Principles of Effective Teaching & Assessment

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By: Iwan SyahrilDecember 2010

1 x 15 = ....

a) 15 or b) 1

2

prior experience

other courses

Diverse Contexts:• learners• classroom&school• socio-cultural

Models of Instruction

Models of Assessment

Lesson Planning

Micro Teaching

Effective Teachers

Effective Teaching

Sound Understanding

Informed Decision-

Maker

TEACHING LEARNING ASSESSMENT

individual work

online learning

worksho

practical experience

• teacher-centered.

• student-centered

• formative• summative• alternative

group

REFLECTION

On becoming a teacher:

• Who or what motivates you?

• Who or what inspires you?

• Do you see yourself as a teacher now? If yes, what do you think of yourself as a teacher?

• What are your goals as a teacher candidate? How can this course help you achieve those goals?

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About your teachers

Most memorable teachers

Choose two most memorable teachers

in the past:

one that you liked a lot. one that you disliked very

much.

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First, think by yourself:

Why did you like or dislike those teachers?

What stories do you remember about them?

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Next, work in pairs:

Share the stories about your most memorable

teachers.

Effective Teaching?

Do you think those teachers taught effectively or not? Explain your answers.

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What are the characteristics of effective teaching based on your past experiences?

The Vignettes

In groups of three, read different vignettes, and answer these

questions:

1. Did the teacher teach effectively?

2. Did the teacher teach for understanding?

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Topic/Content Activity Assessment

A Typical Curriculum Design

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The twin sins in curriculum

design:

1. Activity-focused. Hands on without minds-on.

2. Coverage approach. Teach, test, and hope for the best.

Understanding by

Design(UbD)Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe

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The textbook in more than 150 schools of education

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1. Identify the desired results What do my students need to know and be able to do?

2. Determine the acceptable evidence How are my students going to demonstrate that they know and can do it?

3. Plan learning experiences and instruction How are my students going to learn what they need to know and be able to do?

Draw! Sketch! Visualize!

Conceptions of Learning (Marton et al., 1993)

• Getting more knowledge.

• Memorizing and reproducing.

• Applying facts and procedures.

• Understanding.

• Seeing something in a different way.

• Changing as a person.

Models of Learning (Watkins, Carnell, & Lodge, 2007)

• RECEPTION. “Learning = being taught.”

Concerned with quantity, facts, skills; assumes transmission of knowledge from an external source (e.g. teacher). Emotional & social aspects are not attended to.

• CONSTRUCTION. “Learning = individual sense-making.”

Concerned with the learner’s construction of meaning through discussion, discovery, open-ended learning, making connections.

• CO-CONSTRUCTION. “Learning = building knowledge w/ others.”

Concerned with the learner’s construction of meaning through interaction & collaboration with others, especially through dialogue.

Look back at your drawing.Is it more of the reception

model, the construction model or the co-construction model?

Find the evidence!

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• What did you learn from your drawing?

Reflect... Reflect... Reflect...

What is effective learning?

Effective learning is... (Watkins, Carnell, & Lodge, 2007)

• an activity of construction.

• handled with (or in the context of) others.

• driven by the learner.

• the monitoring and review of the effectiveness of approaches & strategies for the goals and context.

An effective learner ... (Watkins, Carnell, & Lodge, 2007)

• is active and strategic.

• is skilled in collaboration.

• takes responsibility for their learning.

• understands her/his learning and plans, monitors and reflects on their learning.

An effective teaching is the teaching that

makes effective learning happen.

An effective teaching is empowering learners

to become effective learners.

Knowledge  of  content

Pedagogical  content  

knowledge  

General  pedagogical  knowledge  

Knowledge  of  learners  &  learning  

Knowledge Needed for Expert Teaching

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Type  of  Knowledge Example  

Knowledge  of  content  •Understanding  the  content  you  want  to  teach

A  geography  teacher  understands  the  concepts  longitude  and  la;tude.  

Pedagogical  content  knowledge  

•  Understanding  how  to         represent  content  so  it  is           comprehensible  to  learners    

The  geography  teacher  draws  lines  on  a  beach  ball  to  represent  longitude  and  la;tude.    She  then  relates  the  beach  ball  to  the  globe.

