some evidence of musical instruments in bronze age caucasus

The invaluable heritage of the spiritual life of itsancient people is preserved in the archaeologicalmonuments of the Caucasus. Since the entire ide-ology of the ancient people was pervaded with thebelief in spirituality and supernatural forces andthe necessity to worship various deities and spirits,evidences of their spiritual life are present inalmost all types of the archaeological monuments.Certainly the most informative complexes here areburials, sanctuaries, religious articles and scenes ofvarious ritual events depicted on rock walls, ves-sels, bronze belts, etc. It is very important toemphasize that in antiquity the Caucasus was apart of the vast Near Eastern world, and there wasconstant exchange of spiritual and material valueswithin its borders.

Because of its peculiarities the music and dancecultures whose roots have been lost in the depth ofmillennia, little evidence of their existence remainsin ancient material complexes. Traces can be foundin the Caucasus. Ancient musical instruments arevery rare finds in archaeological complexes, pre-served in fragments only. Their reconstruction ispossible, either by means of comparative analysiswith Near Eastern materials or with pictures ofthese instruments on various monuments of art.Indications of dancing stories can also be repre-sented in the latter.

In the early stages of human history, playingmusical instruments as well as dancing were neces-sary aspects of various rites and ceremonies. Theparticipation of music and dance ensembles in pray-ing, festivals, burial and other religious acts isrecorded in detail in written sources of the earliestpeople of the Near East (Ardzinba 1982). In fact,musical accompaniment was typical in all areas ofwork. In particular, it is known from the Hittitewritten sources of the 2nd millennium BC thatpriests sang incantations while searching for silverore (Kapantsyan 1948, 12, 128; Kushnarev 1958, 24).

The most ancient musical instrument found inthe Caucasus is the fragment of a longitudinal flute

from the mountain settlement Chokh (Amirhanov1987, 32). The object dates back to the 6th millen-nium BC. The flute was made from a long bone ofa goat or sheep. The surface is polished and dis-plays three holes at equal intervals. The remains ofanother flute in poorly preserved condition werefound in one of the Samtavro burials in Georgia,dated to the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Ascene on the bronze belts from the burial of Tli inSouth Osetia belongs to the same period. It depictstwo persons at a feast, whereby one holds a flute inhis hand (Pl. I.2; Tekhov 1980, Pl. 53; Hidacheli1982: Pl. XXXVIII. 1).

As is well known, very early musical genreswere associated with the work of herdsmen orfarmers. Ethnographical traditions point to thefact that, in addition to calls, tunes played on thelongitudinal flute also served as means to manage aherd (Kushnarev 1958, 30). This fragile instrumentwhich is still favoured by herdsmen in the Cauca-sus, was very popular in the Near East at that time.However, the Chokh flute predates the flutesfound in Egypt (Sachs 1936, 106) and Babylon(Gruber 1941, 192) from the 3rd millennium BC.

The melodies of the Caucasian herdsmen rep-resent certain signals to the herd (call to watering,to return home etc.). Primitive in form, they seemto echo the ancient herdsmen’s tunes (Kushnarev1958, 30). The assignment of the flute to musicalinstruments of the earliest herdsmen is supportedby the aforementioned burial of a young man inSamtavro, who was accompanied into the afterlifewith a flute. The grave has even been referred to asthe “burial of the herdsman”. It stems from theperiod when the occupation of the deceased wasindicated by placing objects attributable to his/herwork in the grave.

