, preserved and pasted on sheets with an

accompanying field label giving the necessary information (Serrano and Lastimosa, 1987). In

this study, the same definition will be used.

Identification as used in this study, this will be the act of recognizing the trees species

which will collected based on a previously known trees species.

Line Intercept or Line Transect Method refers to one dimensional and most useful

for sampling shrubs stands and woody under story of the forest. It consists of taking observation

on a line or lines out randomly over the study area (Smith, 1986). In this study, the same

definition will be used.

Physical factors refer to the parameters such as soil temperature, soil pH, and type of

soil that affect the species of trees in the study area.

Random distribution Random distribution, also known as unpredictable spacing, is the

least common form of distribution in nature and occurs when the members of a given species are

found in homogeneous environments in which the position of each individual is independent of

the other individuals: they neither attract nor repel one another. Random distribution is rare in

nature as biotic factors, such as the interactions with neighboring individuals, and abiotic factors,

such as climate or soil conditions, generally cause organisms to be either clustered or spread

apart (Vliet, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_distribution#cite_note-4). Random distribution

usually occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and resources are consistent. This

pattern of dispersion is characterized by the lack of any strong social interactions between

species (Avila, 1995).In this study, the same definition will be used.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous


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Regular or Uniform distribution Less common than clumped distribution, uniform

distribution, also known as even distribution, is evenly spaced. Uniform distributions are found

in populations in which the distance between neighboring individuals is maximized. The need to

maximize the space between individuals generally arises from competition for a resource such as

moisture or nutrients, or as a result of direct social interactions between individuals within the

population, such as territoriality (Mauseth, 2008). In this study, the same definition will be used.

Species is a group of individuals which is naturally reproductively isolated from other

groups. As used in this study, it will refer to the grass species present in the study area.

Species distribution is the manner in which a biological taxon is spatially arranged

Species distribution is not to be confused with dispersal, which is the movement of individuals

away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density. The pattern of

distribution is not permanent for each species. Distribution patterns can change seasonally, in

response to the availability of resources, and also depending on the scale at which they are

viewed. Dispersion usually takes place at the time of reproduction. Populations within a species

are translocated through many methods, including dispersal by people, wind, water and animals.

(Wallace, 1876). In this study, the same definition will be used.

Species Diversity refers to the variety of living species. In this study, it will refer to

variety of living species of trees in the study area and will be measured by using the Shannon-

Wiener index formula.

Tree refers to a plant with a single woody stem capable of reaching heights of at least 6-

8m (20-25ft) at maturity (Smith, 1986). In this study, the same definition will be used.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mauseth&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_originhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_originhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mauseth&action=edit&redlink=1


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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related Literature

According to Kraner and Kozlowski (1960) trees are classified into a variety of ways but

are most common divided into two groups on the basis of their reproduction. The gymnosperms

(meaning naked seeds), evolutionary the more primitive group, bear seeds are often aggregated

into cones. The gymnosperms are often referred to a conifers, evergreens, needle-bearing trees

or softwoods. Some gymnosperms also have wood of considerable hardness.

The other major groups of trees are the angiosperms, have flowers and bear their seeds

enclosed in a fruit, which is the ripened ovary of a flower. Angiospermous trees are sometimes

referred to as deciduous (those which lose their leaves for part of the year) or hardwoods. Not all

Angiospermous trees are deciduous, however, many species in the genus Eucalyptus are

evergreen, and some flowering trees have wood that is relatively soft.

According to Petriules (1972) species diversity has been documented at a global level,

with an observed gradient of increasing diversity from the poles to equator. Further, it is

observed that the diversity usually decreases as we move up the slopes of mountain from the

base. A umber of hypotheses have been involved to explain the observed pattern in the

distribution of biological species diversity. Proponents of the theory of spatial heterogeneity

claimed that there might be a general increases in the environmental complexity as one proceeds

towards the tropics. In tropics, it is considered that spatial heterogeneity is high and therefore

species accommodation themselves in the myriad of niches available to them. Competitive

exclusion theory claims that the competitions exclude the niches available to them. Competitive


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exclusion theory claims that competitions exclude the niches of the species and therefore more

species could be accommodated in small space. This theory predicts that tropical species will be

more highly evolved and posses finer adaptations than those of temperature species, due to the

more directed mortality and the increased importance of competitive interactions.

