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Sources for the study of Ancient India

For the study of history of Ancient India we can use two different sources of study -

literary source as well as archaeological source.

Literary Sources:

For the sake of convenience we can divide ancient literature in two groups- indigenous

literature and foreign literature. Even indigenous literature can be divided into religious

literature and secular literature. Likewise, even the religious literature can be divided

into the different sections such as Brahmanic literature, Buddhist literature and Jain

literature.

Brahmanic Texts-

Among the Brahmanic texts, Vedas are the earliest. From the Rig Veda we mainly

get information about the social, cultural and economic conditions; but less information

about the political conditions of the time. After the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva

Veda are significant as the source material for the study of Ancient India. Samveda is

not equally important as most of the Suktas in the Samveda had been taken from the Rig

Veda itself. As the source material, Atharva Veda has some more importance because it

gives us information about the assimilation ofthe Aryan and Non-Aryan cultures.

After the Vedas,come the Brahmanas; these are the prose works which throw light

on the ancient people. From the Brahmanas we get information about the sacrificial cult

and ritualism in the life of the Vedic people. Even the Aranyakas and the Upanishads are

being used as the source materials. They give us the information about the philosophical

refinements of the Vedic people.

Then, there are the six Vedangas- literally meaning, the limbs of the Vedas- their

knowledge is necessary to understand the Vedic literature. These are such as Shiksha

(phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Jyotishya (astronomy), Nirukta (etymology), Vyakarna

(grammar) and Chhanda (meter). The Kalpa Sutra can be divided into different sub-

texts like Srauta Sutra, Griha Sutra and Dharma Sutra. From the Srauta Sutra, we get

the knowledge about the sacrificial cult. Griha Sutra gives us the information about

family life and rituals. From Dharma Sutra, we gather the information about

contemporary political and social ideals.

During this period,the Dharma Sutra literature was composed by the scholars like

Baudhayana, Apashtamba, Vashista and Gautama. The Dharma Sutra literature focuses

over social and religious aspects of that time. After that, from the early Christian

centuries, Smriti literature in the form of Shastras started to be composed in this series.

The Manusmriti is the first one. It gives us information about political, social & cultural

life during post-Mauryan period in detail. After Manusmriti a number of texts like

Yajnavalkya Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti, Naradasmriti, Parasarasmriti, etc. were compiled.

They give us information about the Gupta Age. Some of them are purely legal texts.

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For the study of Ancient India, Puranas are also important source materials. They

are 18 Mahapurans and many more upapuranas. They give us information about the

chronology of kings. Recently,some scholar (Romila Thapar mainly) have developed a

socio-economic approach in specifying the time period and chronology in Puranas.

The great epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata are important source materials for

the study of Ancient India. These epics cover a longer period in the Ancient India. They

were finally compiled in the Gupta age. So, the material culture reflected in the great

epics corresponds to the material culture of the Gupta age.

Non-Brahmanic Texts-

Along with the Brahmanic literature,the Buddhist and Jain literature have also

made their contribution in the study of history. The earlier scholars gave priority to the

Brahmanic literature only because they believed that the Brahmanic literature

representedthe core aspect of Ancient India. But in the due course of time, Buddhist and

Jain literature, which were composed in local dialects, gained importance. It was

concluded that the Brahmanic literature reflected the mood of Brahmanic elements

ofthe society. So, it was elitist in its approach. On the other hand, Pali and Prakrit

literature reflected the popular mood and condition of the lower strata in society.

Although, even they have a pro-Buddhist and Jain doctrinal biases respectively.

Buddhist text like Tripitakas- Sutta Pitak, Vinay Pitak and Abhidhamma Pitak,

Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Divyavadana, Ashokavadana etc. are important. The Jataka

stories are one of the fifteen books of the Khudakka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitak. We get

the information about the economic, social, cultural and to a certain extent, even

political condition of India from these texts. Likewise among Jain texts Bhagvatisutra,

Kalpasutra, Parishistaparvan, Obaisutra etc. are important. The Jain texts have not been

used as extensively by the historians as the Buddhist texts.

Amongthe secular literature, we find texts a number of texts like the Ashtadhyayi of

Panini. The Kautilyan Arthasastra is a significant text on polity. Its time period is not

very clear. Its earlier portion corresponds to the Pre-Mauryan age and its later part

corresponds to the Post-Mauryan period. But, on the basis of similarity in the

terminologies used in the Ashokan inscriptions and the Kautilyan Arthasastra, we can

conclude that most of its parts correspond to the Mauryan age. Although,neither any

Mauryan king nor their capital, Pataliputra, has been mentioned in this text. The

Kautilyan Arthasastra is an encyclopedia for the study of Mauryan age; although the

information given by this text should be corroborated by other sources as well.

Apart from that, we have a number of other secular texts, such as the Mahabhashya

of Patanjali, the Mudrarakshasha of Vishakadattaand the Nitishara of Kamandaka.

From the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, we get the information about Post-Mauryan age.

Likewise,Vishakadatta gives us information about the progress of Chandragupta and the

Mauryas. The Nitishara focuses over the political ideas during the Gupta age.

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Tamil Texts-

For the study of ancient Tamil Society, Sangam literature is an important source

material. There are two types of Sangam poems- Akam and Puram. Akam (the inner

field) deals with the personal or human aspects, like Love, in an abstract or

metaphorical manner. Puram (the outer field) deals with all other aspects of human

experience such as valor, ethics, benevolence and social life. A. K. Ramanujan describes

the Puram poetry as a kind of public poetry.We can includePatinenmelkanakku- the

eighteen major anthology series, which include Ettuthokai, the eight anthologies,

and Pattupattu, the ten idylls as well as some portions of Tolkappiyam (a Tamil

Grammar) into the Sangam literature. Patinenkilkanakku-is a collection of eighteen

poetic works created during the 'post Sangam period' (between 100 - 500 CE).

Tiruvalluvar’s Tirukkuraland the epics- Silappadikaram and Manimekalai were

composed during the 5th- 6th century CE. Early medieval period Tamil literature includes

intense devotional poetry of the Bhakti Saints.

Telugu and Kannada literature becomes available from the early medieval period.

Foreign Accounts-

The Foreign accounts work as a supplement to the indigenous account. We can

underline two positive features in the foreign accounts; firstly, they give us the

information about some regions about which our indigenous literature is almost silent.

Secondly, most of the foreign accounts are supposedly free from the ideological

prejudices which we find in the indigenous literature.

But, they have their limitations too. We can underline some distortion in facts and

figures in the foreign accounts because the foreign travelers were alien to the Indian

situation. They did not have the proper knowledge about India. For example,

Megasthenes divides Indian society into seven castes. He says that slavery didn’t exist in

India.

