socio-technical aspects of water management in sri lanka ... 16...records written in deepawamsa...

© University of Peradeniya 2012

Ceylon Journal of Science (Physical Sciences) 16 (2012), 19-30 Earth Sciences

Socio-technical Aspects of Water Management in Sri Lanka:

The Past and the Present

H.A.H. Jayasena

Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

(*Corresponding author’s email:[email protected]).

Received: 12 July 2011 / Accepted after revision: 26 January 2012

ABSTRACT

Management of water resources is a major problem in many developing nations. This

paper addresses the applicability of the framework of Socio-technical systems to the water

management, focusing on the relevance of Socio-technical and Large Technological System

frameworks to the past and present water resource development in Sri Lanka. Investigations

on water resource management within the dry zone Tank Cascade Systems (TCS) revealed a

history of successful integration of technical and social elements within an organized

framework. This socio-technically driven sustainable water management allowed social

development in this region to proceed uninterrupted for a period of more than 1500 years

(two millennia). The success of the TCS is partially attributed to the innovation and

implementation of the valve-pit during the 1st century AD, which effectively regulated water

delivery through the tanks. Innovation of valve-pit itself can be considered as the driving

mechanism for the successful development phase of the ancient society.

The social acceptance of technical elements was crucial for such development

exemplified in the Sri Lankan model. Recent construction of Large Dams, planned to

achieve short-term multipurpose objectives during a period of 100-150 years is shown to be

incompatible with such social development and thus unsustainable. I argue that advanced

technology and the implicit top-down approach involved with the Large Dams preclude

adaptation resulting from inputs from the society, so that the outcomes of these Large Dams

leave behind only limited achievements and major social burden. Therefore, current water

resources management systems need to consider a more integrated approach in achieving

the stated objectives. The Socio-technical and Large Technological frameworks illuminate

fundamental features of water resources development based on TCS and Large Dam

activities. The observed longevity and sustainability of the TCS appears to be supported by

strong social integration as compared with Large Dam construction, in which top-down,

rigid design has been poorly integrated into the agronomic community, and thus has a

relatively short lifespan.

INTRODUCTION

Sustainable water resources management

(WRM) is a challenging goal for equatorial

countries where water scarcity has been

forecasted (Falkenmark, 1989; Gleick, 1998;

Ashton, 2002; Aheeyar et al., 2008). These

water deficiencies present an imminent danger

for the well-being of people in these regions

(Postel, 1999). Recent studies by Seckler et al.

(1998) and Wallace (2000) indicated that

several countries in Asia, Africa and the Middle

East are faced with imminent water scarcity. Sri

Lanka will also face water scarcity within the

next 50 years (Amarasinghe et al., 1999).

Therefore, a mechanism for sustainable WRM

H.A.H. Jayasena /Ceylon Journal of Science-Physical Sciences 16 (2012) 19-30

20

must be devised in order to overcome current

ineffective management practices.

Many recent water resources development

(WRD) programs have failed to achieve their

targets postulated in original plans (ADB,

2002). Among a number of reasons, the lack of

public participation has been widely

acknowledged as a key issue. However, based

on historical evidence of the management of

ancient Tank Cascade System (TCS) in Sri

Lanka, one can see how cultural practices and

technical elements were involved in the societal

development. This paper addresses how socio-

technical (ST) aspects of WRM in ancient Sri

Lanka led to efficient and sustainable water

usage. In addition, an analysis of large

technological systems (LTS) influence on the

Large Dams (LD) based WRD in Sri Lanka is

given. The recent construction of LD’s with

funds through donors has made significant

changes to the WRD of Sri Lanka. These dams

are massive isolated structures having

multipurpose objectives with targets planned to

be achieved only for a period of 100 years. In

this paper, I investigate whether the application

of Socio-technical (ST) and Large

Technological Systems (LTS) perspectives to

the past and present WRD’s in Sri Lanka could

provide a solution for the current WRM

challenges.