According to Smith, R.L. (1986) Diversity Indexes assumes that the more abundant a

species is the more important it is to the community. But the more abundant species are not

necessarily the most important or the most influential. In communities embracing organisms

possessing a wide range of sizes, the importance of fewer but larger individuals may be

underestimated and the more common species are weighted more heavily than the many rare

species. Thus, one of the distinctive failures of the indexes is the inability to distinguish between

the abundant and the importance species. Nevertheless, diversity indexes do provide one measure

for community comparisons.

According to Jaques (1946) moisture, temperature, and nutrient conditions are the most

important environmental factors that will affects the establishment and growth of tree species.

Tree species tolerate different environmental conditions. Trees grow more slowly, attain smaller

dimensions, and are often more widely spaced in cold or arid regions. Cold temperature, short

growing seasons, and heavy snows prevent the growth of trees at high level elevations and high

altitudes. Moisture stress typically limits tree growth at lower timberlines, such as those adjacent

to grasslands or desert.

According to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) among the

high value species of trees in the area the almacitga orAgathis philillinensis and the dipterocarp

species Shorea polita and Vatica mangahapoi. These trees are threatened due to over logging

The world famous Vanda sanderiana or waling-waling and the rattan species Plectocomia


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elmiriusedto abound in the primary forests of Mt. Apo. However these species can no longer be

found in their natural habitat because of over collection.

Species distribution

Species distribution is the manner in which a biological taxon is spatially arranged

Species distribution is not to be confused with dispersal, which is the movement of individuals

away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density. A similar concept is

the species range. A species range is often represented with a species range map. Biogeographers

try to understand the factors determining a species' distribution. The pattern of distribution is not

permanent for each species. Distribution patterns can change seasonally, in response to the

availability of resources, and also depending on the scale at which they are viewed. Dispersion

usually takes place at the time of reproduction. Populations within a species are translocated

through many methods, including dispersal by people, wind, water and animals. People are one

of the largest distributors due to the current trends in globalization and the expanse of the

transportation industry. For example, large tankers often fill their ballasts with water at one port

and empty them in another, causing a wider distribution of aquatic species.

Clumped distribution

Clumped distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature. In

clumped distribution, the distance between neighboring individuals is minimized. This type of

distribution is found in environments that are characterized by patchy resources. Clumped

distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature because animals need certain

resources to survive, and when these resources become rare during certain parts of the year

animals tend to clump together around these crucial resources. Individuals might be clustered
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_originhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_originhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon


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together in an area due to social factors such as selfish herds and family groups. Organisms that

usually serve as prey form clumped distributions in areas where they can hide and detect

predators easily.

Other causes of clumped distributions are the inability of offspring to independently

move from their habitat. This is seen in juvenile animals that are immobile and strongly

dependent upon parental care. For example, the bald eagle's nest of eaglets exhibits a clumped

species distribution because all the offspring are in a small subset of a survey area before they

learn to fly. Clumped distribution can be beneficial to the individuals in that group. However, in

some herbivore cases, such as cows and wildebeests, the vegetation around them can suffer

especially if animals target one plane in particular.