Here also, for the sake of convenience, we can divide the foreign accounts into

different segments such as the Greek and Roman accounts, the Chinese accounts and

accounts of the Arabian travelers etc.

Greek and Roman Accounts-

The Greek and Roman accounts are important source materials for the study of

Ancient India. The Greek companions of the Alexander focused over the history of

North West India. Herodotus was the first Greek author who mentioned India. But,

Aristobulus, Curtius, Annasicretes and Nearchus left an account of the early India.

Before the excavation of the Harappan cities, the clear cut date in Indian history was

supposed to start from 326 BCE. When William Jones identified the name Sandrocotus

with the Chandra Gupta Maurya, the dates in Indian history became clear.

The Indica of Megasthenes is a significant source material for the study of Mauryan

period but his account is not available today. Whatever information we get from Indica,

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we receive it through the references given by the classical authors of subsequent period

such as Ptolemy, Strabo, Pliny and Diodorus etc. Texts like the ‘Periplus of the

Erythrean Sea’ by an anonymous writer, are important for the history of the Indian

Ocean trade.

Chinese Account-

The accounts of Fahian and Huen-Tsang are important source materials for the

study of the Gupta age and the period of Harsha respectively. Yijin, a 7th century Chinese

traveler, lived at the Nalanda monasteryfor 10 years.

Arabian Account-

Amongthe Arabian accounts, the account of Suleiman, Al-Masudi, Ibn Khurdadab,

etc. are significant. Suleiman talks about the Pala and the Prathihara kings in the 9th

century CE. Likewise, Al-Masudi came to India in the10th century A.D. He mentions the

Rashtrakuta kings, whom he calls Vallabha Raja.

In this way,the literary sources definitely contribute a lot in the study of the history of

the ancient India. But we should be cautious about the fact that the literary sources have

its own limitations. First, there is this problem of extrapolation. It means that, while

analysing a text, it becomes difficult to identify the actual time period when different

portions were added in a text because some portion are added much later then the other

portions. For example, the 10th Mandala in the Rig Veda had been added during the

later Vedic period while the other mandalas belong to the early Vedic period. Second, in

the ancient texts, there is some problem of stratification as well. Third, we underline the

element of subjectivity in a literary text. It means the text mainly reflects the author’s

point of view. Fourth, usually the religious literatureswere composed from the religious

point of view. Looking for the economic and political clues in these texts is problematic.

Recently, new dimensions have been added to the analysis of the literary source.

Firstly, there is an initiative for the sociological study of literary texts, i.e. the

background of the author should be taken into consideration before his account is

examined. Secondly, even the methods from other disciplines are being applied to the

analysis of literary source, for example, the methods of analysis from economics,

statistics, anthropology, sociology, computer etc. are being used in the analysis of the

facts and figures. Likewise, on the basis of method of linguistics and computer analysis,

the dates in the ancient India are being studied.

Archaeological Source:-

Due to the limitations of the literary sources mentioned above,the archeological

source emergeas a very significant source for the study of the history of ancient India.

The archaeological sources have certain advantages. Firstly, they are supposedly

objective in the sense that the archaeological evidences have been lying on the earth or

beneath its crust forcenturies without any human interference. Secondly, for the study

of pre-historic period, the archaeological sources are the only available source. Even for

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the study of the proto historic phase,the literary source is available but it has not

beendeciphered; so we are relying entirely on the archaeological evidences. Lastly, the

archaeological evidence is used for corroborating the information from the literary

source.

Recently, new dimensions have emerged in the study of archaeological evidence.

For example, methods from other disciplines such as Geography, Geology, Botany,

Computer, etc. are being applied to the analysis of the archaeological evidence.

Secondly, the study of environment is being emphasised in the study of the

archaeological evidence. We can take the example of origin and decline of Harappan

Civilisation. Environmental factors are being given much weightage in the decline of the

Harappan Civilisation. Finally, with the help of satellites, the study and tracing of

archaeological evidence has become easier.

But even the archaeological sources have its own limitations. Firstly, although the

archaeological evidences are objective in their nature, but the conclusions drawn on

their basis are subjective. Secondly, we can’t say that there is little human interference

in archaeology. For example, some of the structures at Harappa are disfigured because

the bricks were stolen from the location. Likewise, some of the inscriptions of Asoka

have been uprooted from their original places. The archeological evidences like

artefacts, tools etc. have to bear with the elements of the nature- heat and moisture. So,

instead of humans, nature interferes with the archeological evidences. Thirdly, the royal

inscriptions usually give a distorted version of the facts because they were used as a tool

for the royal propaganda. Finally, in place of the horizontal excavation, vertical

excavation has been given priority in India; as the horizontal excavation is too costly.

Also, some of the locations have been continuously inhabited since millennia. That’s

why we don’t have a clear picture of some specific period.

Considering the limitation of bothkind of sources, we should try to corroborate one

source with the other. Yet, sometimes their interpretations will simply not align.

Continue………

Exploration and Excavation of the archaeological source Exploration- The first challenge before an archaeologist is how to explore the

archaeological sites. To discover sites in the open field is known as the field archaeology.

There are two different kinds of methods for the exploration of sites, Traditional

methods and New methods.

Traditional Methods

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1. Chance discovery- An archaeologist inadvertently comes across a site, for example

Cunningham discovered Harappan site in this manner.

2. Literary Account – Sometimes archaeologist follows the description given in a text

for the discovery of a site. For example, B.B. Lal started excavation on the site

Hastinapur on the basis of description given in the Mahabharata.

New Method –

1. Aerial survey – An aerial survey is carried out over a large region using

technologies like LiDAR, so that available sites can be discovered.

2. Use of satellites – Nowadays, satellites with thermal and infrared capabilities are

being used to identify potential sites of interest.

3. Chemical examination-Even chemical examination of soil constituents gives a hint

that there may have been a human settlement in the region in the remote past.

4. Computers- Recently even computers arebeing used for discovering archaeological

artifacts under the earth’s crust. Use of GIS and seismology is very common.

5. Other important techniques- to analyse an archeological site and the artefacts- are

radio carbon dating, thermo luminescence, uranium/thorium dating,

palaeobotany, palynology (the analysis of pollen and spores) etc. We do microwear

analysis to understand the possible functions of a tool.

Excavation- Archaeological excavation can be divided in two categories.

1. Vertical excavation – A limited part of the mound is excavated vertically. It

gives us information about the chronology and time period of different cultures on

a single site.