The Country Profile

Sri Lanka has a long history of hydraulic

structure-based irrigated agriculture, and a

water storage and delivery system considered

one of the most advanced systems that have

survived throughout the history of mankind. As

Mahawamsa, the ancient chronicle of Sri Lanka

stated, the irrigation development in the dry

zone of Sri Lanka was responsible for the

development of the ancient society. The

Mahawamsa carried narrations on historical and

concurrent development of ancient Sri Lanka

based on Buddhist philosophy and was written

by Maha thero Mahanama in the 6th century

AD using evidence gathered in the previous

records written in Deepawamsa (Geiger, 1958).

The sustainability and longevity of these

ancient irrigation schemes for a period of more

than 1500 years (two millennia) beginning from

the 3rd

century BC to roughly about 12th

century AD displays a successful integration of

technical and social elements within an

organized framework.

The island of Sri Lanka has a central mass

of highlands and mountains surrounded by rock

knob bearing rolling lowlands. The country is

blessed with an average annual rainfall of 2000

mm, which varies from less than 1750 mm in

the dry low lands to more than 2500 mm in the

wet highlands (Somasekaram et al., 1982). The

spatial and temporal variations of rainfall

received in these two areas are governed by the

monsoonal regime and the movement of the

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone around the

equator. These seasonal rainfalls impart a

bimodal distribution of rainfall received by the

country, resulting in two major agricultural

seasons: Yala (April to September) and Maha

(October to March). Based on the average

annual seasonal rainfalls the country has been

divided into the dry and the wet zones (Fig. 1).

Water resources in the dry zone of Sri Lanka

are managed through an advanced and unique

irrigation management system which has been

sustained throughout the history from the 3rd

century BC to the present.

Figure 1: Major climatic zones in Sri Lanka.


21

Brief introduction of the Socio-technical

Systems Framework

The application of socio-technical (ST) and

large technical (LT) frameworks on the water

resources development in Sri Lanka will be

discussed in this section. Traditional ST

systems framework has its origins in the work

of the Tavistock Institute in London (Trist and

Bamforth, 1951; Emery, 1959; Emery and Trist,

1960) and has been mainly devised to

understand the impact of technology on

business efficiency and productivity of a

system. The framework states that systems

consist of “social” and “organizational”

elements as well as “technical” elements. The

term “system” suggests that all parts of the

organization are interrelated, so that the design

of one element affects the operation of the other

element. When one component of the system is

removed or changed there will be an imbalance

until the other components have adjusted their

characteristics accordingly. One would expect

such interrelations leading to joint optimization

among the elements in a closed system. For

example, the social subsystem comprises of

employees at all levels, and the knowledge,

skills, attitudes, values and needs that they

bring to the work environment. The technical

subsystem comprises of the devices, tools and

techniques needed to transform inputs into

outputs in a way that enhances the economic

performance of the organization. Several

researchers believe that simultaneous

interrelations among these three elements are

necessary for a successful ST system (Stanfield,

1976; Van de Ven and Joyce, 1981; Pasmore et

al., 1982).

Hughes (1983) perceived that it is possible

for the design of a successful system which

could depart from the above framework. As

influenced by the Von Bertalanffy (1950)

systems framework, Hughes considered that the

above discussion is relevant to the traditional

socio-technical framework. Recently, Mitchell

and Nault (2004) explained that the modern ST

systems framework draws significantly from

open systems. The “open” perspective implies

that the social and technological dimensions of

work processes must be designed not only in

relation to each other but also with reference to

evolving environmental demands. Therefore,

any production system can exist as an open

socio-technical system whose elements can

independently interact with the environment to

improve the productivity. Hence the

development of large technological systems

(LTS) emerged.

The LTS are more relevant to the modern

world. The LTS did not evolve sequentially, but

with overlapping or sometime back tracking the

invention, development, innovation, transfer

and growth, competition and consolidation. For

instance, based on examples from the power

and telecommunications network as well as

evolution of computer technology, one could

see the different inputs from the society due to

particular interests of the individual country

(Hughes, 1983; Davenport, 1993; Mitchell and

Nault, 2004). Hughes (1983) stated that “the

LTS contains messy, complex, problem solving

components” and considered the LTS as

another ST system. As elaborated in his paper,

“the LTS is socially constructed and society

shaping.” New elements or ideas were

incorporated into the system as to satisfy the

emerging requirements of the evolving society

within the environment. Impacts of LTS such as

computers, telecommunications and internet

etc., on the society have been well documented

(Hughes, 1987; Corea, 2000).