Clumped distribution in species acts as a mechanism against predation as well as an

efficient mechanism to trap or corner prey. African wild dogs,Lycaon pictus, use the technique

of communal hunting to increase their success rate at catching prey. It has been shown that larger

packs of African wild dogs tend to have a greater number of successful kills. A prime example of

clumped distribution due to patchy resources is the wildlife in Africa during the dry season;

lions, hyenas, giraffes, elephants, gazelles, and many more animals are clumped by small water

sources that are present in the severe dry season Creel, N.M. and S. (1995). It has also been

observed that extinct and threatened species are more likely to be clumped in their distribution

on a phylogeny. The reasoning behind this is that they share traits that increase vulnerability to

extinction because related taxa are often located within the same broad geographical or habitat

types where human-induced threats are concentrated. Using recently developed complete

phylogenies for mammalian carnivores and primates it has been shown that the majority of

instances threatened species are far from randomly distributed among taxa and phylogenetic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfish_herdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bald_eaglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycaon_pictushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycaon_pictushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycaon_pictushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycaon_pictushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bald_eaglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfish_herd


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clades and display clumped distribution Purvis A, Agapowe P-M, Gittleman JL & Mace GM

(2000).

Regular or Uniform distribution

Less common than clumped distribution, uniform distribution, also known as even

distribution, is evenly spaced. Uniform distributions are found in populations in which the

distance between neighboring individuals is maximized. The need to maximize the space

between individuals generally arises from competition for a resource such as moisture or

nutrients, or as a result of direct social interactions between individuals within the population,

such as territoriality. For example, penguins often exhibit uniform spacing by aggressively

defending their territory among their neighbors. Plants also exhibit uniform distributions, like the

creosote bushes in the southwestern region of the United States. Salvia leucophylla is a species in

California that naturally grows in uniform spacing. This flower releases chemicals called

terpenes which inhibit the growth of other plants around it and results in uniform distribution

Mauseth, James (2008). This is an example of allelopathy, which is the release of chemicals

from plant parts by leaching, root exudation, volatilization, residue decomposition and other

processes. Allelopathy can have beneficial, harmful, or neutral effects on surrounding organisms

Some allelochemicals even have selective affects on surrounding organisms; for example, the

tree species Leucaena leucocephala exudes a chemical that inhibits the growth of other plants but

not those of its own species, and thus can affect the distribution of specific rival species.

Allelopathy usually results in uniform distributions, and its potential to suppress weeds is being

researched Fergusen, J.J; Rathinasabapathi, B (2003). Farming and agricultural practices often
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_leucophyllahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpeneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mauseth&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allelopathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucaena_leucocephalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucaena_leucocephalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allelopathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mauseth&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpeneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_leucophyllahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clade


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create uniform distribution in areas where it would not previously exist, for example, orange

trees growing in rows on a plantation.

Random distribution

Random distribution, also known as unpredictable spacing is the least common form of

distribution in nature and occurs when the members of a given species are found in

homogeneous environments in which the position of each individual is independent of the other

individuals: they neither attract nor repel one another. Random distribution is rare in nature as

biotic factors, such as the interactions with neighboring individuals, and abiotic factors, such as

climate or soil conditions, generally cause organisms to be either clustered or spread apart

Vliet,Kent. Random distribution usually occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and

resources are consistent. This pattern of dispersion is characterized by the lack of any strong

social interactions between species Avila, Vernon L (1995). For example; when dandelion seeds

are dispersed by wind, random distribution will often occur as the seedlings land in random

places determined by uncontrollable factors. Tropical fig trees exhibit random distribution as

well because of wind pollination. In addition to tropical fig trees and dandelion seeds, oyster

larvae can travel hundreds of kilometers powered by sea currents, which causes random

distribution when the larvae land in random places. Although random is thought to be

unpredictable, it is the only dispersion that has a mathematical equation to represent it. This is

due to the individualistic characteristics of random dispersion based on the idea that every

species has equal opportunity and access to resources.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dandelionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dandelionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous


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Species Distribution Model

Species distribution can now be potentially predicted based on pattern of biodiversity at

spatial scales. A general hierarchical model can integrate disturbance, dispersal and population

dynamics. Based on factors of dispersal, disturbance, resources limiting climate, and other

species distribution, predictions of species distribution can create a bioclimate range, or

bioclimate envelope. The envelope can range from a local to a global scale or a density

independence to density dependence. The hierarchical model takes into consideration of

requirements and impacts or resources as well as local extinctions in disturbance factors. Models

can integrate the dispersal/migration model, the disturbance model, and abundance model.

