Soils in the New Zealand Landscape

To rhe memolY if ourJriend and colleague

JOHN DAVID STOUT

Soils in the New Zealand Landscape

the living mantle

Les Molloy

Second edition

with revised Appendix by Allan Hewitt

Photographs by Qyentin Christie

First published in 1988by Mallinson Rendel Publisher~ Ltd., Wellington

Second edition published in 1998 by the New Zealand Society of Soil" Science, C/o Department of Soi l Science, P.O. Box 84, Lincoln Uni versi ty, Canterbury, New Zealand

(,Q New Zea land Society or Soil Science, 1993.

Printed by Kings Time Printing Press Ltd, Hong Kong

Contents

Foreword

Foreword to the Second Edition

Acknowledgements

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION: HOW SOILS ARE FORMED

Soil Variability in the Landscape Time Needed for Soil Formation Rocks and Other Parent Materials The Soil Profile and its Description Topography and Climate in Soil Formation Biological Factors in Soil Formation Soil Groups and Landscape Regions of New Zealand

CHAPTER TWO: PUMICE LANDS

Development of the Pumice Lands Soil.forming Tephras The Soil Pattern of the Pumice Lands Pureora to Lake Waikaremoana Rotorua-Okataina Volcanic Centres Tongariro Volcanic Centre Raw Volcanic Soils

CHAPTER THREE: LOAMLANDS

Common Environmental Features

Bay of Plenty Waikato Basin and Hauraki Plains Lower Waikato-Pukekohe District

CHAPTER FOUR: RINGPLAIN AND STEEPLANDS

The Volcanic Landscape of Taranaki Soil Pattern across the Mt Taranaki Ringplain East Taranaki-Wanganui Hill Country Soils of the Taranaki Coastal Terraces

CHAPTER FIVE: CLAY HILLS AND KAURI

Influence of Parent Rocks on the Landscape Soils of the Younger Basalt Landscapes Soils from Older Volcanic Rocks Soils from Sedimentary Rocks

Brown coastal sand country and estuaries

Kauri podzols

CHAPTER SIX: TERRACES AND DUNES

Landforms of the Manawatu Soil Formation on Drift and Alluvial Parent Materials Rangitikei-Pohangina Hill Country Loess-Covered Terraces Stony River Terraces Holocene Floodplains Sand Country

CHAPTER SEVEN: SHATTERED HILLS

Contribution of Climate and Geology to Landscape Gisborne-East Cape Lowland and Inland Basins of Hawke's Bay and the Wairarapa Coastal Hill Country of Hawke's Bay-Wairarapa Marlborough Lowlands

13

14

18 23

24 27

33

33 35 38 39

49 50

SS

56 56 59 64

71

71 73 75 75

83

83 84 87

90 90 92 92

99

99 100 100 102 106 107 108

II3

113

117 120 123

CHAPTER EIGHT: RUGGED AXIS 127

Soil Landscapes of {he Wellington Area 127 Hill Country of the Marlborough Sounds and East Nelson The Moutere Depression. Forestry and Horticulture 133

CHAPTER NINE: MOUNTAIN BARRIER TO THE WET WEST WIND 139

Mountain-building and the Alpine Fault 139 Climatic Gradients and Mountain 139 Very Wet Western Mountains 143 Wet Eastern 145

CHAPTER TEN: IN THE RAINSHADOW OF THE ALPS 149

Intermontane Basins and Fronlai Ranges of Marlborough-Canterbury 149 Soil Landscapes of the Mackenzie Basin 150 Central Otago - Basin and Range Country 155 Eastern Otago Uplands 160

CHAPTER ELEVEN: PODZOLS AND PAKIHIS 165

Environment

CHAPTER TWELVE: STONY PLAINS. SILTY DOWNS

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: BROWN EARTH. GREEN LAND

Lowlands North ofche Plains and Uplands Stewart Island

Escarpment

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: SOILS AND LAND USE

Arable Land - Our Most Important Soil Resource Soil and Climatic Factors in Land Use