Hughes (1983) stated that his version of

technological systems is more useful than

system concepts used by engineers and many

social scientists. As he explains, the technology

of such a major effort should include “different

but interlocking elements of physical artifacts

(anything invented by the system builders),

institutions, and their environment and thereby

offering an integration of technical, social,

economic, and political aspects” (Bijker et al.,

1987). He distinguished the following

components in a technological system; Physical

artifacts, Organizations, Scientific Components,

Legislative artifacts and Natural resources.

Human “actors” have a special place in the

system. For instance, inventors, scientists,

engineers, managers, financiers and workers are

“components” but not “artifacts” of the system.


22

As these actors are not created by the system

builders, they possess a degree of freedom that

is not possessed by the artifacts (Hughes, 1987).

The physical and non-physical artifacts interact

and contribute to the common system goal. The

efficient functioning for the LTS requires the

interaction of a network of technical and social

elements, which would then pass through a

complex management system to achieve the

economic goals.

Application of ST Framework to Water

Resources Development

The need for efficient water resources

management and development has been

identified as a priority issue in current global

requirements. People need water for domestic

and agricultural purposes. In addition, the

domestic water supply should be good quality

and affordable to the poor. As the United

Nations millennium goal is to supply half the

population with good quality water by year

2025, significant funding is needed in order to

manage the water development projects in hand

(Thomas, 2006). Unless the outcome of these

projects satisfies the needs of society the effort

will go in disarray leading to loss of

productivity. Therefore, a need for application

of suitable ST framework is imperative in order

to overcome the conflicting socio-political and

economic issues underlined in WR

development and management programs in

hand. Several recent attempts of applying ST

framework to WRM can be cited (Hukkinen,

1991; Russell, 2002; Regmi, 2003). In these

papers the identification of individual

components of the social and technical

elements within an organization has been

reiterated and their boundaries needed for

optimum functioning and planning of the WRD

have been discussed. However, it is very

challenging to establish demarcations among

these elements. As Emery (1959), Pasmore et

al. (1982), Shani and Sena (1994), and Griffith

et al. (2003) pointed out; there is a difficulty in

assigning individual aspects, items and methods

to each of these elements. For instance, in a

study based on 134 reviews of ST systems

approach to work redesign, Kelly (1978)

concluded that simultaneous interrelations

among the elements have little connection with

the reality of ST systems in practice. Since

instances could be identified either with

overlapping activities of these elements or

limited technical changes with more social

reorganizations in the ST framework (Pasmore

et al., 1982), this discussion of the application

of ST in the water resources management and

development needs careful attention.

Modern WRD in Sri Lanka seems in

disarray, as highlighted by academics and

administrators (ECL, 1999; Gunatilake and

Gopalakrishnan, 2002). I believe the arbitrary

practice of assigning aspects, items and

methods to social, technical and organizational

elements of water management without

understanding the historically established

procedures in Sri Lanka may have caused this

disarray. An example that illustrates Sri

Lanka’s difficulty is the recent failure to

approve a new Water Resources Policy that

would have initiated tariff collection on

irrigation water in Sri Lanka (Gunetilake and

Gopalakrishnan, 2002). Though historical

evidence clearly indicates that irrigation water

was taxed in the past (de Silva, 1987; Siriweera,

2004), the current community vehemently

opposed the proposed policy (Gunatilake and

Gopalakrishnan 2002). In addition, as

Gunawardana (1971) discussed, village tanks

personally or communally owned in the ancient

periods, as mentioned in Smanthapasadika

(Takkakusu and Nagai, 1927), indicating that

there was historically a strong private and

public involvement in water resources

allocation and development. The practice of

sharing communal resources resulted in several

positive outcomes, for instance, collective

responsibilities of tank water management and

maintenance were shared by the community.