SDM's can be used to assess climate change impacts and conservation management issues.

Species distribution models include, presence/absence models, the dispersal/migration models

disturbance models, and abundance models. A prevalent way of creating predicted distribution

maps for different species is to reclassify a land cover layer depending on whether or not the

species in question would be predicted to habit each cover type. This simple SDM is often

modified through the use of range data or ancillary information- such as elevation or water

distance.

Recent studies have indicated that the grid size used can have an effect on the output of

these species distribution models (http://www.uvm.edu/~ebuford/MB_species1.html) . The

standard 50x50 km grid size can select up to 2.89 times more area than when modeled with a 1x1

km grid for the same specie. This has several effects on the species conservation planning under

climate change predictions (global climate models- which are frequently used in the creation of

species distribution models- usually consists of 50100 km size grids) which could lead to over-
http://www.uvm.edu/~ebuford/MB_species1.htmlhttp://www.uvm.edu/~ebuford/MB_species1.html


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prediction of future ranges in species distribution modeling. This can result in the

misidentification of protected areas intended for a species future habitat.

Abiotic and Biotic factors

The distribution of species into clumped, uniform, or random depends on different abiotic

and biotic factors. Any non-living chemical or physical factor in the environment is considered

an abiotic factor. There are three main types of abiotic factors: climatic factors consist of

sunlight, atmosphere, humidity, temperature, and salinity; edaphic factors are abiotic factors

regarding soil, such as the coarseness of soil, local geology, soil pH, and aeration; and social

factors include land use and water availability. An example of the effects of abiotic factors on

species distribution can be seen in drier areas, where most individuals of a species will gather

around water sources, forming a clumped distribution.

Biotic factors, such as predation, disease, and competition for resources such as food,

water, and mates, can also affect how a species is distributed. A biotic factor is any behavior of

an organism that affects another organism, such as a predator consuming its prey. For example

biotic factors in a quails environment would include their prey (insects and seeds), competition

from other quail, and their predators, such as the coyote (http://www.biology-

online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factor) . An advantage of a herd, community, or other clumped

distribution allows a population to detect predators earlier, at a greater distance, and potentially

mount an effective defense. Due to limited resources, populations may be evenly distributed to

minimize competition, (Campbell, Reece. Biology. Eight edition) as is found in forests, where

competition for sunlight produces an even distribution of trees (http://www.biology-

online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factor)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edaphichttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edaphichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic


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Statistical determination of distribution patterns

There are various ways to determine the distribution pattern of species. The Clark-Evans

nearest neighbor method can be used to determine if a distribution is clumped, uniform or

random Blackith, R. E. (1958). To utilize the Clark-Evans nearest neighbor method, researchers

examine a population of a single species. The distance of an individual to its nearest neighbor is

recorded for each individual in the sample. For two individual that are each other's nearest

neighbor, the distance is recorded twice, once for each individual. To receive accurate results, it

is suggested that the number of distance measurements is at least 50. The average distance

between nearest neighbors is compared to the expected distance in the case of random

distribution to give the ratio:

If this ratio (R) is equal to 1, then the population is randomly dispersed. If R is

significantly greater than 1, the population is evenly dispersed. Lastly, if R is significantly less

than 1, the population is clumped. Statistical tests (such as t-test, chi squared, etc.) can then be

used to determine whether R is significantly different from 1.

