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Page 1: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Sociological ResearchSociological Research

Page 2: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

A Public Restroom?

Page 3: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Common Sense vs. Common Sense vs. Scientific EvidenceScientific Evidence

““Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.”law.”

““The United States is a middle-class society in which most The United States is a middle-class society in which most people are more or less equal.”people are more or less equal.”

““Most poor people don’t want to work.”Most poor people don’t want to work.” ““Differences in the behavior of females and males are just Differences in the behavior of females and males are just

‘human nature.’ ”‘human nature.’ ” ““People change as they grow old, losing many interests as they People change as they grow old, losing many interests as they

focus on their health.”focus on their health.” ““Most people marry because they are in love.”Most people marry because they are in love.”

Page 4: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Question MindsetQuestion Mindset……There is a marked increase in the number of There is a marked increase in the number of

divorces in the United States.divorces in the United States. Factual: The number of divorces as a % have gone up sig. : The number of divorces as a % have gone up sig.

in the past 25 yearsin the past 25 years ComparisonComparison: Is this a phenomenon of just American : Is this a phenomenon of just American

society and culture?society and culture? DevelopmentalDevelopmental: Have there been other periods in : Have there been other periods in

American history where divorces have gone up or at least American history where divorces have gone up or at least marriage rates fallen.marriage rates fallen.

TheoreticalTheoretical: What else has happened within the same : What else has happened within the same timeframe that can be exacerbating the problem?timeframe that can be exacerbating the problem?

Page 5: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Sociological Research Sociological Research MethodsMethods

Sociologists, in order to study issues Sociologists, in order to study issues collect collect Empirical Research.Empirical Research.

Empirical Research = research based Empirical Research = research based on experiences, observations, and on experiences, observations, and experimentsexperiments

Page 6: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Sociological Research Sociological Research MethodsMethods

Sociologists in collecting this data Sociologists in collecting this data strictly follow the strictly follow the Scientific Research Scientific Research MethodMethod

This method allows researches to This method allows researches to develop an understanding of develop an understanding of Cause Cause and Effectand Effect or causation.

Page 7: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor
Page 8: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Ten Steps Ten Steps In Sociological InvestigationIn Sociological Investigation

1.1. Select and define topicSelect and define topic2.2. Review the literatureReview the literature3.3. Develop key questions to askDevelop key questions to ask4.4. Assess requirements for study Assess requirements for study 5.5. Consider ethical issuesConsider ethical issues6.6. Select a research methodologySelect a research methodology7.7. Collect the dataCollect the data8.8. Interpret the findingsInterpret the findings9.9. State conclusionsState conclusions10.10. Publish the findingsPublish the findings

Page 9: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor
Page 10: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Sociological Research MethodsSociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research

Hawthorne effect–A change in a Hawthorne effect–A change in a subject's behavior caused by the subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studiedawareness of being studied

Page 11: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Steps in the Ideal ExperimentSteps in the Ideal Experiment

Specify the dependent and independent variables.Specify the dependent and independent variables. Measure the dependent variable.Measure the dependent variable. Expose dependent variable to independent variable.Expose dependent variable to independent variable. Re-measure dependent variable to see if predicted Re-measure dependent variable to see if predicted

change took place.change took place. If no change, modify hypothesis & re-testIf no change, modify hypothesis & re-test

Page 12: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor
Page 13: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

A causal relationshipA causal relationship….when homeless shelters ….when homeless shelters are closed in a city there are less beds for the are closed in a city there are less beds for the homeless to use.homeless to use.

Cause = EffectCause = Effect Rarely when studying or dealing with human Rarely when studying or dealing with human

beings do researchers find clear causal beings do researchers find clear causal relationships!relationships!

Causation Is Not Correlation!Causation Is Not Correlation!

Page 14: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

CausationCausation Cause and effectCause and effect

A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in anotheranother

Types of variablesTypes of variables IndependentIndependent: The variable that causes the change : The variable that causes the change DependentDependent: The variable that changes (its value : The variable that changes (its value dependsdepends upon the upon the

independent variable)independent variable)

CorrelationCorrelation A relationship by which two or more variables change togetherA relationship by which two or more variables change together

Spurious correlationSpurious correlation An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more

variables caused by some other variablevariables caused by some other variable

Page 15: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

… … You are studying the relationship between You are studying the relationship between spousal abuse and credit card debt.spousal abuse and credit card debt.

The independent variable is…The independent variable is…The dependent variable is…The dependent variable is…

Independent variable: one that produces an effect on : one that produces an effect on another variableanother variable

Dependent variable: the variable affected in the : the variable affected in the relationship is the dependent.relationship is the dependent.

Independent and Dependent Variables

Page 16: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

……another scenario….another scenario….

You are studying healthy lifestyles in the U.S. You are studying healthy lifestyles in the U.S. (specifically people who walk daily). Advocates (specifically people who walk daily). Advocates say walking (30 minutes) a day will help cut say walking (30 minutes) a day will help cut down on a persons yearly healthcare costs.down on a persons yearly healthcare costs.

The Independent variable is…The Independent variable is…

The dependent variable is…The dependent variable is…

Independent and Dependent Variables

Page 17: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

……There is a strong correlation between the unemployment rate going up and the number of people utilizing soup kitchens in a given area.

Two variables or occurrences seem to have a strong link between each other.

There is always an effort by sociologists to separate causal from correlational; however correlation can involve causation (ex: educational experience v. success / family income&involvement

Causation Is Not Correlation!