Soil as a 'heat sink' Soil as Soil as

Hill Coumry - Soil Landscapes in Natural Landscapes and Soil Reserves Urban Expansion on to High-value Soils Soils for Urban Development Urban Amenity Areas and Domestic Gardens

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: SOIL AND SOCIETY

The Evolution of a Modern Conservation Ethic An Ecological Ethic for Tomorrow's Land Use

General Index

165 165 165 167

179

179 184 187

193

193 199 203

205

205 207 208 210

215 216 2 18 220 222

225

227 228

251 253

List of Figures Soil map and cross -section of T aita hill landscape and soils

1.2 Longitudinal section of the Waiho valley and Omoeroa Range and changes in soil properties 19 in the Franz Josef soil chronosequence

1.3 The relative sizes of sand. silt and clay particles 21 1.4 Contrasting proportions of sand, silt and clay in four New Zealand soils 1.5 The Old Man Range soil c1imosequence. near Alexandra 2S 1.6 Map of New Zealand's soils 28, 29 1.7 Key to identification of soil organisms illustrated in Plates 1.1 and 1.2 31

2. 1 The Taupo Vofcanic Zone 34 2.2 The distribution of the principal tephras erupted during the last 40 000 years from the 36

Taupo and Okalaina Volcanic Centres 2.3 A cross -section of twenty-four tephras of (he Taupo Volcanic Zone 37 2.4 Map of soil-forming tephras in central North Island and Tara naki 39 2.5 Soillrainfall cross-section, Pureora to Lake Waikaremoana

3.1 Cross-section of landfo rm, soil and rainfall from Mairoa to Katikati 60 3.2 Block diagram of middle Waikato basin near Hamilhon 62 3.3 The development of a raised bog (peat dome) on a basin bog 64

Drainage pattern of the Taranaki-Wanganui district 72 4.2 Soilllandfo rm and rainfall cross-section from Cape Egmont to east Taranaki hill country 74

5.1 Geological sketch map of Northland-Auckland-Coromandel 84

6.1 Drift ~ocss, sa nd) and recent alluvial parent materials of the soils of the lower Rangitikei- 100 Manawatu-Horowhenua region

6.2 Loess-covered terrace landscapes between Rangitikei and Oroua Rivers 102 6.3 Manawatu sand-country landscape unit 108

Block diagram of a north-westfsouth-east c ross-section of East Coast, North Island 114

9. 1 Cross-section of South Island high mountains, intermontane basins. and eastern frontal ranges from Fox Glacier to Fairlie

9.2 Cross-section of a small ice-cut rock basin at 800 m under mountain beech forest in 146 theWaimakariri valley

10.1 Topography and precipitation cross-section of typical Cent ral Otago basin and range 154 country

10.2 Block diagram of a Central Otago basin and range landscape ncar AJexandra 157

Topography, soil and precipitation cross-section of the West Coast 167

12.1 Cross-section of terraces on the south bank of the Waimakariri River 180 12.2 Cross-section of Banks Peninsula 189

13. 1 Major rock types of Southland Syncline, loess deposits and probable direction of loess 195 movement

13.2 The inAuence of climate in the development of 6 soil s developed in loess in the south- 199 east of the South Island

The potentially arable soils of high value for food production 14.2 Growth curves fo r pasture production on three arable soils 14.3 Soil temperature zones of New Zealand 14.4 Annual water-deficit zones of New Zealand A.l

A.2

206 207 209 21 1

Foreword Soils are central to the lives of all New Zealanders. We build our houses, our offices, our schools, our factorie s, our r oads and railways on soil. We grow our fruit and vegetables, our crops and timber in soils. We breed and fatten stock, we play games and race our horses on soils. T his book is about th e soils of New Zealand - what they ar e like, w hy there are so many different sorts of soi ls, how they fit into our landscapes, and hO\v we use them.