Knowledge Needed for Expert Teaching

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Type  of  Knowledge Example  General  Pedagogical  Knowledge  

•Understanding  general  principles  of  instruc;on  and  classroom  management

The  geography  teacher’s  classroom  is  orderly  and  she  uses  ques;oning  to  guide  the  students  to  an  understanding  of  longitude  and  la;tude.  

Knowledge  of  learners  and  Learning  

•Understanding  how  learning  occurs  and  understanding  the  factors  that  influence  learning

The  geography  teacher  uses  the  beach  ball  combined  with  ques;oning,  because  she  understands  that  concrete    examples  are  necessary  for  learning,  and  she  understands  that  students  learn  more  when  they’re  ac;vely  involved  in  learning  ac;vi;es.

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Planning and carrying out instruction is part of an interdependent network.

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5 Key Behaviors to Effective Teaching

(Burden & Byrd, 2007)

1.Lesson Clarity

2.Instructional Variety

3.Teacher Task Orientation

4.Engagement in the Learning Process

5.Student Success Rate

1. Lesson Clarity

• Make their positions clear to learners.

• Explain concepts in ways that help students follow along in a logical step-by-step order.

• Have an oral delivery that is direct, audible to all students.

2. Instructional Variety

• Refers to variability and flexibility of delivery of a lesson.

• Includes the use of learning materials, equipment, displays and space in the classroom.

• Includes the variety of models of instruction.

3. Teacher Task Orientation

• Refers to how much classroom time the teacher devotes to teaching.

• Highly conversant with topics likely to appear on assessments.

• Provide students with the greatest possibility to learn and to practice the material.

4. Engagement in the Learning Process

• Refers to the time students actively engaged in learning.

• When students jump out of their seats, talk, read a magazine, or leave for the rest room, they are obviously not engaged in instruction.

5. Student Success Rate

• Refers to the rate at which your students understand and correctly complete exercises and assignments.

• The average student in a typical classroom spends about half of the time working on tasks that provide the opportunity for high success.

5 Helping Behaviors to Effective Teaching

(Burden & Bird, 2007)

1.Using student ideas and contributions

2.Structuring

3.Questioning

4.Probing

5.Teacher Affect

1. Using Student Ideas and Contributions

• Includes acknowledging, modifying, applying, comparing, & summarizing student responses.

• Can be used for reasoning, problem solving, and independent thinking.

• Can increase student engagement in the learning process.

2. Structuring

• Teacher comments made for the purpose of organizing what is to come, or summarizing what has gone before.

• Using signal, e.g. “Now we have studied..., we will learn...” or other verbal markers such as:

➡ Now this is important

➡ We will return to this point later

➡ Remember this

A.Content Questions to deal directly with the content.

Various terms to describe content questions are:

• Direct: The question requires no interpretation or alternative meanings.

• Lower-Order: The question requires the recall only of readily available facts, as opposed to generalizations & inferences.

• Convergent: Different data sources lead to the same answer.

• Closed: The question has no possible alternative answers or interpretations.

• Fact: The question requires the recall only of discrete pieces of well-accepted knowledge.

3. The Art of Questioning

B.Process Questions to problem-solve, to guide, to arouse curiosity, to encourage creativity, to analyze, to synthesize, to judge.

Various terms to describe content questions are:

• Indirect: The question has various possible interpretations and alternative meanings.

• Higher-Order: The question requires more complex mental processes than simple recall of facts.

• Divergent: Different data sources will lead to different correct answers.

• Open: A single correct answer is not expected or even possible.

• Concept: The question requires the processes of abstraction, generalization, and inference.

4. Probing

• Refers to teacher statements that encourage students to elaborate on an answer, either their own or another student’s.

• Probing can be questions or expressions that elicit, solicit or redirect information.

• Probing often is used to shift a discussion to some higher thought level.

5. Teacher Affect

• Enthusiasm is an important aspect of a teacher’s affect.

• Enthusiasm is the teacher’s vigor, power, involvement, excitement, & interest.

• It is conveyed to students in many ways: vocal inflection, gesture, eye contact, and movement.