2. Horizontal excavation- Under this category, a vast excavation on a site is

carried out which gives a larger picture of the culture concerned.

For gaining proper knowledge of a culture, both types of excavation are required.

Butthe vertical excavation has been given priority in India as the horizontal excavation

is very costly and it creates an additional challenge of rehabilitation of the population

living over the site.

Short- notes:

1. Ancient inscriptions as the source for study.

2. Ancient Coinage as the source material.

3. Pre-historic archeology.

4. Foreign Accounts as the source of study for the Ancient India.

5. Kautilyan Arthasasthra and Magasthene’s Indica as the source of study for the

Mauryan age.

6. The account of Huen-Tsang for the study of Harsha period.

Long Question:

1. Ancient people in India did not have a sense of history. So history writing is a grand

contribution of Islam in India. Examine the above statement.

2. Examine the comparative importance of the archaeological and literary sources.

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3. When the literary sources remained silent, the archaeological sources speaks. In the

light of the above statement underline the importance of archaeological sources.

4. Try to reconstruct the Mauryan administration on the basis of the comparative

study of Kautilyan Arthasasthra, Megasthenese’s Indica and Ashokan inscription.

Some critics believed that early Indians did not have a sense of history. After all,

we can hardly find any text in the Ancient India which can be taken as a text on the

subject of history in the true sense. So, according to them, history-writing is a grand

contribution of Islam in India. We find that a number of factors contributed to the

history-writing under the Muslim rulers in India.

Firstly, recording the events associated with the life of the Caliph and the prophet is

considered a pious work in Islam. Secondly, Muslim scholars took interest in recording

the events associated with the life of sultans. Thirdly, Muslim rulers patronised scholars

and encouraged recording of events under their rule. Lastly, the Turks introduced the

paper in India (13th century) which encouraged writing in general.

So, we can say that the Muslim rule in India definitely contributed to the field of the

history writing. On the other hand, there is a charge against the Ancient Indian People

that they didn’t develop any scientific method for the calculation of time. They didn’t go

in a linear direction in calculating the time period, rather they developed the concept of

cyclic change of time.

But when we observe minutely we come to another conclusion. We find that the

people in Ancient India definitely had a sense of history. Although their approach was

different from that of the Ancient Greeks and modern scholars. Unlike modern authors

they never tried to establish a causative relation in recordingthe events. In fact the

object of writing in the Ancient India has clearly been stated inthe text like

Mahabharata. According to this, the object of writing should be to attain the four

Purusharthas. Also, Huen Tsang informs us that during the ancient period, in every

region, some scribe was appointed to record the events under a state. So we find that

even the people in ancient India had a sense of history. In the texts like the Puranas,

ancient scholars have tried to clarify the chronology of the rulers. Above all, we

shouldn’t try to judge the ancient Indian scholars on the model of classical writers like

Herodotus and Livi.

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Pre-history, Proto-history and Historical period

The Pre-history refers to a period, for the study of which, only the archaeological

evidence is available while literary evidence is totally absent.

We find two different definitions for the proto-historical period. According to the

first definition, the literary evidence is available for the study of the proto-historic

period but it is not being utilized; for example the Harappan and Vedic period. The

Harappan script has not been deciphered yet and the Vedic people had dialects or

languages but they did not have a script. According to the second definition, proto-

historic period is supposed to have started with the beginning of agriculture. On the

basis of this criterion even the Neolithic and Chalcolithic period come under the purview

of proto-history.

The historical period refers to that phase, for the study of which, both the

archaeological evidence and literary evidence are available. It starts from the 600 BCE

onwards for India.

Development of Human Civilisation:

Manufacturing and using tools is the criterion from which the archeologists recognise

ancient humans. The first evidense of the tools are available roughly from 2.5 million

years ago. The Humans (Genus: Homo) first evolved in the East Africa about 2.5 million

years ago (m.y.a). After which, they migrated outwards from Africa. Then, about 150000

years ago, Homo Sapiens (Wise Man) appeared in the East Africa first; then, their out of

Africa migration started from about 70000-120000 years ago. Currently, the entire

Human Civilisation is the Homo Sapiens civilisation. Human civilisation is supposed to

have evolved through three different phases –

1. Stone Age

2. Copper Age

3. Iron Age

1- Stone Age

The Stone Age consists of the Paleolithic period, the Mesolithic period and the

Neolithic period. This categorization is based on the changing climate, changes in the

flora and fauna, type and technologyof the stone tools and the subsistence base. During

the Paleolithic period, human beings were in the hunting and food gathering stage,

while during the Neolithic period they had reached up to food producing stage. As a

phase of transition between these two periods, some scholars have conceived a new

period, that is, the Mesolithic period.

We should remember that there is a great deal of variation in the dates for the

different sites. For example, recently at Attirampakkam near Chennai, the transition

from the lower Paleolithic to the Middle Paleolithic was observed in the artefacts dated

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around 385000 years ago. Before this, the earliest transition we saw was pegged around

125000 years ago. Paleolithic age sites belong to the Pleistocene geological era (the last

ice age) and the Mesolithic era onwards, we are living in the Holocene geological era

(the period of de-glaciation).

1) Paleolithic period (5 Lakh BCE to 10,000 BCE)

During this entire period,the ice age (Pleistocene ice age roughly from 2.6 m.y.a. till

11700 years ago) wasgoing on and the climate was harsh. Glaciers covered a much larger

part of the globe. But gradually climatic conditions improved and conditions became

conducive to the life. On the basis of the climatic change and the use of technology even

the Paleolithic period could be divided into three sub-periods, namely lower, middle and

upper Paleolithic period.

a- Lower Paleolithic period - It covers a long time period i.e. from 5 Lakh BCE

to 50,000 BCE. During this period climate was particularly cold and people were

mainly using the‘Core implements’ for hunting and food gathering. The Hand

axe and cleavers were the main tools. Chopper was also an important tool.

The Paleolithic sites have been unearthed from almost all parts of the Indian sub-

continent except the Gangetic basin region and the forested regions of Kerala.

From about 3 lakh years ago, Homo erectus, Neanderthals and the forefathers of

modern human beings were using fire on a regular basis.

Stone tools are the most viable archeological key to get an insight

into the lives of the Stone Age foragers. So, it is very important to understand

what the different key terms- used to describe different kind of tools- mean. Early

Paleolithic tools were fairly large core tools made of the quartzite stone, which is

not so amenable to chipping and flaking. When a piece of stone is broken into

two, the larger part is called the core and the smaller part is called the flake.

