SpecialIssueIntroduction:CulturalRightsandGlobalDevelopmentJonathanVickeryArticleInformationIssue22:2018.SpecialIssueCulturalRightsandGlobalDevelopment,ed.JonathanVickery.Thisarticlewaspublishedon:6thJune2018.JournalISSN:1467-0437AuthorDrJonathanVickeryisdirector of the masters in Arts, Enterprise and Development in the Centre for Cultural and Media Policy Studies at the University of Warwick, UK. He is interested in local development in multicultural contexts and since 2016 is co-Editor in Chief of The Journal of Law, Social Justice and Global Development.J.P.Vickery@warwick.ac.ukCopyright:JournalofLaw,SocialJustice&GlobalDevelopment,UniversityofWarwick,UKhttp://www2.warwick.ac.uk/research/priorities/internationaldevelopment/lgd/

Inourageofhugereligious,politicalandterritorialconflict,theessentialculturaldimensionofplace,identity,values,andgovernance,isalltooeasilyignored.ThisspecialissueisgiventothesocialanddevelopmentalsignificanceofcultureandculturalpoliciesinaRightsframework.Sincethe1966UNInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,howfarhastheconceptofcultureasa‘right’beendeveloped?SincethedebatessurroundingtheUNESCOsponsored2007FribourgDeclaration,towhatextentareCulturalRightsnowacceptedasanessentialdimensionofHumanRights?PerhapsusingHumanRightslawtofacilitateCulturalexpressionandparticipationhasbeenproblematicandotherlegalinstrumentsaremoreeffective(suchasculturalpoliciesonaccessandequality,orheritageprotections,orinternationaltreatiseslikethe2005UNConventionontheProtectionandPromotionoftheDiversityofCulturalExpressions).Orperhapsasustainedlegal,socialanddevelopmentdiscourseonCulturalRightsbywriters,researchscholarsanddevelopmentagencies,hasnotbeensufficientlyconsistentandrobustinanyareaofdevelopmentresearchandpolicy.

WhenthisSpecialIssuewasfirstenvisaged,itwasintendedasaglobalforumfordialogueonhowrightscurrentlypertaintothisjournal'sprinciple(andmultidisciplinary)fieldsoflegal,socialanddevelopmentresearch.Itaimedtoattractresearchpaperson(butnotlimitedto)thefollowingtopics:

>CulturalRightsandHumanRights,internationaltreatisesandUNconventions.>CulturalRightsandCulturalPolicies(particularlydiversity,equality,genderandheritagepolicies).>TheculturalconditionsofthejuridicalinterpretationandapplicationofHumanRights.>CulturalRights,multiculturalismandpoliticalpluralism.>CulturalRights,massimmigrationanddiasporas.CulturalRightsinwarandconflictzones.>Religion,faithcommunitiesandCulturalRights.CulturalRights,censorshipandcontemporaryarts.

>Artsorganisations,NGOsanddevelopmentagenciesthatpromoteCulturalRights.

IhavereproducedthislistfromtheoriginalCallforPapersasitindicatesthesignificantscopeofrelevanceforthisotherwiseunder-researchedsubject.Thisspecialissueattractedmanycontributions,notallofthemcouldbepublished.Theonesthatwerepublishedadequatelycoverthefirstthreebulletpoints;therestwillnowfeatureinabroaderresearchproject,outofwhichwillhopefullyseeforthcomingfurtherthematicissuesofthisjournal.Thisspecialissuetherefore,didnotsucceedindefiningtheparametersofthissubject,andforthemostpartremainsfocusedonthelegalemergenceofcultureasaconceptinHumanRightsandcognateareasofsupra-nationalpolicydiscourse.Nonetheless,wealsobroachothersignificanttopicsandissues:justiceforculturalworkersandartists,artscensorship,informationandthepoliticalmanagementofthemedia,andNGOsinaspecificcorneroftheEuropeanregion(Serbia).