Considering these ancient practices, the current

opposition for similar user related costs

deserves scrutiny. Though the community in

general accepts a need for planning and water

management, this lack of support for water

tariffs indicates either inadequate policy-maker

engagement within the society, or the mistrust

of donor supported process. To overcome the


23

disarray of water management and mistrust

over policy implementation, soft systems

understanding involving public participation

over management issues in Sri Lanka is

recommended.

Application of ST Systems to the Evolution

of TCS Technology

Written records and inscriptions regarding

historical WRM in Sri Lanka indicate that a ST

framework of management practices was in

place as early as 3rd

century BC. The TCS of

water management employed in Sri Lanka from

the 3rd

century BC to the 12th century AD

period has been identified as one of the most

enduring water management system in the

world (Kennedy, 1933; Brohier, 1935; Geiger,

1958; Gunawardana, 1971; de Silva, 1977; de

Silva, 1987; Panabokke et al., 2002). The TCS

was introduced into the dry zone of Sri Lanka

by Indo Aryans in order to continue with the

sustainable agricultural production necessary

for the growing population. Severe droughts

during the 2nd

century BC and the 1st century

AD and concurrent social unrests indicate

possible administrative difficulties due to

population pressures and environmental

damages. To minimize the above problems,

additional innovation was needed in order to

improve the TCS design process. Those new

innovations and their overall effects in the TCS

are summarized below.

The introduction of the valve pit

(Bisokotuwa) around 1st century AD to allow

regulation of water supply through the tanks

was instrumental to the design of larger tanks

(Fig. 2) (Gunawardana, 1978). The main

function of the valve-pit was to regulate

discharge using an artificially constructed,

easily operated device. A variety of pit valves,

such as “kota sorowwa” and “bisokotuwa”,

specifically designed depending on the size of

the tank have been used. Pit valves essentially

consisted of a vertical pit or a shaft upstream

which connected to a horizontal rectangular

tunnel through the bund. To distribute the

upstream surge and pressure, one single inlet

and two separate outlets downstream were

constructed with granite and or brick (Fig. 3).

Figure 2: Bisokotuwa (Valve pit) - a sluice used in

large reservoir (after Ausadahami, 1999)

Figure 3: Maduru Oya dam site indicating two inlets

of the ancient valve pit.

Kota sorowwa essentially consisted of clay

cylindrical pilings, stacked one on top of the

other and placed upstream in place of the

vertical shaft discussed above, so that removal

of a single piling administers a certain

discharge downstream. Separate areas

demarcated as “kattakaduwa and thaulla” were

located adjacent to the main tank body, where

their main functions were to control siltation,

salinization and iron leachate (Fig. 4). In all

cases, a significant reservation of the area

between tanks was allocated for natural

purification of surface water. For instance

“kattakaduwa” was a reservation designed to

capture iron bearing groundwater leachate,

“thaulla” was a wetland situated to capture

sediments, excessive NOX, and cations

(Jayasena and Selker, 2004, Mahatantila et al.,

2008). In addition, the wetland also functioned

to improve the biological oxygen demand

(BOD) of the tank, which was crucial for fish


24

population and human consumption. Planting

tree species such as ‘mee’ (Maduca longifolia)

and ‘kumbuk’ (Terminalia arjuna) along the

thaulla as a wind break was another

management practice (Fig. 4). It was reported

that the kumbuk tree has a tendency to absorb

Ca from the subsoil (Tenent, 1860). The ash of

the kumbuk tree has been used as a substitute

for calcium carbonate when villagers chewing

beetle. This practice indirectly indicates the

ability of kumbuk trees to absorb Ca from the

soil. Recent studies confirm that this attenuation

of Ca and other cations from the soil and water

maintains desirable subsoil chemistry and

minimizes water salinity (Mahatantila et al.,

2005). Incorporation of a management structure

and a tax system within the TCS water

management as well as the introduction of

rituals and religious practices to prevent

adverse societal interactions were other

significant factors which led the TCS evolution

and societal development (Hearth, 1994;

Dissanayake, 1992).