Chipping out small pieces from a piece of stone in order to turn it into a usable

tool is called flaking. A stone hand axe is a core tool, which is usually worked on

both sides, i.e. it is a bi-face. A pebble hand axe (made from pebbles) has its only

one side chipped away. These hand axes could be used alone or they could be tied

on a piece of wood. A chopper- stone or pebble- is usually a core implement and

it is flaked on only one side to produce a tool which then can be used to chop the

pieces of meat. It is a uni-facial tool. A cleaver is a flattish tool made out

rectangular/triangular flakes; which has one straight cutting edge. The

Acheulian tools represent an advanced stage of the lower Paleolithic tools which

have symmetrical flaking on both sides of the hand axes and cleavers.

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b- Middle Paleolithic period-It is supposed to have started around 50,000 BCE

and lasted approximately till 30,000 BCE. By this time climate was more

comfortable. Above all, one can underline the change in nature of tools i.e. in

place of the ‘core implements’ the overall balance shifted towards makingthe

lighter flake implements, some of them actually made by preparing the core part

itself. The Levallois technique (name after a suburban area in Paris) is an

advanced way of making flake tools from the core part itself.

c- Upper Paleolithic period- It started from about 30,000 BCE and continued

till about 10,000 BCE. Up to this period, climate became warmer and more

favourable. In tools,there was a preponderance of the flake implements now. The

main tools during this period were blades, scrapers and burins (it may have been

used to engrave tools or to make grooves in the wood/bone handles in which

stone tools would then be hafted.). Apart from that, along with the use of stone

tools, use of bone tools and wooden tools became more frequent because of the

climate change perhaps. The most important technical advance of the upper

Paleolithic age is the double sided blade.

Continue……

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Early Medieval

Major Political Developments in North India

In essence, the political condition of the period was one of regional consciousness,

disappearance of the Aryavarta consciousness, internecine struggle and the rise of

feudalism which checked the institution of kingship and led to political disintegration.

After the death of Harshavardhana in 642 CE Indian history is marked by the

growth of political confusion & disintegration. Several, principalities came into existence

which had no principles of unity or cohesion. India became a bundle of states which

were to all intents and purposes independent.

The feudal system and its hereditary character grew due to several reasons:-

(i) As the new type of villages arose (due to land grants) there came into existence a

class of intermediaries.

(ii) Through the process of conquest, the smaller and defeated chiefs were reinstated

and were recognized as vassals. This also contributed to the growth of feudalism.

(iii) The feudal lords had to render military aid to the overlords, which contributed to

the growth of the power of the former.

(iv) The loss of royal authority over monopoly of supply and procurement of horses

and elephants added to the growth of feudal system.

(v) Through the process of land grants that were made to the Brahmans and the

other beneficiaries such as the donations like agraharas also led to feudal

tendencies.

(vi) The management of trade and industries locally to satisfy the needs of self

sufficient villages accentuated the process.

(vii) Decline of trade and commerce, both internal and external, also encouraged the

process.

The Rajputs in North India:-

In the interregnum between Harsha and the Muslim rule in India, North India

was dominated by a few ruling houses viz. the Pratiharas of Kannauj and their

successors the Gahadavalas, the Kalachuris of Chedi, the Chandellas of Jejakabukti, the

Paramaras of Malwa, the Western Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Chahamanas of Ajmer

and Sakambari. These ruling houses were mainly from Rajput caste and hence this age

is called as the Rajput age.

The polity of clan image became the distinctive feature of the Rajputs of

Rajasthan. In this system the king reserved the central part of his kingdom and

distributed the rest to the clan chiefs. The rulers assumed the imperial titles to which a

number of other titles were added by the Gahadavalas and Kalchuris such as that of

Asvapati, Gajapati, Narapati, Rajotsayadhipati etc.

The dominions directly administered by the rulers were split into provinces and

their subdivisions and were administered by officers. The village had their traditional

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headmen. The downfall of the Rajput kingdoms was hastened by the devastating

invasions of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori.

The Rajputs in Eastern India :-

In Eastern India this period saw the rise and fall of two principal dynasties:

(i) the Palas and

(ii) the Senas.

The Palas had a unique beginning as their founder was chosen by the people for

the purpose of ending anarchy in the region. But here also, there was an absence of a

permanent and regularly constituted council of ministers. Their administration followed

the same pattern of personal rule by a monarch supported by a bureaucracy. The final

downfall of Palas was due to the rise of the Senas who were ultimately vanquished by

Bhaktiyar Khalji.

The Rajputs in Deccan :-

Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas were the leading powers of the Deccan in this

period. Able rulers like Indra II and Vikrmaditya VI of the former and the latter

respectively took leading part in the struggle for power in north and South India. The

feudatories of these powers assumed a semi-independent status even during the

heydays of their rule. They had sub-feudatories who held seigniorial under them. Both

these categories, the feudal and the sub-feudal, had sufficient authority to assign land

freely.

Origin and Rise of Rajputs

The term "Rajput" originated from Rajaputra. Initially the term was used to denote the

son of the king. So initially the term Rajput was used as proper noun but later it started

to denote a caste or group.

We get certain information about Rajputs at the time of conquest of Sindh. In fact

5000 cavalry men appeared to assist Dahir, the king of Sindh. They were recognized as

Rajputras or Rajputs. Slowly the term which stood for the son of a king came to

represent a group of common landlords. 1. Indigenous Vs Foreign Origin :-

In the analysis of origin of Rajputs the controversy like indigenous origin and that

of foreign origin has been given too much weightage. For example Col. Todd declared

Rajputs as the descendants of Shakas. Likewise, Cunningham took Rajputs as the

successor of Khushanas.

On the other hand, the court poet of Chauhanas, Chandbardai, propounded the famous

theory of Agnikula (That is the origin from the sacrificial fire pit during Agnikula

sacrifice of Vashishta on Mount Abu). This points toward the indigenous origin of

Rajput.

But recently it is being emphasized that in place of discussing the controversy

about the indigenous or foreign origin of Rajputs, we should better explain the whole

phenomenon as the product of political, economic and social processes. Then we find

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that the Rajput class was not a monolithic class and both foreign as well as indigenous

elements contributed to it. 2. A Political, economic & Social Process :-

As a political process we find that from Guptan period onwards a number of local

chiefs were given the land grants. Some of them were even enjoying the power to grant a

portion of it to subordinate chief. So it was the big chiefs who started to enjoy an

autonomous position they got their forts constructed and organized local army.

It was the result of economic process as well. Through land grants there was

expansion of agriculture in tribal areas. As a result of this, tribal economy was gradually

transformed into agrarian economy. So a number of local chiefs (or landlords) appeared

and among this group there were indigenous and foreign elements both.