Thisissueopenswithaninterview,ontheoccasionofthenewArtsRightsJusticeAcademy(ARJ),whoseopeningin2017attractedthefirstUNSpecialRapporteurinCulturalRights,Ms.FaridaShaheed(2009-2015).TheAcademyprojectdoesnotaimtocreateaneducationortraininginstitutionassuchbutmoreadynamicandmobilespace,whereculturalpractitioners,activistsandresearchers,policy,legalandsocialexperts,cancometogethertodiscussthepressingissuesfacingRightstoday.TheARJ'sapproachisdialogicandstructuredaroundthesharingofexperiencesandintelligence--andcultivatethevariousformsofsolidarityanddemocraticagencythatemergedinthefaceofthe'Europeanmigrantcrisis'starting2015.Thereasonthisinterviewwaspositionedattheopeningofthisspecialissueisbecausequestionsof'Rights'invariablyrevolvearoundtheinstitutionoflaw,local,regionalandglobal,andthelegalapplicationofitsstatutes,conventions,treatisesandprotocols.However,ashasbeenmadeapparentbybothfirstandsecondUNSpecialRapporteurinCulturalRights–thesecondbeingMs.KarimaBennoune(since2015)–thetranslation,transmissionandapplicationoflaw

requireasmuch(inthewordsoftheARJmissionstatement)"tostrengthenandexpandstructuresforthepromotionandprotectionofartisticfreedom"andotherkindsofculturalfreedom.ThevalueoftheUNinstitutionsofHumanRights(andtheirregionalandnationalexpressions)extendsfarbeyondthelawanditsapplication–toeducation,culturaldiplomacy,negotiationinpeaceandreconciliation,promotinggenderequalityandminorityorindigenousexpressionsofculturallife,andofcourseengaginginprotestagainstprohibitionsandsuppressionofculturalexpression(whethergroundedinlawornot).Onthislattersubject,ImustmakereferencetotwonotablepublicationsbroughttomyattentionduringseminarsIdeliveredonCulturalRightsinHildesheim(December2017-January2018):UNESCO'scontributiontothe1995UNYearforTolerance–'Violence'–astudyofattacksonartistandwritersinAlgeria,andtherecentFreemusegroup'sinternationalsurveyof2018,'TheStateofArtisticFreedom2018'(Copenhagen:Freemuse.org).Botharetestamenttoanhistoricaldiscoursethathasremainedonce-removedfrommainstreamculturalpolicydebatesasmuchasdevelopmentstudies.Thismarginalisationmustnotpersist:mattersofrights,justice,citizenshipandrepresentation,mustbecome(astheywereininthe1960sand70s)morecentraltohowweunderstandtherelationbetweenculture,policy,community,developmentandtheresourcesandopportunitiesofevolvinggloballegaldiscourse.

Polishlawyerandinternationalwriter,MarcinGórski,entitleshisarticlewiththecrypticindictmentofJesus,beginning"Andwhosoevershalloffendoneoftheselittleones..?"(GospelofMark9:42).Hisproblematicistheconceptof‘communitystandard’,whichatonceidentifiestheboundariesofreasonandacceptabilityinlegalrulingsoncensorship,yetisdeeplyambiguous.Górski,withaforensicapproachandinternationalreach,citesseminallegalframeworksandrulingsthatlegaldefineartisticexpressionanditslimitsinternationally.Hechallengesthebasis,andvarianceintheuseofthecommunitystandardandthemanyassumptionsonthemeaningandoperationof"expression"inartandartisticproductionanddisplay.Whileraisingmanyquestionspertinenttothedisciplineof

philosophicalaesthetics,Górskimaintainsafocusonthelegalarticulationofhiskeyconcepts.Andwithoutcontrivingajudicialdialoguebetweenthelandmarkdifferinginterpretationsofdifferentcourtsheoffersafulloverviewoflegalpracticeinternationally.Hisargumentattendstotheambiguity–inpartcreatedbyart'sown"transgressive"character.

Legalscholar,MarcellaFerri(Italy),broadensourconcernsfromtheconceptofarttotheconceptof"culture"itself.Sheattendstotheconceptual-legalarchitectureofCulturalRights,astheconceptemergedfromthekeyUNconventions.Shepointsoutthatwhileapoliticalassumptiononthesemanticsoftheterm"culture"hasbeenmaintainedthroughthedraftingofvariousUNconventions,theassumptionconcealsarangeofmeanings–eachofwhichallowingforarangeoflegalapplicationsofCulturalRights.Ourunderstandingofcultureisinvariablyanthropological,ethnic,socialandidentiarian,butasarigorouslegalscholarwillpointout,astrictcausalrelationbetweenthesemanticsandpragmaticsofatermisnecessaryforlegalrulingstoharmonise,andthemanyarticlesofadeclaration,conventionorcovenanttoworktogether.Withdetailedprecision,FerrimovesthroughthecentrallegalframeworksforCulturalRights,identifyingtheprincipalclausesineach,andformingadiscussionaroundparticipation,therightsofchildren,andthejudgementoftheInternationalCriminalCourtinthe"AlMahdicase"(2016).Thecaseissignificantinitspotentialexpansionofheritage,awayfromitstraditionaldesignationaspropertyintorealmsofculturalidentity,humandevelopmentandcommunitylife.