The Variance/Mean ratio method focuses mainly on determining whether a species fits a

randomly spaced distribution, but can also be used as evidence for either an even or clumped

distribution Banerjee, B. (1976). To utilize the Variance/Mean ratio method, data is collected

from several random samples of a given population. In this analysis, it is imperative that data

from at least 50 sample plots is considered. The number of individuals present in each sample is

compared to the expected counts in the case of random distribution. The expected distribution

can be found using Poisson distribution. If the variance/mean ratio is equal to 1, the population is

found to be randomly distributed. If it is significantly greater than 1, the population is found to
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be clumped distribution. Finally, if the ratio is significantly less than 1, the population is found to

be evenly distributed. Typical statistical tests used to find the significance of the variance/mean

ratio include Student's t-test and chi squared.

However, many researchers believe that species distribution models based on statistica

analysis, without including ecological models and theories, are too incomplete for prediction

Instead of conclusions based on presence-absence data, probabilities that convey the likelihood a

species will occupy a given area are more preferred because these models include an estimate of

confidence in the likelihood of the species being present/absent. Additionally, they are also more

valuable than data collected based on simple presence or absence because models based on

probability allow the formation of spatial maps that indicates how likely a species is to be found

in a particular area. Similar areas can then be compared to see how likely it is that a species will

occur there also; this leads to a relationship between habitat suitability and species occurrence

Ormerod, S.J.; Vaughan, I.P. (2005).
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Related Studies

In the study of Muralis et.al (2000) indicates that the spatial variety of trees was

high and similarly among the species in the adjacent plots was low, suggesting that the spatial

heterogeneity is influencing the pattern of diversity of trees species. The degraded forest, which

is considered as shrubs and tree savanna of the Anogeissus chloroxylon Acacia series, is highly

diverse, recording over 59 tree and 119 shrubs species. Trees species similarity index among

quadrats in the forest is less than 0.02, indicating high diversity in trees species within limited

areas of the sample conversely, the shrubs species are far more similar than the trees species

when the two plots are compared. The number of stem >1cm D13H observed in the sampled plot

(7844/ha) is high, further reinforcing that the area is rich in species diversity of mean and

standard deviations of adjacent plots of the focal plot was high, indicating that the species-rich

patches in the forests are likely to associate with other species rich patches. The study is based on

30 quadrats of 25mX25m laid at 1km interval over the state forest.

According to Acharya,B.K. et.al (2010) tree species distribution has been investigated

along 45 km of line transects in the tropical rain forest of the Dja Fauna Reserve in Cameroon.

The spatial patterns were expressed by the probabilities that two trees are conspecific according

to the distance separating them, providing information on the degree of species clumping as well

as on alpha- and beta-diversity. Our objective was to assess the relative importance of habitat

heterogeneity and limited dispersal in determining these patterns by: (1) comparing the patterns

observed within and across major habitats; (2) comparing the patterns with the ones expected

under a neutral hypothesis where limited dispersal is the sole factor. Although, habitat

heterogeneity affected the distribution of many species, our results suggest that limited dispersal

was the major factor affecting the degree of species clumping. The pattern observed was similar


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to the one found in Amazonia by Condit et al. [Science 295 (2002) 666]. We discuss the

relevance of neutral models of tree communities to study the dispersal abilities of tree species.

According to C.Y. Jim et al. (2009) the promotion and preservation of biodiversity in

urban areas remains scant, especially in Asian cities. This study focuses on spatial pattern and

diversity of landscape trees in compact Taipei. Aggregate species diversity of three urban

habitats (streets, urban parks and riverside parks) exceeded the countrysides secondary forests

Urban parks with site heterogeneity and multiple functions accommodate the highest richness,

and streets with acute site limitations the poorest represented by popular native species. More

affinities exist between urban and riverside parks. Low diversity in riverside parks echoes natural

site constraints and primary use for river discharge and flood control. The compact urban form

has not stifled species diversity and spatial variability of urban forests. Development history and

park area have no significant relationship with species diversity. Understanding species

composition in urban ecosystems could frame conservation strategies to augment species

richness, appropriate site selection, habit preservation and wildlife recruitment.