Figure 4: The major elements associated with

village tank system

The ST Systems framework can be used to

characterize the relationship between society

and technology in the context of TCS. The

evolution of the TCS began when migrant Indo-

Aryans transported the technical knowledge

from India. The original design concept passed

through several phases before it was

commissioned as a viable technology. This

transformation process may have been readily

accepted by the indigenous society or may have

been forcefully implanted. One could speculate

that the successful integration of the indigenous

community with migrant Indo-Aryans (after

543 BC) was due in part to introduction of such

viable technologies. It seems that effective

measures taken by the local chieftain on ST

configuration were well accepted by the

indigenous local society so that resistance was

negligible. As the new socio-technically

organized system came to be implemented in

the society and understood by the people,

development of the TCS accelerated.

Indigenous knowledge may have directly

impacted the techniques formulated within the

TCS. The above facts associated with social

and technical fields may indicate the reasons

why this form of hydraulic civilization has only

developed within Sri Lanka, though similar

situations existed among the other countries in

Asia (Gunawardana, 1971). The remnants of

the ancient hydraulic civilization in Sri Lanka

witnessed this early development.

Effects of innovations on societal

development within the TCS

Improved technical performance through

innovation of the open ST system is the driving

mechanism for the development of society. For

instance, recent innovations such as computer

technology, cell phones and electronic

communications can be highlighted (Bikson

and Eveland, 1996; Marty, 2000; Mumford,

2000). Several such driving mechanisms may

be responsible for the historical development of

Sri Lankan water management. For example,

the innovation of what is known as the valve pit

allowed for subsequent construction of major

tanks. Simultaneously, advanced surveying and

leveling techniques led to the development of

diversion canals, which opened up previously

arid land to agriculture and allowed exploitation

of the newly feasible large reservoirs. Among

these, the large irrigation reservoirs such as

Kalawewa (dam length = 5 km) (Brohier, 1935)

built by King Dhatusena (459-477 AD) and

Kantale wewa (dam height = 16 m (Blair,

1934)) built by King Mahasena (274-302 AD)

and the Yoda Ela canal (slope maintained at 10

cm per km) built by King Dhatusena (459-477

AD) are prominent examples (Brohier, 1935;


25

Siriweera, 2004). The remnants of these

structures raise several questions with respect to

the early advancements; for instance, the

criteria responsible and the measures employed

for these developments are still a mystery. As

Kemp (1994) pointed out, it is impractical to

assume that society will welcome and

appreciate new technology. It is necessary to

open a “niche” for the successful introduction

of new technology into the existing sociological

environment, which could potentially be

indifferent or hostile. It could be considered

that the valve pit was introduced within such a

niche. As discussed in the ancient chronicles,

the water problems associated with major

droughts (Baminitiya Sāya during the reign of

Vattagamini in 103 BC and Ek neli Sāya during

the reign of King Kunchanaga (187-189 AD),

had caused severe difficulty in water

management (Siriweera, 1987). The existing

small village tank structures did not sufficiently

meet water demands, so larger, more stable

structures were needed. The successful

innovation of the valve pit was a critical

technology, but without the social demand for

more stable and plentiful water, as well as the

social organization required to make the long

term investments in the overall system, this idea

may well have had no impact. Evidence for this

is the fact that in adjacent South India, which

had ample contacts with Sri Lanka, the

technology was not adapted for over 500 years,

till the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were

established, despite the presence of nearly

identical environmental and population

pressures (Gunawardana, 1978). If the

optimization within a closed irrigation system

takes place without innovation, one witnesses

only incremental societal development as seen

in neighbouring India. However, Sri Lanka

experienced significant advancement in the

period from 1-12 century AD (Fig. 5). The

contemporary South Indian hydraulic structures

were at a rudimentary level, and the society

appears to have been indifferent to this new

technology (Gunawardana, 1984). The South

Indians practiced the same ancient methods of

bailing out water or using rudimentary water

machines (Saminataiyar, 1965) to divert water

from the small tanks until 7th century AD.