5 Instructional Strategies

Clarifying the terms

• Instructional Strategy: a general approach. E.g., direct, indirect, experiential, collaborative, individual study.

• Instructional Method: a specific approach. E.g., lecture, small-group report.

• Instructional Skill: a specific teacher behavior. E.g., giving a demonstration, asking questions, giving directions, varying presentation, using closure, etc.

Instructional Approaches

1.Direct Instruction.

2.Individual Study.

3.Indirect Instruction.

4.Experiential Learning.

5.Collaborative Learning.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS

1. Direct Instruction

• Commonly referred to: chalk & talk, overhead projector, powerpoint, smart board presentations.

• Is: teacher-centered, deductive.

• Synonyms: the training model, the active teaching model, the mastery teaching model, explicit instruction, expository teaching.

What is Direct Instruction?

• “Direct instruction is a teacher-centered strategy in which the teacher is the major information provider. In the direct instruction model, the teacher’s role is to pass facts, rules, or action sequences on the students in the most direct way possible. This usually takes a presentation and recitation format with explanations, examples, and opportunities for practice and feedback.” (Borich, 2004, p. 180).

Examples of Methods

• Lecture, assigned questions, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, research reports, workbooks, audio, videotape, DVD, powerpoint presentations, library research, and practice-and-drill.

Direct Instruction Steps1.Anticipatory (setting the stage).

2.Objectives & Purpose (explaining what will happen).

3.Input (presenting new info or skill).

4.Model (demonstrating).

5.Check for understanding (i.e., question, observe, etc.).

6.Guided practice (step-by-step/monitored).

7.Independent Practice.

(Lang & Evans, 2006)

Direct Instruction is effective...

• for acquiring information or step-by-step skills.

• if the instructor is knowledgeable and skillful.

• with careful planning, suitable content, right context.

• when combined with or followed by other strategies.

2. Individual Study

• Synonyms: independent learning, self-regulated learning, self-directed study (or learning), self-teaching, and individualized study.

What is Individual Study?

• Individual study is an individual educational pursuit carried on by a person to self improve; it can be student-initiated or teacher-initiated, but the focus is on study under the guidance of a teacher.

Examples of Method:

• Essays, reports, projects, models, journals, inquiry, games, fantasies, interviews, brainstorming, problem-solving, decision making, learning centers, learning units, individualized assignments. computer-assisted instruction, independent research correspondence courses, distance education.

Individual Study is effective when ...

• a teacher can provide an environment that allows growth of learner independence.

• a teacher can match student’s personal interests and the curriculum goals.

• a teacher wants to improve students’ independent learning capabilities.

• it is combined with other strategies.

• when a teacher wants to ask students to apply the content previously learned.

3. Indirect Instruction

• Synonyms: inquiry, induction, problem-solving, action research, decision making, and discovery.

• It is student centered; high student involvement.

• It is flexible, frees students to explore diverse possibilities, reduces fears of incorrect answers, fosters development of creativity, & promotes development of interpersonal skills.

What is Indirect Instruction?

• Indirect Instruction is an instructional strategy that believes that learning can be more meaningful, thorough, and usable when learners seek and discover knowledge.

Examples of Methods:

• Examples of method: debates, panels, field studies, research reports, group investigation, brainstorming, simulations, guided inquiry, and unguided inquiry.

Indirect Instruction is effective when ... (1)

• thinking outcomes are desired.

• value, attitude, or interpersonal or group skills outcomes are desired.

• process (learning “how”) is at least as important as product (getting “the right answer”).

• Students need to experience something in order to benefit from later instruction.

• There are no “right” answers.

Indirect Instruction is effective when ... (2)

• The focus is personalized understanding & long-term retention of concepts & generalizations.

• Ego involvement & intrinsic motivation are desirable.

• Decisions need to be made or problems need to be solved.

• Life-long learning capability is desired.

Basic Steps in Using the Inquiry Teaching Method

1.Set up the problem situation.

2.Provide experiences to bring out essential elements.

3.Set up experiences to bring out contrasting elements.

4.Concept or generalization is formed.

5.The concept or generalization is applied.

4. Experiential Instructional Strategy

• Is an action strategy.

• Is contextual, realistic, & meaningful.