It was a result of the social process as well in the sense that matrimonial

relationship played the important role in the upward social mobility of some of the local

chiefs. Secondly, even the concept of ‘Brahma–Kshatra’ might have played some role in

upward social mobility. For instance, some of the Rajput clans before getting Kshatriya

status adopted the Brahmin status first. As an example we can take the case of Gurjara

Pratiharas. In fact, the pater family of Gurjara Pratihara, Harish Chandra, is supposed to

have two wives – a Brahmin wife and a Kshatriya wife. It was from the Brahmin wife the

successors of Gurjara Pratihara continued later. These processes contributed to the rise

of Rajputs.

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MANIKANT SINGH 14

2. Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)

Khalji Revolution

It is a term that denotes the replacement of Ilbari dynasty by Khalji

dynasty. But it was not simply the change of government rather it was something more

than that. It involved the following aspects –

1. Khaljis came to power not due to the support of either nobility or Ulemma or

the common people but by dint of their military strength.

2. It was the rejection of the racial policy of Ilbari Turks. Khaljis opened the gate

of the nobility class not simply to non–Turks but also to Indian Musalmans.

Alauddin Khalji made a declaration that ‘kingship knows no kinship’. So the

social basis of the state broadened.

3. Khalji revolution implied a revolt of the lower class Muslims against the

established Muslim aristocracy.

4. Khalji revolution emphasised on the separation of religion from politics.

5. In one sense it was a revolt of Indian Muslims against those who were looking

to Ghazni and Ghor region for their pedigree.

The Khalji revolution had a negative side as well. It gave too much emphasis over

the military aspect of the government but in spite of that limitation Khalji revolution

implies the beginning of a new era.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316):

Khalji Imperialism and its significance-

North India:

Alauddin did not follow any particular policy in his dealings with the

Rajputs. Nevertheless, it was required to check their power before Alauddin could

forward his thrust towards Deccan. His attacks were aimed at subjugation of

independent territories and raising state revenue. He conquered Multan and Gujarat in

1299. Gujarat was having a great commercial value. Due to this conquest the

procurement of horse became easy. Then he annexed the region of Ranthambhor in

1301. In 1303 he captured Chittor which was having a great economic and strategic

importance. In 1305 he conquered Jaisalmer and Ranthambhor followed by Jalor and

Jodhpur.

The Deccan Policy:

Before Alauddin's accession, Deccan was relatively undisturbed. He

realized the importance of Devgiri as an intermediate kingdom. He sent two military

expeditions to south India under Malik-e-Naib, Malik Kafur. The first expedition was

sent in 1306-07 and Devgiri was conquered. Devgiri’s King Ramchandra Deva was

reinstated in lieu of large yearly indemnity. For Alauddin, subduing Devgiri was the

ultimate point of Deccan invasion. The second expedition was dispatched in 1310-11

against the state of Dwarasamudra and Pandya state. Huge war booty was collected

from here as well.

MANIKANT SINGH 15

Alauddin Khalji proved to be a very unique imperialist in the sense that he

adopted different policies for north and South India.

Specific policy for South India:-

1. He defeated southern states but avoided their direct annexation of them. This

was due to constraint in transport & communication lines. This made direct

control difficult.

2. To make a claim of suzerainty in place of complete sovereignty of the region.

3. To take regular gifts as well as revenue from such states.

Evaluation of his Deccan policy -

Whenever we compare the consequences of Deccan policy of Alauddin Khalji

with that of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Auranzeb, we find that the policy of Alauddin

Khalji proved to be more successful. He continued to collect gifts and revenue from

Deccan states on regular basis without getting into its administrative complexity.

Administrative Reforms of Alauddin -

1. New theory of Kingship-

a. He rejected the racial policy of Ilbari Turks and opened the gate of nobility class

not simply to non–Turks but even to Indian Muslims. He declared that “Kingship

knows no kinship”.

b. The secularization of state policy :- Alauddin khalji tried to separate politics from

religion.

2. Administrative policy of Alauddin Khalji was in fact reaction to a series of rebellions

that broke out during his time. The external danger from the Mongols and the

internal rebellions warranted a strong state. The rebellion of Akat Khan and the

conspiracy of Haji Maula are the few examples. To have a better control over the

aristocratic class, he put restriction over their meetings, feasts and matrimonial

relations. An officer Amir–e–Hajib used to supervise the activities of the nobility.

Even drinking alcohol was prohibited in the capital.

3. He did some military reforms as well. He was the first sultan who maintained a

standing army and started to pay cash salary to soldiers. In order to maintain the

efficiency in military department he introduced the system of ‘Hulia’ (descriptive

roles) and ‘Dagh’ (branding of horses).

4. In order to combat the Mongol invasion he got some old forts repaired and got

constructed some new ones.

5. Above all, Alauddin Khalji was the first sultan who extended the administration of

Delhi Sutanate even to rural regions. Before Alauddin khalji the sultans of Delhi were

having their control simply on the important routes and the urban centers. We can

take the land revenue reforms by Alauddin khalji in this context as well.

MANIKANT SINGH 16

Land Revenue Reforms of Alauddin

Objectives:

Two objectives of land revenue reforms of Alauddin Khalji were-

1. To augment state income

2. To check the concentration of wealth into few hands through abolishing the

intermediary class.

Reasons for Land Revenue Reforms -

What factors led Alauddin Khalji to introduce the revenue reforms is a

matter of dispute. However, the plausible feasibility lies in economic factor. A large state

income was needed to maintain a large standing army to defend, consolidate and

expand the sultanate and repulse Mongolan onslaughts. Land revenue being the main

source of the state income, was natural to be taken up for reforms to meet the financial

need.

Three Stages of Land Reforms-

First Stage :-

He converted ‘milk’ (pension) ‘waqf’ (religious grants) ‘Inam’ (reward)

lands into the Khalisa land (land whose revenue went to royal treasury).

Second Stage :-

He removed intermediaries like Khut, Muqaddam and Chaudari who were

part of the land revenue administration and carried the land measurement. In land

measurement he adopted the unit of Bafa–I–Biswa that was equal to 1/20th of Bigha.

Third Stage :-

He fixed land revenue at 50% of the total production. This rate was fixed

even on the lands of the village nobility. Apart from that he imposed the taxes like

‘Ghari’ (house tax) and ‘Charai’ (Grazing tax) on the people including village nobleman.