Page 18: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research Interpreting CorrelationsInterpreting Correlations Scores range from -1 to +1Scores range from -1 to +1 -1, negative relationship-1, negative relationship

example of a negative :  drinking in college example of a negative :  drinking in college and GPA and GPA   

0, no relationship0, no relationshipexample of a near zero :  hair length and example of a near zero :  hair length and GPA GPA

    +1, positive relationship+1, positive relationship example of a positive : GPA and scores on example of a positive : GPA and scores on SAT SAT

Page 19: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor
Page 20: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

CORRELATIONCORRELATION

Perfect positive correlation coefficientPerfect positive correlation coefficient +1.00 means that an increase in one event is always +1.00 means that an increase in one event is always

matched by an equal increase in a second eventmatched by an equal increase in a second event Positive correlation coefficientPositive correlation coefficient

indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, increaseevent tends to, but does not always, increase

increases from +0.01 to +0.99 indicate a strengthening of increases from +0.01 to +0.99 indicate a strengthening of the relationship between the occurrence of two eventsthe relationship between the occurrence of two events

Page 21: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor
Page 22: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Research Research MethodsMethods

Page 23: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

EthnographyEthnography

Page 24: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Ethnography1. Firsthand studies of

people using actual observations or interviewing.

• From this research and researchers can get clear first person accounts and evidence of how a specific group functions within a larger society

Downsides are that only small populations can be studied and results cannot be applied to diff. groups even if they hold the same title

Another loss is if the researcher becomes to comfortable they stop being the researcher

Page 25: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

EthnographyEthnography:Observation:Observation

Observation = observing people in actual social Observation = observing people in actual social settingssettings

An Observation can be done with the participant An Observation can be done with the participant being aware of the study or with them completely being aware of the study or with them completely unaware of the researcherunaware of the researcher

Ethnography

Page 26: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Sociological Research MethodsSociological Research Methods

2. 2. Survey’sSurvey’s

Survey = Research method using questionnaires or interviews to gather data from individuals.

Interview = Asking people directly specific questions and recording their answers

Questionnaire = Asking people to respond to questions in writing. Could be in person, through the mail etc.

Page 27: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

……surveys tend to be more impersonal and anonymous therefore surveys tend to be more impersonal and anonymous therefore they can assess more sensitive information.they can assess more sensitive information.

……another aspect that has to be watched is how the questions are another aspect that has to be watched is how the questions are

worded and the responses a population can respond with.worded and the responses a population can respond with.

Surveys

Page 28: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Survey ResearchSurvey ResearchA research method in which subjects respond to a series of A research method in which subjects respond to a series of

statements or questions in a questionnaire or interviewstatements or questions in a questionnaire or interview

PopulationPopulation The people who are the focus of the researchThe people who are the focus of the research

SampleSample The part of the population that represents the wholeThe part of the population that represents the whole

Random SampleRandom Sample Drawing a sample from a population so that every Drawing a sample from a population so that every

element of the population has an equal chance of being element of the population has an equal chance of being selectedselected

Page 29: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

When conducting research sociologists (or any When conducting research sociologists (or any social scientist) often use representative social scientist) often use representative samples of the population they are studying. samples of the population they are studying.

Sampling

Page 30: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

3. 3. ExperimentsExperiments

Page 31: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

……For sociology, experiments can allow researchers to control For sociology, experiments can allow researchers to control and accurately study specific social behaviors.and accurately study specific social behaviors.

ExperimentsExperiments

Page 32: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

4.4. Review past and previous DocumentsReview past and previous Documents

By analyzing past research, or materials By analyzing past research, or materials (e.g. newspapers, records, arrests) a (e.g. newspapers, records, arrests) a sociologists might be able to develop a sociologists might be able to develop a theory or support an existing one.theory or support an existing one.

Also……..Also……..

Sociological Research MethodsSociological Research Methods

Page 33: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Sociological Research MethodsSociological Research Methods

By analyzing current sources of By analyzing current sources of electronic communication (e.g. news electronic communication (e.g. news reports, music) researchers may once reports, music) researchers may once again be able to support or develop again be able to support or develop theories of study.theories of study.

Ex: Are nightly news programs more likely to Ex: Are nightly news programs more likely to report and visualize minority crimes than report and visualize minority crimes than white Caucasian crimes?white Caucasian crimes?

Page 34: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Scientific Sociology TerminologyScientific Sociology Terminology

ReliabilityReliability–Consistency in measurement–Consistency in measurement Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of

the subject matter?the subject matter?

ValidityValidity–Precision in measuring exactly –Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measurewhat one intends to measure Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to

measure?measure?

Page 35: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Controversy and Debate (cont.)

Page 36: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor
Page 37: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor
Page 38: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

Ethical Guidelines for ResearchEthical Guidelines for Research Must strive to be technically competent & fair-mindedMust strive to be technically competent & fair-minded Must disclose findings in full without omitting significant Must disclose findings in full without omitting significant

data & be willing to share their data data & be willing to share their data Must protect the safety, rights, and privacy of subjects Must protect the safety, rights, and privacy of subjects Must obtain Must obtain informed consent; informed consent; subjects are aware of of subjects are aware of of

risks and responsibilities and agreerisks and responsibilities and agree Must disclose all sources of funding & avoid conflicts of Must disclose all sources of funding & avoid conflicts of

interestinterest Must demonstrate cultural sensitivityMust demonstrate cultural sensitivity

Page 39: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

……for the researcher in any social science, the first for the researcher in any social science, the first question is anyone being exposed to any type of question is anyone being exposed to any type of physical, psychological, or social harm?physical, psychological, or social harm?

..we shall look at another the infamous Stanley Milgram ..we shall look at another the infamous Stanley Milgram experiment.experiment.

EthicsEthics

Page 40: Sociological Research. A Public Restroom? Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “Poor

……what did Stanley Milgram do wrong (ethically).what did Stanley Milgram do wrong (ethically).

EthicsEthics


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