According to Hoebee, S.E. et.al (2005) distinct spatial genetic structure, as the result of

various evolutionary and ecological processes, is a common feature of tree populations. The rare

pioneer forest tree Sorbus torminalis occurs in scattered populations of low density and exhibits

both clonal propagation and gametophytic self-incompatibility. Clonal reproduction can promote

considerable spatial genetic structure and, together with a self-incompatibility system, may

substantially reduce mating opportunities within S. torminalis populations, i.e. an Allee-effect

owing to mate limitation. All 10 S. torminalis stands mapped in northern Switzerland and

analyzed with allozymes showed a considerable degree of clonal reproduction, but they were

also characterized by large numbers of genotypes that occurred only once. However, spatial


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autocorrelation analysis revealed significant spatial genetic structure at distances between 15 and

30 m as the result of clonal reproduction. Once the effect of clonal propagation was removed

from the analysis, the stands no longer exhibited significant spatial autocorrelation. This implies

that seed dispersal was not locally restricted. The degree of clonal reproduction was neither

correlated with population size, nor did smaller populations exhibit less genetic diversity.

Because clonal patches were rather small and interspersed with other genetically unique and

unrelated individuals, clonal reproduction seemed to have no negative impact on the species

sexual reproduction. It is thus likely that the combination of an effective self-incompatibility

system and high interstand gene flow helps to maintain genetic diversity in S. torminalis stands

while clonal propagation preserves the genetic diversity over time even if environmental

conditions become less favorable during the course of succession.


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CHAPTER III

METHODOOGY

Locale of the Study

This thesis proposal on the species diversity and distribution patterns of trees species

which will be conducted in the University of Eastern Philippines, Catarman Northern Samar

(Figure 1).

This will focus in achieving the set of objectives of the study. Other factors which are

not included on the set of objectives of the study will not be included. The entire area of the

University of Eastern Philippines will be divided into four sampling sites namely; Zone I, Zone

II, Zone III, and Zone IV. Zone I will be comprises the area from the white beach (Boundary of

the municipality of Mondragon) up to sunrise village. Zone II, will be comprises the seaside

areas in the north and along the national highway toward the boundary of Cawayan. Zone III will

be comprises the hillside, bukid tabor, the scout city and the forest reserved to the south and

Zone IV will include the campus area which will be comprises the school and academic sites.

Research Design

This study will use the descriptive research since its purpose is to gather first the

data/information in order to describe the trees species, as they exist at the time of the study. It is

defined as a purposive process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about the

prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends and cause effect relationships and then

making adequate and accurate interpretation about such data with or without the aid of statistical

methods (Calderon and Gonzales, 1993).


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Figure 1. Sketch Map of the Study Area


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Sampling Technique

A Purposive sampling technique and the line intercept or line transects methods will be

used in this study.

Purposive sampling technique will be used in determining the target plants. While the

line intercept or line transect method is one dimensional and most useful for sampling woody

understory of the forest. It consists of taking observation on a line or lines laid out randomly over

the study area (Smith, 1987).

This study will measure the salinity temperature and pH of the soil and water; identify the

type of substrate and nutrients will serve as the independent variables. The community structure,

species diversity and abundance of tree species in the sampling sites will serve as the dependent

variables.

Data Gathering Procedure

The researcher will purposively stretched a metric steel tape of 100 meter long in the site.

For each sampling site 10 transect lines will be lay down and each transect line will be

subdivided into 10 meters intervals. All tree species found along will be identified and counted

Data will be recorded immediately on a prepared logbook.

A reconnaissance survey will be conducted in the sampling areas during the period which

will be between mid December 2011 and end of January 2012 and will last for 30 days, to assess

the three species diversity and their distribution pattern. The phytosociological analysis of tree

layer will be conducted by laying 100x100 m2 quadrat on each site which will be divided into

20x20 m sub-plots. This will be systematically surveyed for all tress having girth at breast height

(gbh) =10cm. in case of buttressed trees, the measurements will be made above the buttress.