• Is inductive, learner-centered, & activity-oriented.

• Personalized reflection is key.

• Learners are more emotionally involved (affective aspect).

What is Experiential Learning?

• Experiential learning is experiences that are designed and chosen for their ability to extend and challenge student thinking in a broad range of capabilities.

Experiential learning (cont.)

• The emphasis is on the process of learning and not the product.

• Because of experience and reflection, knowledge is constantly being transformed (created & recreated) within learner.

• Learning is a process (not an outcome) by which concepts are constantly modified by experience.

The Kolb Model of Experiential Learning

1.Concrete experience. Learners must involve themselves fully in new experiences.

2.Reflective observation. Learners must observe these experiences, analyze & reflect.

3.Abstract conceptualization. Learners must develop abstractions that, in turn, create concepts & generalizations that are logically sound.

4.Active experimentation. Learners must use these new theories to take action, such as making decisions & solving problems.

Experiential Learning is effective when ...

• a teacher wants to teach not only specific content but also the knowledge, values, skills and abilities related to common essential learning (e.g., communication, critical & creative thinking, & personal and social values and skills).

5. Collaborative Learning Strategy

• An umbrella term that includes various interactive approaches & methods for group work.

• Students working in small groups tend to learn more & retain longer.

• Teachers’ role is to facilitate learning, not transmitting information.

• Involves creating & managing meaningful learning experiences & stimulating student thinking.

What is Collaborative Learning?

• An instructional strategy in teaching and learning in which students interact to share ideas, explore a question, & complete a project.

• Collaborative instruction methods range from class discussions through small-group methods or cooperative learning to using Internet when working on assignment.

Collaborative Learning is effective when ...

• teacher can structure and guide group learning experiences.

• students need to discover or state their personal points of view.

• teacher want students’ active participation, increased motivation, & high-rate of retention.

• teacher makes careful observation, practices good listening, interpersonal & intervention skills.

Assessment Questions

What is assessment?

• Assessment is the process of seeking and obtaining information about student development and the effectiveness of instruction.

• The term “assessment” derives from a Latin word, “assidere” which means “to sit beside.”

• The origins of the term “assessment” could promote the constructive image of the teacher sitting alongside the learner in an educational context where the task is to bring out the learner’s understanding.

Teaching Stories

“What is effective assessment?”

Read each of your story and then share it with the

group.

What is your idea of effective assessment?

“Not everything that counts can be counted and not everything that can be counted

counts.”

Why is assessment important? (1)

• Traditionally, assessment is used for:

1.sorting out people.

2.reward for students.

3.information for parents about their kids.

4.judging the effectiveness of teachers and schools.

Why is assessment important? (2)

• Assessment is important to promote effective learning.

• Assessment is important to help students learn (assessment for learning).

Stiggins (2002) observes...

“Politicians routinely ask,

“How can we use assessment as the basis for doling out rewards and punishment to increase teacher and student effort?”

instead of the more important question of:

“How can we use assessment to help our students want to learn? How can we help them feel able to learn?” (p. 758).

Assessment & Evaluation

• Assessment expert Grant Wiggins differentiates between assessment & evaluation in this way” “When teachers ASSESS student performance, they’re not placing a value or judgment on it - that’s EVALUATING or grading. They’re simply reporting a student’s profile or achievement.

Formative & Summative

• Formative assessments occur when the content is being taught. It is non-evaluative. It is usually used to inform teachers about how much students have understood the content.

• Summative assessment occurs after the content has been taught. It is evaluative and is used to assign a course grade.

• An analogy from Robert Stake, an educational researcher:

“When the cook tastes the soup, that’s formative. When the guests taste the soup, that’s summative.”

Assessment of Learning

Assessment for Learning

Assessment as Learning

Classroom Assessment

Assessment expert, James McMillan (2007, 2008)

• “Competent teachers frequently evaluate their students in relation to learning goals and adapt their instruction accordingly.”

• “Assessment not only documents what students know and can do but also affects their learning and motivation.”

Three Time Frames of Assessment

1.Pre-Instruction Assessment.

2.During Instruction Assessment.

3.Post-Instruction Assessment.