Judging from the archaeological evidences, theflute was not the only a musical instrument of theold Caucasian nations. A unique find was recentlymade in the “royal” grave of the young womannear Maikop in the northern Caucasus (Pl. I.1;

Some Evidence of Musical Instruments in BronzeAge Caucasus

Karine Kushnareva

Rezepkin 1990; 1997; Stash 1997). The woman’shigh social rank was emphasised by both thecomplicated arrangement of the tomb and thespectrum of the unique inventory, which includedremains of a seven-stringed instrument like a harp.The fragments represent the wooden sound boxwhich could be reconstructed after restoration.This grave is typical of the Maikop culture whichformed in the northern Caucasus during the4th–3rd millennium BC under the influence ofpeople immigrating into the region from the NearEast. The closest analogies for this instrument arelyres and harps from the royal tombs of the firstdynasty in Ur (Rashid 1984, Taf. 1-10). Certainly,the instruments are symbols of wealth and nobilityfor the persons buried with royal honour in Urand Maikop. In the 3rd –2nd millennium BC differ-ent types of lyres and harps existed in all countriesof the Near East and the Mediterranean (Wid-strand 1996). The tradition of playing them con-tinued, although finds such as the example inMaikop are unknown in the Caucasus. Taking thedepiction of female lyre players in rock engravingsfound in the Negev as an analogy (Pl. II. 1; Isto-riya Drevnego Vostoka 1988, fig. 73 b), an objectheld in the hands of a dancer in the rock engravingof the 3rd millennium BC in the Gegam Mountains(Armenia) may be conditionally designated as alyre (?) or harp (?) (Pl II.2; Martirosyan 1981, 74,2). The engraving depicts a ritual dance around asacrificed animal which was performed under thepatronage of an anthropomorphic deity withuplifted “ray-like” hands. Pagan deities were oftendepicted in this manner in the mountains of Arme-nia. The tradition of playing harps still exists in theCaucasus, for instance in the nations of Georgia,Abkhazia, Osetia, and Adygejan.

Another “royal” grave decorated in barbarianglamour from the Armenian burial mound ofKarashamb was recently investigated. The set ofarticles found there is characteristic of the archae-ological Trialeti culture (late 3rd –early 2nd millen-nium BC). Among the jewellery, the silver goblet,a masterpiece of ancient Caucasian facing, is ofspecial interest (Pl. III; Oganesyan 1988;Kushnareva 1993; 45 A,B). The semantic analysisof relief compositions in the goblet’s friezes isunited in one and the same epic story, founded ona mythological basis. The composition expressesmany realities of those times, which, as a rule, havenot been preserved in archaeological complexes.The scene of a ritual feast is in the centre of thefrieze. A group of several figures is shown, headedby the “king” sitting at a table and being served ameal. Servants wait nearby. Behind the “king” aretwo men with fans, and in turn behind them is afigure playing the lyre. The clear outline of the

lyre and the realistic details reveal the form of aresonance box and a body with seven strings. Ingeneral, the scene represents a celebration ofvictory over conquered enemies.

The structure of the lyre is similar to well-known examples of this instrument shown in artmonuments of the Near East and the Mediter-ranean and even Europe (Widstrand 1996, fig. 2;Alvarez 1989–1990, fig. 1, 2). The Karashamb finddocuments the practice of lyre-playing in the Cau-casus in the 3rd –2nd millennium BC and confirmsthe ancient sources’ referrals to the use of theinstrument on special events. Musical accompani-ment was necessary, in particular, for Hittite festi-val and burial rites (Ardzinba 1982).

It is important to point out that the figures ofthe “king” and the lyre-player (a woman?) are larg-er than the other persons. Did the artist want toemphasise the great significance of musicians whowere considered as the most precious trophies inthe wars between ancient oriental rulers(Kushnarev 1958, 25)? In this context we shouldalso mention the bronze figure of a musician fromthe Kazbek treasure, dated to the middle of the 1stmillennium BC (Pl. IV.1; Tallgren 1930, fig. 23–24).