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MANIKANT SINGH 17

Mughal Administration

Nature of the Mughal State-

The nature of state under the Mughals has been a subject of great controversy amongst the scholars. Scholars like Dr. R.P. Asharaf and Dr. Ishwari Prasad etc. hold that the state under the Mughals was a theocracy. On the other hand some historians like Dr. I.H. Qureshi holds that it was not a theocratic state. While some regard it as a military state. Some even consider it as a culture state. In view of these conflicting opinion offered by the scholars regarding the nature of state under the Mughals, it becomes imperative to examine this issue more thoroughly as : Whether it was an Islamic state? Was it a theocratic state? Was it a culture state or a police state? Was the Mughal state a krieg staat (war states)? or Was it a feudal state?

A theocratic state?

We have already seen the meaning of theocracy. The term theocracy is derived from the Greek word 'theos' meaning God. Therefore, a theocratic state is one which is governed by God or sacredotal class. The theocratic state had two essential features: (1) presence of a hereditary sacredotal class or priesthood; (2) prevalence of the law of God.

In the first place we can agree with Dr. Qureshi that there was no hereditary priesthood in medieval India which is the essential feature of a theocracy. There was, however, the body of Ulema which had a strong influence on the state. Although there was an eclipse of their power under Akbar, they remained influencial through out the Mughal period. The Mughal emperors from Akbar to Augrangzeb called themselves as 'shadow of God', 'Caliph of God', and 'agent of God on earth' thus diminishing the role o mediators ie Ulemas. However the sovereignty of God was unquestioned. The supremacy of the 'Shariat' was always acknowledged, though Akbar added states laws to the Shariat. Under him and his two immediate successors, Islamic law ceased to be the exclusive code of government. Jahangir and Shah Jahan, however, did not regard themselves as above Muslim law and the former even assumed the role of protector of Islam and 'Shariat'. Thus we can conclude that the state under the Mughals was neither a theocracy nor a secular.

The next question that arises in this context is whether the state under the Mughal emperors was Islamic or otherwise. This has been the subject of a lively controversy among historians. According to Muslim constitutional law, the world is divided into 'Dar-ul-harb' and dar-ul-Islam'. 'Dar-ul-Islam' is a country which is under the rule of a Muslim sovereign and where the ordinances of Islam have been established. Even Akbar, who was considered infidel by orthodox Muslims, did not disregard Muslim law. In his letters to Abdullah Khan of Bukhara, Akbar defended himself against the charge of impiety and posed as the champion of Islam. The 'Mahzar' of 1579 CE, made Akbar the Imam and Amir-ul-Muminin' and the chief 'Mujtahid' (interpreter of Islamic laws). It recognized the Quran as the fundamental law of the state. But Akbar based his government not only on the Shariat but also on what Badayuni calls 'zawabit' or state-laws. His religous policy, as well as that of his two successors, was not inspired by notions of Muslim law. It may, therefore, be stated that the Mughal Empire, was not an Islamic state and the Mughal emperors did not conform absolutely to Islamic ordinances since it had to adopt itself to the realities and expediency of the time. However, it should be kept in mind that the deviations from Muslim law did not affect the fundamental Islamic character of the state.

MANIKANT SINGH 18

A Culture State?

Some scholars think that the Mughal empire was a full-fledged culture state. There are others who maintain that it was merely a police state. Toleration and benevolence were the guiding principles of Akbar's government and he gave a new orientation to the conception of the state in Mughal India. Akbar considered his subjects as his children and hence held himself responsible for their welfare. The state, as conceived by Abul Fazl and established by Akbar, was universal which included everyone irrespective of sect, creed or nationality. Shah Jahan also considered the well-being of his subjects and the protection of the weak as the duties of the monarch. If there was any period when the Mughal Empire could rise to the stature of culture state, it was definitely under Akbar.

But in spite of Akbar's benevolent and enlightened policy and its partial continuation by Jahangir and Shah Jahan, the Mughal rule had limited scope in its functions as a culture state. It did not concern itself with education, health, public works, and the moral, social and economic life of the people, while village life was outside its scope unless there was rebellion against the king. Nevertheless, it is difficult to agree with the view that 'the aim of the Mughal government was extremely limited, materialistic and sordid'. From Sher Shah to Shah Jahan, we have rulers whose policy can hardly be discribed as sordid. They were, indeed, benevolent monarchs. Their activities obviously stemmed from the personal benevolence of the monarchs and were neither regular nor well-planned since these activities were not from the regular mechanism of the state.

On the other hand the generous patronage of arts and artisan by the Mughal emperors and the marvelous efflorescence of Indo-Muslim culture at their courts do not make the Mughal empire a culture state. These were the personal activities of the emperors concerned and were rooted in their elegant tastes and refined pleasure. They did not primarily aim at the intellectual progress of the country. However, it was undoubtedly, a great advance on the 'laissez-faire' police-state of the sultans of Delhi and an approach towards a culture state.

A Krieg staat' (War State) or Police state?

Was the Mughal state a 'Krieg staat'? The main strength of the Muslim rulers, who were foreigners in India, was undoubtedly their army. So, the 'Mansab' system of the Mughals has misled some scholars to think that the Mughal government was military in character. The basis of the public service system was military and even the status and salary were regulated and controlled by military standards and regulations. But this did not affect the efficiency of the civil administration or the interests of the people and in no way did it involve the subordination of the civil to the military state. Further, the entire range of public services was not based on military organization. The lower officers of the various departments were not holding any mansab and were getting their salary in cash. Likewise, the fact that the provincial governor was called 'Sipah-Salar' had led some to believe that the provincial government too was military in character. In reality, the executive and judicial powers of the governor were limited and he had to work under a series of checks and restraints. Thus, the Mughal state was by no means a krieg staat.

MANIKANT SINGH 19

A Feudalistic State?

The government under the Mughals cannot be considered as feudal. It was an organized bureaucracy with regular gradations of departments and officers. The officers were appointed, transferred and dismissed by the monarch at his will and were accountable to him and the higher authorities. No office, civil or military, was hereditary and there was no sub-infeudation. The Jagir and mansab systems have misled some to believe that Mughal government in India was feudalistic in nature. The jagir system was not based upon feudalism as it lacked two fundamental or major elements of feudalism i.e. hereditariness and sub infeudation. The jagirdar was an officer of the state and worked as collector of the revenue of his jagir land which he realized on behalf of the state with a view to obtain his salary. He had no administrative control over land beyond revenue collection and he had no right to grant it to anybody under him. After his death, the jagir was not necessarily inherited by his successor. It could be resumed by the state. Similarly, the mansab system was based upon the organization of the public services of the empire. A mansab was personal and not hereditary and there could be no sub-infeudation in respect of the mansab. Even the wealth and property of a mansabdar reverted to the state by escheat after his death. The aristocracy was dependent on the will of the sovereign and instead of checking his autocracy and acting as a barrier between the emperor and the people, it contributed strength to his pretensions.