JordiPascual(Spain),consultant,activistandacademic,fleshesoutwhatthismightmean–andoftenitdoesmeanforprogressiveculturalpolicies.Heexplainsthevariousways(organisationsandtheirstrategies)thatCulturalRightsarepracticedandhowtheyareaddressingcentralissuesinculturaldevelopment,expressionsofplace,communityandidentity,andthesustainabilityofsociallifeonlocal,regionalandglobalregisters.Pascual'sexperienceatworkinginpolicyadvocacyinthesethreeregistersareevidentinhiscommandofknowledgeonhow

majorculturalpolicyframeworksarticulatelegalconceptsofRights,andmoreover,howbasicrightsinparticipation,identityandhistoricculturallife,areinterconnectedwithmorecontemporarypracticesofcreativeexpressionandthepoliticalfightforamoreequitablesociety.Pascual'scontributionstandsasasignificantsummaryoverviewoftherelationbetweenculturalpolicyandCulturalRights,whileunderscoringtheimportanceofNGOsandrepresentativegroups,likeAgenda21forCulture–apioneeringventureofthecivilsocietyassociation,UnitedCitiesandLocalGovernments(UCLG).Bywayofconclusion,heofferssixmajorstepsforwardinadvancingCulturalRightsasculturalpolicyinpractice.

TherestofthisSpecialIssuefeaturesanapproachtoCulturalRightsintermsofcriticalcontemporaryissues–artisticproduction(Chineseopera;educationalinnovationwithSyrianrefugees),sustainability(inglobaldevelopment),informationandmedia,andculturalNGOsinSerbia.Thefirstofthese,bynotableChinascholarHailiMa(UK-China),isparticularlyinterestinggiventhedegreeoffieldworkinwhichherstudyisgrounded(indeed,thescholarwasonceanoperasinger).Moreover,boththiscontributionandthatoninformationandmediaapprehendacentralpoliticaldilemma–whatdo"rights"meaninacountrywhoselegalsystemdoesnotrecogniseanindividual'sseparation(andevenelevationover)theState.IftheStateisconceivedasthecollectiveexpressionofpoliticalwill,thentopositanindividual'swillassomehowoverthecollectiveisnonsensical,notwithstandingthatChinahasindeedpositioneditselfattheforefrontofglobalculturaldiscoursesofcreativecityurbandevelopmentandcultural(indigenousandintangible)heritage.

HailiMAoffersanoutlineoftherightsissuesatthebasisofChina'smosttraditionalandcommonculturalexpression(opera),yetentangledinpoliticaldiscourseandculturalpolicydevelopments.Chineseopera,onceneglected(ifnotdisdainedasanimproperexpressionofcommonsentiment)hasrecentlybecomeanobjectofpoliticalrecognition,signifyingbothacrisisandanattemptedrenewalofpolitical

legitimacy.MAunravelsthepoliticalshiftsanimatingthenewprofileofChineseopera,andhowhistoricalconceptionsofartsandartistsareever-framedbythestrategicpoliticalrelationofgovernmentandculture.Thequestionofrightsinthisarticleemerges"immanently"–givenhowrightsinChinaareindeedsubmergedinlayersofpoliticalexpediency.Thismeansthatrightsidentifyastruggleforprofessionalidentity,artisticautonomyandthespacesofculturalexpression.Indeed,inNiChen'sarticleonthepoliticalmanagementofthemediainChina,theissueofculturalself-determinationiscentral.