There are many exce ll ent books on home garden s, some on soil proper ti es,

~~~~~~~~n~~.r~~;)~~~:,e~~~~~nn~:~tr;sc~lrti~,~e~da~:e s;~eb~~:~~~~~ha; it~;et;e~~:J general reader and the scienti st in term s of descr ibing soils as parts of o ur natural landscapes . The need for a book such as this was discussed by the New Zealand Society of Soil Science and in 1983 the decision to promote this project

:::ht:k~:~~:~I~ri;:Sc:~(:n~ I~~dotsei~~~:~~~;n~~~~~a! ~~e~ee~:,a~eu~:~:~~:d:c~~: and New Zealand Adrift.

Soils are some of the most complex natural systems that scientists study and

:~t;~~~i~~e~n~~;~t~~~. ~uhsi:a~nat~:S~~y~i~~~S c:~;~::i~;f:r~~~~; ~::omu:Jes~~I; wrl.ting of this book for a non -sp.ecialist readership a daunting challenge to whIch Les Mo ll oy has responded w ith consi derable vIgour and skill. Elsewhere, Les and photographer Quentin Christie have acknowledged the willing he lp they have received from many peopl e in the preparation of thi s book. It is appropriate here to acknowledge the assistance that the New Zealand Society of Soi l Science has received in promoting the project.

Preparation of the entire manuscript would not have been possibl e without substantial support from the New Zealand Soil Bureau and the active encouragement of the Bureau 's Directors, Michae l Leamy and, latterly, Derek Milne.

Substantial financial support for the proj ect has come from the Stout Tru st. The Trust is also providing a presentation copy for each school in New Zealand with classes of Form I and above. John David Stout was a much respected and loved member of the New Zealand Soil Bureau staff and of the New Zealand Society of Soi l Science . John was editor of New Zealand Soil News, the Society's newsletter, for several years and he was always wi lling to be involved in the wider aspects of soil science and the communication of soil knowledge. I fee l sure that John would have encouraged this publication wholeheartedly. Les Molloy's decision to dedicate t he book to the memory of John Stout is appropriate and will be appreciated by all who were inspired by John's scientific example and the cheerful courage he showed living the major part of his very productive li fe from the confines of a wheelchair.

It is a pleasure, on behalf of the New Zealand Society ofSoi! Science, to acknowledge these t\.vo major contri butions.

Thanks are also due to Ian F. Grant of Masterton for advice; to Ann Mallinson and David Rendel, publishers, for thei r belief in , and contribution to, the proj ect; and to my fell ow book sub -committee m embers, Rod Furkert, Keith Syers, Bob Lee, and Bruce Miller.

CYRIL CHILDS

Past-President New Zealand Society ofSoi! Science

Foreword to the second edition It is ten years since the New Zealand Society of Sail Science publi shed Soils in the New Zeala nd Landscape . In the Foreword to the first edition it was stated that the aim was to provid e a text that describes the dive rsity of soils present in the New Zealand landscape, at a level that is useful to both the interested general reader and to scientists and students. There is no doubt that the book has been highly successful in this aim as the de mand for it has resulted in a reprint of the first edition and this demand continues unabated.

While many books have been sold to the interested public, by far the greatest demand has been from tertiary students. Soils in the New Zealand Landscape has been

~~~~~(~~~: !rs~fs :~'~~~~:~~:ct:;~~~:~ti~~~s~ea~S~:~~:s~~d~~~~ ~~;~~~~~:~: of New Zealand soils. A limitation of the book for current teaching purposes has been the superceding of the soil classification system used throughout the book by the recent development of a new system of soil classification for New Zealand soils. In deciding to print a second edition of Soi ls in the New Zealand Landscape the New Zealand Society of Soil Science has responded to this limitation by including an Appendix describing the development and structure of the New Zealand Soil Classification, the key features of the soil orders, and a correlation with the terms used in Soils in the New Zealand Landscape. For reasons of cost we were not able to include the new soil classification terms in the body of the text, but we beli eve the Appendix will ensure that the book meets the continuing needs of the universities, as "veil as providing the general reader with an introduction to the modern classification of New Zealand soils.