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MANIKANT SINGH 20

Nationalism Modern nationalism is a western concept. Nationalism has various

definitions but broadly we can say that nation refers to a community of people who are

linked together in some way, have homogenous culture, and trace their origin to a

common historical force. The concept of nation-state emerged in 16th-17th century in

Europe by some ambitious monarchs. But the modern concept of nationalism developed

after the American and the French revolutions. It was based on nationalism of the

people.

There is a basic difference between western nationalism and Indian

nationalism. While the former evolved during the transformation of society from feudal

system to capitalist system, the latter developed during the course of struggle against the

imperialist force. But there is some ambiguity regarding the nature of Indian

nationalism. There are two groups who define Indian nationalism in two different ways-

1- In the first group we can include British officers like Valentine Chirol who

considered India to be a mere geographical expression. He argued that as India is

divided into numerous castes, religion and communities and shows a diverse

geographical variation as well thus it can never become a nation. Later the British

Prime Minister Churchill too supported this view. Thus this group of western

scholars denied any possibility of Indian nationalism.

2- The second group include those western scholars who although accept the

concept of nation building in India but gives its credit to the western world. For

example, Benedict Anderson, in his book ‘Imagined Communities’ (1983), wrote

that nation is just an imagination of few intellectuals. Another western scholar,

Eric Hobsbom named it ‘Invented Community’. According to these scholars few

Indian intellectuals came in touch with western concepts through English

language and thus imagined India as a nation inline with western concept of

nations. While introduction of modern transport and communication integrated

India, cartography and census carried out by British government in India further

strengthened this feeling of nationalism.

Initially Indian scholars too accepted the western model of Indian

nationalism, but later few scholars tried to give it an alternative definition by viewing it

in spiritual context rather than the physical one. They tried to establish that even if

British had not ruled India, it could have emerged into a modern nation in course of

time. For example, some elements of resistance lay in our Vedas and later ancient texts.

In medieval period Bhakti movement presented cultural unity in India. Furthermore, we

should not forget the fact that Raja Rammohan Roy started the reform works at Calcutta

even before he came in touch with western learning. Meanwhile Bankim Chandra

Chattopadhyay gave the concept of ‘Vande Mataram’ in Anand Math. Then Avanindra

Nath Tagore gave nation a human form by drawing a picture of ‘Bharat Mata’ in 1905.

Even Gandhi and Nehru highlighted the basic unity in the Indian civilisation. Even a

British scholar Christopher Bailey says that right from ancient period India was having a

sense of patriotism. Likewise, the concept of ‘good government’ has inspired the people

MANIKANT SINGH 21

to make a difference between righteous and unrighteous rule and also to rise against

unrighteous rule, has been prevailing in India from earlier time. Here we can’t underline

western impact in the rise of Indian nationalism. But we cant deny with the fact that a

number of factors produced by the British rule in India encouraged nationalist

conscious indirectly i.e. political unification, unified system of administration, printing

press, new education system (English education), modern transport and communication

lines etc.

Thus these intellectuals gave an alternative model of Indian nationalism

which was different from the western model. During the course of our study of Indian

nationalism we should keep these differences in mind.

Difference in western model and Indian model –

Modern nationalism which had evolved in Western Europe put specific

emphasis on uniformity i.e. one language and one dominant culture. Western model

attracted even Indian leaders. Therefore trailing the path of western nationalism, during

the early twentieth century, even Indian leaders gave slogans like one language one

nation or ‘Hindi, Hindu and Hindustan’. But India, having a distinct cultural trait, could

not qualify on this criterion, so it developed its own distinct model and proudly gave a

new nomenclature to it ‘unity in diversity’. After independence constitution makers of

India recognized the polyphonic character of Indian nation. So, on the issue of language

and uniform civil code they adopted a flexible approach, unlike the countries of Western

Europe which introduced a single language. As national language, in eighth schedule of

the Indian constitution, initially there were 14 languages, then the number of languages

reached up to 22. Likewise, along with Hindi as the official language even, English has

been introduced as associated official language. Apart from that, the constitution

makers avoided contentious issues like uniform civil code and deferred the decision on

this issue to the future generations. Thus developed an alternative model of nation-

building in India. This model could survive the vagaries of time and prove its efficacy.

India has emerged to be stronger since the last seven decades while with the rise of the

issues of Scotland in Britain and Catalonia in Spain, western model of nation-building

has been questioned.

Nationalism and inclusiveness -

During the second half of 19th century when there was the rise of modern

nationalism in India, it had an elitist base. It manifested itself in socio-religious reforms

movement. The movements reflected both the trends i.e. Westernised as well as

revivalist tendencies. When later under the Indian National Congress, modern politics

started, it manifested itself in two different phases - moderate phase and extremist

phase. In politics of moderate phase, there was predominance of western elements while

extremist politics reflected revivalist tendencies but in sum total, both of them reflected

the elitist tendencies only without the scope for mass politics. They could not link

directly to the common masses. Extremist leadership simply tried to channelize politics

from upper middle class to the lower middle class.

MANIKANT SINGH 22

It was Gandhi who worked as a bridge between the elite congress politics

and the Indian masses. Therefore, under Gandhian movement national movement

became inclusive to a greater extent. But even Gandhian nationalism had a savarna

(high born) Hindu base. It was the time when there was the rise of lower class leaders

like Sri Narayan Guru in Travancore, Periyer Naykar in Madras and Bhimrao Ambedkar

in Maharashtra and these leaders fought for basic rights of the lower caste people. Thus

the savarna base of national movement was weakened and national movement became

more inclusive. Later 1930s onwards, due to the role of some socialist and communist

parties, more and more peasants and workers got associated with the national

movement expanding its social base and made their own contributions to the national

movement by making it more inclusive. But still India waits to become a truly inclusive

nation. There is still a lot to be done in order to attain this status.

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MANIKANT SINGH 23

American Revolution

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable right, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

-The Declaration of American Independence, 4 July 1776

It is one of the significant events in world’s history. It was the world’s first anti-colonial struggle as the result of which the Americans liberated themselves from the clutches of British imperialism.

American continent was discovered in the last decade of 15th century. By 16th century European countries began to make settlements there. In North America, colonies were developed by France, Holland, Spain and England. After the end of the

Seven Years War, by the treaty of Paris (1763) England drove out France from the eastern part of the continent and Canada. Earlier England took New Netherlands from the Dutch and named it New York. By the middle of 18th century there were 13 English colonies along the Atlantic coast. Landless peasants, traders, people seeking religious freedom and profiteers settled there. The 13 colonies that eventually became United States were New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. They varied in size and were multi-cultural. Majority of population consisted of independent farmers. Infant industries developed in farm products like wool, flax and leather. In the north, fishing and ship building industries were set up while south indulged in plantations of tobacco and cotton. These plantations sustained on slaves from Africa.