AsculturaleconomyscholarNiChen(UK-China)pointsout,"rights"asalegalconceptassumesthatindividualagencypossessesthecapacitytoexercisearightortousearightstotheiradvantageorself-regard.Yetthiscannotbeassumed,atleastinanationvigorouslyattemptingtore-inventnationalismthroughculturalself-determination.Asacountry,Chinaisassertingitsself-perceivednationalculturalrights,intermsofaneedforcoherenceandassertiveself-expressioninmedia,education,communicationandinformation.PresidentXiJinping,whileurbaneandeducated,hasreinvigoratedpoliticalcontroloverthenation'smediaindustriesandthestrategicrepresentationofcurrentaffairs.Chen'scultural-historicalapproachoffersabroadandcriticalviewonthesignificanceofthenewnationalismasidentifiedinthepoliticalmanagementmediaandcommunications–framedintermsofthelesser-developedareaofCulturalRights,information.Withreferencetothefreedomofthepublicrealm,editorialvalues,differingviewpointsinthemedia,andthemulti-facettedcharacterofnationalismasacurrentpoliticalproject,Chenarguesthatwhileolderformsofoppressionandcensorshiphavegone,anewassertivenationalunityhassettheparametersofmeaningandindividualexpressioninthepublicrealm.Thestatusofindividualrightsremainpoliticalrelativeandnotself-evidentasassumedbythetermsoftherelevantUNconventions.

DenizGürsoy's(Turkey)contributiondemonstrateshowaseeminglysimpleformofculturalprovisionforrefugees(an"IdeasBox"),

canprovidehopeandempowermenttoanotherwisedispossessedandoftenignoredcondition.TheconditionofPRSor'protractedrefugeesituations'isnotnew,butonlyrecentlyunderstoodatUNpolicylevelandequallyonlyrecentlyanobjectofculturalintervention.Why–giventheevidentsignificanceofdiasporas,exilesandimmigrantstotheculturalhistoryofmanyofourcountries–areweslowinrecognisinghowtheconditionoftherefugeeisaculturalonceasmuchasapoliticalorhumanitarianone?Gürsoypresentsaframeworkaroundwhichweneedtoformulateurgentquestionsforculturalpolicy.

Serbiaisasingularlyinterestingcaseasacountry–intermsofitsrecentandpresentbattleswiththepoliticalmanagementofcultureandthepublicrealm.OntheedgesofEurope(havebeenengagedinEUaccessionnegotiationssince2014),thisoncecenterofcommunistYugoslaviahasexperiencedradicalshiftsinconstitutionallaw,thecurrentadoptedonlyin2006.Inthisinterestingpictureofthecountry'slegalattitudeandpoliticalapproachtoCulturalRights,BelgradelawyerMiljanaJakovljevićidentifiesthefaultlinesofcultureandfreedomwithreferencetoculturalNGOs.Herpremiseisthattheabilityofculturalorganisations(historicandcontemporary)tocarryouttheirworkofadvocacy,commissioning,eventsandthepromotionofculture,isindicativeasthemeasureoffreedomandprotectionthelawallows.Usinganormativeanalysisofconstitutionalanddomesticlawandwithreferencetospecificmajorlegalacts,JakovljevićexplainshowtheadmirablyclearlegalarticulationofCulturalRightsinSerbiaisnotadequatefortheflourishingofcontemporarycultureorevenadiffusingofthehistorictensionbetweencultureandStateactors.

ThisSpecialIssueconcludeswithinternationally-renownedscholaronglobaldevelopmentandsustainability,JohnClammer(UK-India).Hisarticletitleisphrasedasaquestion–ontherelationbetweenRights,SustainabilityandDevelopment(aspropernouns,eachidentifyinganormativeandinstitutionaliseddiscourseontheaimsofaequitablesocietyandcooperativeglobalorder).Clammerarguesthatthesenormativediscoursesareessentiallycontiguous,eventhoughthe

currentcapitalistglobalordermaintainsvestedinterestsintheirseparation.Withatheoretically-informedexplorationoftheirmeaningandfunctionininternationaldevelopmentframeworksconcernsmostofthepaper,theconcludingsixpropositionsareforcefulastheyareimaginative:hisconcludingstatementisinstructive:“Thebottomlinethenisanexpandednotionofhumanrightsthatnotonlyincludesculturalrights,butwhichseesthefulfillmentorachievementofarights-basedworldasconstitutingthenatureofsustainabilityandthepurposeorendofdevelopment.Socialjusticeisthenon-negotiableproject,butintherecognitionthatsocialjusticemustnowincludebothculturalandecologicaljusticeintherecognitionofdevelopmentasaholisticandlife-enhancingprocess.”

ReferencesFreemuse(2017)TheStateofArtisticFreedom2018[Freemuseannualstatisticsoncensorshipandattacksonartisticfreedom],Copenhagen:Freemuse.UNESCO&FedericoMayor(1995)Violence,Paris:UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation.©JournalofLaw,SocialJustice&GlobalDevelopment