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Identification of the Tree Species

Only one representative samples of each species will be collected. The collected samples

will be recorded and will be placed in plastic bags/containers with the following label: Sampling

site, identification number of the species, scientific name, common name, local name.

In order to facilitate identification of the tress species, an interview will be conducted

among residents in the vicinity/locality. For this purpose, an interview guide will be prepared

(Appendix B). Observation on plants identified by the respondents will be done immediately

after each personal interview. Photo documentation will be done to facilitate plant identification

Following the method of Potot (1995) a record notebook will be prepare and the following data

will be collected.

1. Field Numbercollection number with the use of tags.2. Date Collectedday, month, year of collection.3. Collectorname of the collector.4. Localityprovince, town, barangay where plant is collected.5. Vernacular NamesNinorte Samarnon and other local names, if available.6. Habitatdescription of the growth place of the plant.7. Habit or Form nature of plant based on stem type (Tomlison, 1990): solitary, clustering, aerial

branching, subterranean branching, or climbing.

Representative samples of the grass species will be collected. At least one specimen will be

collected for every species and each specimen will be 1 foot long. The information on the plants will be

documented such as its name and the place where it was gathered, following the format in figure 3, which

will be attached to the preserved sample (Potot, 1995).


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Figure 3. Format of the Label of Each Identified Plant Specimen

The collected samples will be washed with water. After washing, the samples will be air-dried for

herbarium preparation. The code number will be followed in marking the respective herbarium samples.

Herbarium Preparation (Serrano and Lastimosa Edition, 1987)

The air-dried samples will be prepared for herbarium. Equipment needed is a pair of

pressers, specimen papers or old newspaper folds. Corrugated cardboards, absorbent paper or

ordinary blotters, and straps, ropes, or colds to hold the press framed tightly.

In Pressing the specimen, it will be placed in between folds of newspaper sheets in such a

way that it follows its natural position. Once the specimen is dried, the position and arrangement

of part cannot be changed anymore. Newspaper folds, with the collection number and labeled

specimens, are carefully piled one after the other, separated by absorbent materials and

corrugated cardboards, then it will be tightly packed in a pair of pressers. Applying pressure by

FLORA OF THE PHILIPPINESUniversity of Eastern Philippines

University Town, Northern Samar

Family: __________________ No. ________

Sci Name: _______________________________________Common Name and Dialect:_________________________

________________________________________________

Collector: _______________________________________

Fld. No. _________________________Date: ___________

Locality: ________________________________________

Habitat: _________________________________________

Habit Description: ________________________________

Determined by: ___________________________________

Date: _________________________________________


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placing a heavy weight over the presses before drying will help in flattening specimens and

facilitate uniform drying.

In Drying the specimen; the strapped presser will be placed under the sun or in a warm

place such as over a stove, oven, or in artificially heated chamber. It is advisable to check the

progress of drying and at the same time to prevent growth of molds by frequent change of

absorbent. Length of time for drying depends on moisture content of the material, the method of

drying and attention given to the process.

In poisoning the specimen, dried specimens will be dipped in poison solution to preserve

them from insect damage. Poison solution is prepared by mixing 12-15 g of mercuric chloride

and 5-10 g of phenol crystals to 1 liter of denatured alcohol. The two chemicals must be handled

properly for these are corrosive and poisonous.

Poisoned specimens will be air dried in a manner previously described or stored at room

temperature.

Mounting the specimens, the dried poisoned specimens will be mounted by means of

glue or tape or herbarium sheet which has a standard size of 11-12 by 16 1/2 inches. Field label

is placed on the upper left-hand corner sheets. Each mounted specimen will be labeled properly

as in Figure 3.

The above procedure will be followed for specimens that are relatively small and thin

such as those on the fronds. For the flowers and fruits, these will be preserved in packets, bearing

the same identification number/tag and will be attached in the herbarium sheet of the particular

specimen.