MANIKANT SINGH 24

Although these colonies were under the control of British crown but they exercised considerable autonomy in internal matters. Each colony had a local assembly elected by qualified voters and headed by a governor. Though the colonist enjoyed considerable political autonomy, in economic matters they were subject to various British mercantilist restrictions. Initially these restrictions were quite loose but after 1763 the British monarch George III assisted by his ministers Grenville and Townshend tightened these controls. This resulted in resentment among the colonial people leading to the revolution.

Causes of the Conflict: -

The colonial policy of England in economic matters was the primary cause of resentment in American colonies. Louis Hacker, an economic historian considers it as a conflict between American capitalism and British mercantilism.

(i) British policies hindered the economic growth of America. e.g. It prohibited them from using non British ships in trade. Products like tobacco, cotton and sugar could be exported only to Britain. They were forced to import certain goods like iron and textiles from Britain only.

(ii) The colonists were prevented from making a westward expansion. As most of the lands were owned by English aristocrats and they took rent from the colonists, they considered it a loss of rent if these people abandoned their land and moved westward.

(iii) The imposition of stamp tax was a more immediate cause of resentment. The colonists were supposed to pay taxes on all business transactions which they opposed vociferously. The slogan of “No taxation without representation” finds its origin in this movement. As American colonist had no representatives in British parliament they refused to pay taxes.

Bernard Bailyn holds American Revolution as an ideological, constitutional and political struggle. English philosopher like Locke, Milton, Herrington had great influence on American thinkers. Americans were greatly influenced by English democratic traditions as reflected in these philosophers’ writing. Moreover certain factors like distance from motherland, availability of free space and other peculiar aspects of American life contributed to the growing spirit of liberty and the importance of individual in their society. They were also influenced by French philosophers. Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine contributed a lot in the spread of these ideas through their writings. The influence of enlightenment was clearly evident here. Thomas Paine, in his historical pamphlet ‘Common Sense’ reasoned that it was a matter of common sense for Americans to sever all ties with the corrupt British monarchy. Moreover an island ruling a continent was quite absurd for him.

Events Leading to the revolution

The Americans, initially, were not looking for complete independence but for an independent relationship between the colonies and the mother country. But as events

unfolded it finally turned out to be a war of independence. Major events in chronological order are as follows -

The Massachusetts Assembly (1765)

MANIKANT SINGH 25

Leaders of all the colonies assembled in the colony of Massachusetts to discuss their common problems. They insisted on ‘No taxation without representation’ and threatened to stop the import of British goods. This threat led to the repeal of the Stamp Act. But the British parliament made it a point that it’s their right to levy taxes by taxing consumer goods coming into colonies like paper, glass, tea and paint. Again the colonist opposed by stressing that it is only their local assemblies which had the right to raise money via taxes from them and in protest the Americans cut down the English imports by one-half. The English again back tracked but to assert their right to levy taxes, didn’t abolish the tax on tea.

The Boston Tea Party (1773)

It gets its name from the place this event took place in, Boston. Colonies refused to unload the tea coming in English ships. In Boston, when the governor ordered unloading of a ship, a group of citizens led by Samuel Adams, boarded the ship dressed as American Indians and dumped the tea crates into the water. This incident is known as ‘Boston tea party’. The government in England ordered the closure of the port for all trade, thus further fanning the resentment.

The Philadelphia Congress and the Declaration of Independence

All the colonies (except Georgia), sent delegates to the first continental congress held in Philadelphia in September 1774. This congress appealed to the British king to remove restrictions on industries and trade and not to impose any tax without their consent. It also organised a continental association and decided to start military preparations. The British king, taking their action as mutiny ordered to send British troops to America. The colonists too planned for military defence with local troops. The first clash occurred in Massachusetts in 1775. After the initial skirmishes the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia and chose George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the American forces. It again reiterated its demand to the British king. But the British decision to continue fighting led continental congress to adopt the Declaration of Independence on 4th July 1776. It was drafted by Thomas Jefferson. The declaration asserted on the equality of all men and held that the people are the source of authority. It affirmed people’s right to set up their own government. Upto the declaration of independence the colonists had been fighting for their rights as English men. But after the declaration in 1776 they fought for their right to be an independent nation.

The War of Independence

The declaration of Independence marked the formal beginning of the American war of Independence that was to last more than six years with fighting in every colony.

Battle of Saratoga (1777) was a military turning point of the revolution. The British forces under General Burgoyne surrendered to the Americans. However further the Americans faced several defeats until France came to their help in 1778 after concluding a Treaty of alliance. France declared war against England and in 1779 Spain entered the fray as an ally of France. Finally, with the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at

MANIKANT SINGH 26

York Town in 1781 the revolutionary war was over and with the Treaty of Paris (1783) Britain recognized American Independence.

Causes of American Success

Though the British forces were stronger than the American side led by George Washington, the British were defeated. Many reasons can be attributed to this-

1. From the beginning itself the British authorities didn’t take the American revolutionaries seriously and mainly relied on mercenary soldiers to suppress them.

2. The remoteness of the American continent and British ignorance of American geography was another important factor.

3. The British authorities failed to rally the loyalist Americans.

4. Americans were driven by a strong spirit of liberty which held them strong during adverse situations.

5. Americans had the advantage of good military leadership of George Washington.

6. The active co-operation of France, Spain and Holland was another deciding factor.

The significance of the American Revolution

American Revolution stands in the history of the world as a major land mark. It was world’s first anti-colonial revolution. It led to the formation of a nation which was to become the greatest workshop of democracy, federalism and capitalism. Other significant influences of this revolution include-

1. It exerted a radical influence on France and many French idealists actively collaborated with the Americans. Thus the American struggle inspired the French people to rise up against the ancien regime.

2. It was also a great blow to the invincible image of the Great Britain.

3. It led to the end of mercantilist policy of Britain.

4. Britain became more cautious in handling its colonies. The Pitts India Act of 1784 can be seen as an example of this.

Richard Hofstadter has argued that the American Revolution was

conservative in character. Therefore, it may be less significant than the Russian or French revolution. But its main significance lies in the fact that it marked the victory of the spirit of liberty and democracy. When most of the civilised world was ruled by monarchy, Americans adopted republican form of government, quite a radical event at the time.

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