a ndTohr~;~i~i:t~~~;~~erf~~li~ ~~~j:;;.I~~fae~ ~l:\~~tl~~~:~~~:~et~~I ~~~Vti~? !~~i;~~~:~ ~~Pn:~~~a:~~::~:~~~~~;;~i~~ls~~~~~ ~~;~:r;~~~~~ ~~~,~~~~~!t IIn~e;~~:~:~ the soil maps showing the distributi on of so il orders. Several pedologists assisted in providing co mm ent on an earli er draft of the text (Peter Almond, Megan Balks, Ben Clayd en , David Lowe, Alan Palm er, Philip Tonkin , Trevor Webb) and Joanna Orwin improved its readability. Once again the Stout Trust has provid ed substantial finan cial support for this project. Mallinson Rendel have encouraged us to publish this second edition and helped with preparation of the written material. Va l O rchard and Les Basher have coord inated this proj ect for the Society. It is my pleasure to acknowledge, on be half of t he New Zealand Society of Soil Science, all these va lu abl e contribution s.

List of Boxes

PAUL GREGG

Presid ent, New Zealand Society of Soil Science

21

26

52

67

68

81

95

96

111

125

163

188

190

191

206

10

Preface

For as long as I can remember, the variety and contrasts in the New Zealand landscape have fascinated me. I know that I am not alone in this passion, for t he public's appetite for picture books of 'Scenic New Zealand' seems insatiable . Most of these landscape books, however, fail to satisfy the reader's curiosity about why there should be such diversity, or whether these landscapes reflec t underlying rock or soil differences. This is a pity, because beneath the surface of the land there is another world to be discovered - of rich, sometimes vibrant, colour; earthy textures and smells; and pulsating life! Home gardeners know something of this subterranean world but only within the limits of their backyards; observant travellers may notice the changing soil patte rn in roadside cuttings but be at a loss to explain why the soil at one point appears grey with deep vertical cracks yet at another point it has a series of horizontal bands, like the layers of a cake.

The science of soils, pedology, is well developed in New Zealand, as befits a nation which has traditionally earned so much of its wealth from the export of produce from the land. But the general public can be excused for often considering that we scientists are too preoccupied with fine detail. We analyse soils for nutrients, minerals and organisms; we classify them and map their distributio n and indicate their suitabili ty for carrying stock, growing crops, or supporting buildings. Yet our interest must seem starkly utilitarian; for only rarely have we stood back and celebrated our soils as something beautiful, and perhaps even mysterious. For what other natural body, worldwide in its distribution, has so many interesting secrets to reveal to the patient observer? The great events of long ago - volcanic eruptions, dust storms, floods and lee Ages - have left their imprints as have the agricultural practices of earlier times. The soil can also tell us so much about our present-day environment. It is the home of millions of living things and the recycling factory for so much of the solar and geochemical energy that sustains life. In its form and properties it expresses the combined influences of the local climate, shape of the land, and the rocks and o rganisms that are broken down and incorporated into it.

To lay bare these mysteries is much too daunting a task for this book. Instead I intend to take the reader on a journey through the regions of New Zealand, using Q uentin Christie's photographic skills to illustrate the sometimes subtle relationships between soil and landscape. It is partly also a journey through time, and the route I have chosen is largely determined by regional similarities in climate, topography, and soil parent materials.

Journey's end allows an evaluation of the pattern of land use witnessed en route, and a sober reflection on how a future, more ecologically conscious and conservation-oriented society would treat our priceless soil resources.

I freely and warmly acknowledge the help of so many colleagues in mapping out the soils and landscapes along the way. For me the measure of success in our efforts to convey this soils information with enthusiasm and concern will be whether you, the reader, are suffiCiently stimulated to start probing about in real soil landscapes during future real journeys. No guide could ask for a better commendation .

lES MOLLOY

Acknowledgements A considerable number of friends and colleagues have assisted me in producing the text and diagrams for this book. They have my warmest thanks:

Jor pedoJoBicaJ comments about the re8ions Gary Beecroft, John Bruce, lain Campbell , Des Cowie, Bill Cotching, Elwyn Griffiths, Jan Heine, Allan Hewitt, Neill Kennedy, Mike Laffan, Mike Leamy, Dave Leslie, Peter Mcintosh, Malcolm McLeod, Geoff Mew, Derek Milne, Vince Neall, Gary Orbell , Robin Palmer, Jim Pollok, Brian Purdie, Wim Rijkse, Graham Shepherd, Peter Singleton, Steve Smith, Philip Tonkin, Bruce Trangmar, Keith Vincent, Trevor Webb, Hugh Wilde, Alistair Wilson;