1. Pre-Instruction Assessment: Questions

• Do my students have the pre-requisite knowledge and skills to be successful?

• What will interest my students?

• What will motivate my students?

• How long should I plan to cover each unit?

• What teaching strategies should I use?

• How should I grade the students?

• What type of group learning should I use?

• What are my learning objectives or targets?

1. Pre-Instruction Assessment: Strategies

• Observe how well they perform in the first lessons.

• Observe students’ behavior and characteristics in the first lessons.

• Questionnaires/Interviews.

• Diagnostic Pre-Tests.

• Look at students’ prior grades and scores on tests but keep your high expectations of each of them.

• Remember this is only initial data. It is developing and will change later. Avoid “labeling” students!

2. During Instruction Assessment: Questions

• Are students paying attention on me?

• Are the students understanding the material?

• To which students should I direct questions?

• What type of questions should I ask?

• How should I respond to student questions?

• When should I stop lecturing?

• Which students need extra help?

• Which students should be left alone?

2. During Instruction Assessment: Strategies

• This is usually referred to as the formative assessment.

• Teacher’s ongoing observation and monitoring of students’ learning while teaching informs about what to do next.

• Assessment during instruction requires listening to student answers, observing other students for indications of understanding or confusion, framing the next question, and looking around the class for misbehavior.

• Oral questions, reflection, & feedback are important aspects of assessment during instruction.

• Get students to assess their progress on day-to-day basis.

3. Post-Instruction Assessment: Questions

• How much have my students learned?

• What should I do next?

• Do I need to review anything the class didn’t understand?

• What grades should I give?

• What should I tell my students?

• How should I change my instruction next time?

• Do the test scores really reflect what my students know and can do?

• Is there anything that students misunderstood?

3. Post-Instruction Assessment: Strategies

• This assessment is usually referred to as summative assessment or formal assessment.

• The purpose is to document student performance.

• This assessment provides information about how well students have mastered the material, whether the students are ready for the next unit, what grades should be given, what comments should be made to parents, and how a teacher should adapt his/her instruction.

Traditional Tests

Traditional tests are paper-and-pencil tests in which students select from choices, calculate numbers, construct short responses or write essays.

1.Selected-response items:

multiple-choice items, true/false items, matching items.

2.Constructed-response items:

short-answer items, essays

Alternative Assessments

• Alternative assessments require students to solve some type of authentic problem or to perform in terms of completing a project or demonstrating skills outside the context of a test or an essay.

• Some of the examples are: projects, portfolios, performances, role-plays, dramas, art products, experiments, reports, presentations, conferences, etc.

Common Characteristics of Alternative Assessments

1.Ask students to perform, create, produce or do something.

2.Tap higher-level thinking and problem-solving skills.

3.Use tasks that represent meaningful instructional activities.

4.Invoke real-world applications.

5.People, not machines, do the scoring, using human judgment.

6.Require new instructional and assessment roles for teachers.

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•Write questions that you have on “effective assessment” based on today’s lesson.

Why is assessment important? (1)

• Traditionally, assessment is used for:

1.sorting out people.

2.reward for students.

3.information for parents about their kids.

4.judging the effectiveness of teachers and schools.

Why is assessment important? (2)

• Assessment is important to promote effective learning.

• Assessment is important to help students learn (assessment for learning).

Stiggins (2002) observes...

“Politicians routinely ask,

“How can we use assessment as the basis for doling out rewards and punishment to increase teacher and student effort?”

instead of the more important question of:

“How can we use assessment to help our students want to learn? How can we help them feel able to learn?” (p. 758).

Assessment & Evaluation

• Assessment expert Grant Wiggins differentiates between assessment & evaluation in this way” “When teachers ASSESS student performance, they’re not placing a value or judgment on it - that’s EVALUATING or grading. They’re simply reporting a student’s profile or achievement.

Formative & Summative

• Formative assessments occur when the content is being taught. It is non-evaluative. It is usually used to inform teachers about how much students have understood the content.

• Summative assessment occurs after the content has been taught. It is evaluative and is used to assign a course grade.

• An analogy from Robert Stake, an educational researcher:

“When the cook tastes the soup, that’s formative. When the guests taste the soup, that’s summative.”