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Young plants, sapling preferably, when available, will be collected as sample of the

whole plant and will be preserved properly. This will also bore the same identification

number/tag of the particular species.

Identification of the Tree Species

All trees collected in the study area will be identified down to the species level using available

references. Authentication of the specimens will be done by Dr. Eva M. Potot a professor of the College

of Science.

Community Structure of Trees

Transect line plot method will be utilize to determine the species composition, density,

frequency, and dominance of medicinal plants in the sampling site.

A. Structural ParametersThe trees community will be analyzed by using the following structural parameters with their

formulas (English et.al)

1. Constancy (Bautista et.al 1975)

Number of plots where the species occurs

Constancy (%) = ---------------------------------------------------- x 100Total number of plot sampled

2. Density

Total number of individuals of the speciesDensity (D) = ---------------------------------------------------Total area sampled

Number of plots where the species occurs3. Frequency (F) = ---------------------------------------------------

Number of all plots invested


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4. Dominance in terms of basal area (g)

Density of the species

5. Relative Density (RD) = ---------------------------------------------------- x100

Sum of the frequencies of all species

Frequency of the species

6. Relative Frequency (RF) = ---------------------------------------------------- x100

Sum of frequencies of all species

Basal area of the species

7. Relative Dominance (Rg) = ---------------------------------------------------- x100Sum of the basal areas of all species

Relative Density + Relative

8. Importance Value (I.V.) = ----------------------------------------------

Dominance + Relative Frequency

The three relative measures (RD, RF, Rg)

9. Species diversity of medicinal plants will be measure by the use of the Shannon-Weiner

Function as shown in the equation:

n log n -fi log fi

H = ------------------------------N

The vegetation data of each quadrat that will be gather will be analyze for frequency

density and abundance (Curtis and McIntosh, 1950). The statistical analysis will be done as per

standard statistical methods. The Importance Value Index (IVI) of trees will be determined as the

sum total relative frequency, relative density and relative abundance following Phillips (1959)

The ratio of abundance to frequency will be used to interpret the distribution pattern of species of

trees (Whiteford, 1949). Species diversity (H) of different tree species will be calculated using

the Shannon-Weiner Index (Shannon and Weiner, 1963). Concentration of dominance (Cd) will

be measured by using Simpsons Index (Simpson, 1949). Species Evenness Index (EI) and

species Richness Index (RI) will be calculated following Pielou (1966) and Margalef (1978)


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respectively. The maturity index will be calculated as per Pichi-Sermolli (1948) and beta

diversity following Whittaker (1977). The plant will be identified with the help of Flora of Orrisa

edited by Saxena and Brahmam (1994-1996).

B. Environmental ParametersThe measurement of the environmental factors characterize the conditions that will be

existing in the sampling site will be done simultaneously with the data collection.

1. SalinityA refractometer will be used to measure both soil and water salinity. The soil sample will

be placed in the filter paper lined bottom syringe and then will be pushed until drops of water

will extracted. A few drops of water will be placed under the cover of the refractometer and

salinity will be read through the eyepiece while the instrument will held toward the light.

2. pH

The pH paper will be used to determine the acidity or alkalinity of soil and water sample.

3. Temperature

A hole will be dug to a depth of 5 cm in the outer margin, middle and inside margin of

the medicinal plants area. The thermometer will be carefully inserted into the wall of the hole to

determine the soil temperature.

4. Type of Substrate

The type of substrate in the sampling area will be described as solid or coralline, and

rocky sandy-muddy solution.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Jaques, H.E. 1946. How to know the trees. Revised Edition. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa.

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growth. Ecology, 30: 199-208.

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rare tree species with a scattered distribution. WSL Swiss Federal Research InstituteZurcherstrasse 111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland Department of EnvironmentalSciences, Federal Institute of Technology ETH, Ramistrasse 101, CH-8092 Zurich

Switzerland. Received 5 October 2004; received in revised form 18 August 2005

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species diversity of trees in uep(final proposal)

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