Among the Caucasian archaeological finds ofthe Bronze Age we often encounter so-called idio-phones: sonorous pendant-like articles in the formof bells, birds and different animals. They mainlyaccompany complexes of a cultic nature, such astombs, graves, sanctuaries etc. They appear quitefrequently, in particular in the Shilda sanctuary inGeorgia (Pizchelauri 1984, Pl 30, 33, 35; Pl. V ),and in the graves of Lori-Berd in Armenia(Devedzhyan, Pl VI). Special attention is drawnby the finds from the Stepantsminda treasurewhere the bells are part of a composition headedby the phallic-type male figure with a club in hishand and standing on deer horns (Tallgren, fig.12–13). The latter might be identified with theHittite deity of storm, Teshub, and finds a parallelin rock engravings in the Caucasus (Martirosyan1981, 54). It is clear from the above that the idio-phones have polysemantic meaning. Present Cau-casian ethnography has determined the designa-tion of some idiophones: they served as a guardagainst the evil spirits of animals and humanbeings, as alarm signals, as announcers of the startof various meetings and of the arrival of importantpersons, etc.

An inexhaustible amount of material for ourtopic is supplied by rock engravings. Born in theideology of ancient tribes, these art monumentswere created for the millennia, often in the samesanctuaries in open spaces. Appearing spon-taneously in different parts of the world, rock pic-

Karine Kushnareva 104

tures, nevertheless, have similar features which arereflecting in their subjects the changing spiritualworld of human societies and its close ties withtheir historical developments. In the Caucasusthese monuments are present within several delim-ited groups, in the mountains of Dagestan, in theGegam and Syunik Mountains (Armenia), and inGobustan and Absheron (Azerbaijan).

The subjects depicted on the rocks vary, butnot all of them can be decoded/deciphered seman-tically. One rare exception, in particular, is repre-sented in four “pictures” engraved by an ancientartist on the stone walls inside a sanctuary on theAbsheron peninsula (Aliev 1996; PL. I, 2). Thepictures are united by one and the same theme,based on the well-known ancient oriental mythabout the goddess of love and fertility Inanna andDumuzi. Here the “first act”, the ceremony of the“holy wedding”, headed by Inanna, is of particularinterest. It is known from written sources that thisceremony was performed every year, that it wasassociated with the idea of the revival of nature,and that it was accompanied with orgiastic myster-ies. This is reflected in the depictions of pairs mak-ing love at the sound of a percussion instrument inthe form of a rattle. In the first, a musician isshown standing next to the goddess and shaking arattle of ovoid form with a handle. The followingthree pictures continue with the original subject.

A slightly different version of the ritual festivalis represented on a richly decorated vase withrelief figures from the Inandık complex in AsiaMinor (Pl. VI; Özgüç 1988; see also Schuol, Fig. 3a/b, this publication). Here the action of sexualintercourse takes place with the accompaniment ofmusicians beating a tambourine and playing harpsand lutes. The figures of musicians are shownrepeatedly. Acrobats turning somersaults in the airalso partake in the activities. Judging from therock pictures, similar rituals took place during fes-tivals in the Caucasus. For instance, rock engrav-ings in the Gegam and Syunik mountains depictacrobats per-forming complicated exercises, suchas rope-walkers, gymnasts with posts, trapezeartists (Karakhanyan/Safyan 1970, Pl. 85 2, 115 1;Martirosyan 1981, Pl. 54, 74, 75). Thus, it becomesclear that ancient Oriental myths were well-known to the Caucasian people. On the basis ofthe above subjects the closeness in ideological

notions of the ancient people of the Caucasus andthe Near East gradually becomes obvious. Thisclose association is clearly seen in many monu-ments of material culture.

Finally, the last subject we would like to note ismass prayings, which was probably accompaniedby singing, as well as dancing subjects shown inrock engravings. There is a great amount of inter-esting material here.