Jar scientific editorial comment Cyril Childs, Ben Clayde n, Des Cowie, Mike Leamy, Derek Milne;

Jor BeneToJ editorial comment and assistance Ian Atkinson, Carin Burke, Jewel Davin, Rod Furkert, Jan Heine, Dave Isaacs, Bob Lee, Bruce Miller, Val Orchard, Linda Pears, Peter Russell;

Jar specialist scientific iIiformation Rex Aldridge, Jock Churchman, Graeme Claridge, John Maunder, Roger Parfitt, Craig Ross, Kevin Tate, Joseph Whitton;

Jar manuscript typing Tessa Roach, Marjolane Ball, Ngaire McLean, Wendy Lawless;

Jar drcifting and cartography Clive Solomon who drew most of the diagrams, Carolyn Powell , and the staff of the DSIR Science Mapping Unit (Roy Frisby, Terry Savage, and Brian Luey) who produced the soil maps (Fig. 1.6) and Figs. 14.3 and 14.4;

Jar artwork Jar diagrams Allan Hewitt who painted the artwork for Figs. 1.2, 1.3, 9.2, 10.2, and 13.2, and Polly McColl who painted the soil animals and habitats depicted in Plates 1.1 and 1.2. Two people, however, stand out for the consistent encouragement they have given me - Cyril Childs for his commitment to the book and Derek Milne for so many useful discussions on the subject material. l owe them both a very real debt of gratitude.

Photographs Most of the photographs were taken by Quentin Christie, using a 6 X 7 Pentax; lenses included 55 mm, 75 mm, 135 mm and 500 mm. Some photographs for Chapters 2 and 5 were taken with a Linhof 5 X 4 camera. Transparency film (Kodak and Agfa) was used in most cases. All aerial photography was done with Agfachrome 100 uprated to 200 ASA.

The ass istance of other photographers for the fo llOWing plates is gratefully acknowledged: Jonathan Barran, Forest Research Institute

(9.8) John Bruce, NZ Soil Bureau (10. 16; 13.2;

13.3) Charters, Guthrie, Crawford & Associates

(14.5) Errol Chave ( 14.17) Bill Catching, NZ Soil Bureau ( 14.7) Des Cowie, NZ Soil Bureau (4.8) Terry Fitzgibbon (14.9) Bruce Harrison, Forest Research Institute

(9.5; 9 .7) Lloyd Homer, NZ Geological Survey (2.1; 4.2;

6.2; 7.7; 8.7; 9.2; 9.6; 10.5; 10.7; 11.2) Rex Julian. NZ Soil Bureau (3.9) Neill Kennedy, NZ Soil Bureau (2.15; 13.2) Dave leslie. l\.TZ Soil Bureau (8. 12; 10.10) Bruce McFadgen, Historic Places Trust (14.2

1. Martin, Alexander Turn bull Library (2 .1 9) E.G. Mason, Forestry Research Institute (14.4) Geoff Mew, NZ Soil Bureau ( 11.8; 11.13) Derek Milne. NZSoil Bureau (7.4) Les Molloy. NZ Soil Bureau (Fig. 1.3, [Op;

9.3; 10.2; 13.14) PhysicS & Engineering Laboratory, DS IR (9.1) Pele r Rankin, Ministry of Works and

Development ( 14.18; 14.19) Bill Rennie, NZ Soil Bureau (12.3; 12.14;

14. 16) Wim Rijkse, NZ Soil Bureau (2.5; 2.6; Fig

2.3, Te Ngae) Craig Ross, NZ Soil Bureau (1.6; 1.7) Graham Shepherd, NZ Soil Bu reau (6.7; 6.1 1) Tom Speir. NZ Soil Bureau (5.17) Philip Ton kin , Lincoln College (9.4, inset;

11.17)

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