A picturesque panel from the mountain sanctu-ary of Kharitani in Daghestan belongs to the ear-liest one (Kotovich 1976, fig. 26). Like the flutefrom neighbouring Chokh, the scene dates back tothe early 6th millennium BC. Here we can see amass of people praying for a specific reason to thegoddess of fertility, perhaps to the same Inanna.The majority of those praying are women whowere linked more closely to agriculture, which hadonly begun at that time. The second subject is themass praying of men who are moving (or danc-ing?) with their hands up-lifted. As is seen in thepicture, the action takes place in the course ofhunting or in favour of hunting fortune. It may beindirect evidence of the archaic nature of a sceneon one of the Beyukdash rocks in Gobustan(Dzafarzade 1973, the Beyukdash stone No. 24). Aseries of dancing scenes likewise from Gobustan isalso of interest. They present circle dances withmales and females as well as dances of women withchildren (Dzafarzade 1973, the Beyukdash stonesNo. 9, 46, 67, 86). Circle dances with males pre-dominate. They are well-known in ancient monu-ments in the Central Asia (Dugarov 1990, 145) andstill exist in the Caucasus. Let us recall, forinstance, the male circle dance of herdsmen called“Kochari”, which is usually accompanied by atambourine and danced at various Armenian festi-vals. Among the many depictions of mass dances,the subject in the background of a bronze beltfrom Mzkhet is unique. It shows two disguised“ghosts”, who dance under the patronage of thesun (Pl. IV.2; Hidacheli 1982, fig. 27 a).

In summary, the archaeological monuments inthe Caucasus contain a wealth of informationabout the musical and dance cultures of the ancientinhabitants of a region in which life was closelyconnected with that of the people in the Near East.In the earliest period of time the Caucasus was anorganic part of this immense cultural world.

Some Evidences of Musical Instruments in Bronze Age Caucasus 105

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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DEVEDZHYAN, S. (1981)Lori-Berd I, Erevan.

DZAFARZADE, I. (1973)Gobustan. Naskaljnyie izobrazheniya. Baku.

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GRUBER, R. (1941)Istoriya muzykalnoi kultury, vol. I, chapter I,Moscow-Leningrad.

HIDACHELI, M. (1982)Graphicheskoye iskusstvo Tsentralnogo Zakav-kazia v epokhu rannego zheleza. Tbilisi.

KARAHANYAN, G./SAFYAN, P. (1970)Naskalnyie izobrazheniya Syunika. Erevan.

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KOTOVICH, V. (1976)Drevneishie pisanitsy gornogo Dagestana.Moscow.

KUSHNAREV, H. (1958)Voprosy istorii i teorii armyanskoi monodi-cheskoi muzyki. Leningrad.

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RASHID, S.A. (1984)Mesopotamien. Musikgeschichte in Bildern II,2, hrsg. v. W. Bachmann, Leipzig.

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TALLGREN, A. M. (1930)Caucasian monuments: ESA V. Helsinki .

TEKHOV, B. (1980)Tliisky mogilnik. Tbilisi.

SACHS, C. (1936)Muzykalnaya kultura Egipta: Muzykalnayakultura drevnego mira. Leningrad.

WIDSTRAND, C. (1996)Early Cycladic Harps and Harpists. Un-published paper, delivered at “String Instru-ments of the Eastern Mediterranean andAncient Near Eastern Cultures”, 8th Inter-national Meeting of the Study Group onMusic Archaeology (ICTM), Limassol,Aug. 1996.


Plate I

1 Remnants of the harp from the Maikop buriel mound; 2 Scene of the feast on the bronze belt from the grave of Tli.

1

2


Plate II

1 Picture of the women-harpists on the rock pictures in the Negev; 2 Ritual dance on the rock picture in the Gegam Mountains.

1

2


Plate III

Silver goblet from the settlement of Karashamb with a complicated composition of the epic subject.


1 Bronze figure of the harpist from the Kazbek treasure; 2 Picture of the pair dance on the bronze belt from Mzkhet.

Plate IV

2

1


Plate V

Bronze Age Pendants.


Plate VI

Vase with the ritual scene from the complex of Inandıktepe.

some evidence of musical instruments in bronze age caucasus

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