These conservative societies did not allow

experimentation or wide-scale construction of

water storage and transfer infrastructure until

several centuries after the invention. The

evidence suggests that a collective approach not

only based on technical inputs but also on

social acceptance, played a key role in the

development and sustainability of the ancient

TCSs.

Figure 5: Schematic graph indicating time vs.

societal development in Sri Lanka with major

problematic periods and development phases

associated with TCS. The TCS was abandoned after

12th century AD (Modified after Kemp and

Rotmans, 2001).

The evolution of the TCS after the 3rd

century BC had a great impact on Sri Lankan

society (Geiger, 1958; de Silva, 1977;

Siriweera, 1991). For example, food surpluses

as well as strong trade networks via the

Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa kingdoms

were consistently maintained until 12th century

AD due to the presence of the TCS. The

introduction of these technical elements and

associated socially organized management

structures to the village communities paved the

way for an efficient, reliable and sustainable

agriculturally-based society. This societal

development increased quality of life in terms

of both spiritual and material dimensions.

Recent studies conducted by Kunkel (1970),

Owens (1987), the World Bank (1991) and

Todaro (1994) claim that these cultural

improvements affecting the individual signify

and represent the development in the society.

As Kunkel’s (1970) simple definition stated,

“The objective of development is the

acceleration of economic growth, the reduction

of inequality, and the eradication of poverty.”


26

The introduction of TCS profoundly advanced

the development of ancient Sri Lankan society

by increasing agricultural output and improving

trade relationships which paved a sustainable

life. Moreover, the open nature of the ancient

society allowed the society to accept these new

ST systems, resulting in a reduction of

inequalities and an increase in economic

growth.

Comparison of water management in the

past and at present

The introduction of ST System to current

WM practices appears to have a bearing mainly

on the institutional arrangements and economic

benefits. The ST System appears to focus on the

management of the TCS within a single

production system. The influences by the recent

LD systems to the total environment left out the

production systems as seen associated with the

TCS. Further, unlike the perception of the

complexity of sustainable development, the

current WM approach was primarily developed

for the management of routine, linear work

systems, even some changes with the

methodology have been suggested to cope with

more complex, nonlinear situations. As

explained by Fox (1995), the introduction of

technical elements without adequate attention to

their impacts on social structure and human

requirements caused significant misalignment

of the current WRD in Sri Lanka. The success

and sustainability of the TCS can be partially

attributed to the inherent participatory nature

and bottom-up control, whereas the LD systems

are implemented from a top down approach.

The ancient community enjoyed significant

sustainable socioeconomic benefits through

advancement of the TCS and other major

irrigation systems. The evidence of such

development was unearthed from the accounts

based on archaeological remnants and

inscriptions found around major cities in the

Dry Zone of Sri Lanka (Geiger 1958,

Gunawardana, 1971). Recent studies conducted

by Jayasena and Gangadhara (2006) also

pointed out several thoughtfully crafted

relationships associated with the distribution of

tanks in the catchments. This work indicates

that tank distribution in the dry zone catchment

systems has strong correlation with the rainfall

distribution. Judging by such innovative

elements associated with the planning process

of ancient TCS, it can be concluded that

subsequent socio-technical development must

have been geared for a better society in the past.

Significant public participation was also been

involved in the development of ancient

irrigation systems, as expressed by the

inscriptions and chronicles (Geiger, 1958; de

Silva, 1977). The Rajakariya (Duty by the

King) is imperative in the historical period

where a sequence of officials were assigned to

oversee the individual aspects of maintenance.

Efficient management of the society could not

have been achieved unless the system gave

back its return either as monetary or other

measures in order to satisfy the societal needs.

This improved efficiency of the TCS and

subsequent development of the society during

the period from 2nd

century AD to 12th century

AD could not have happened unless inputs,

mainly from knowledge and dependable

technical initiatives were applied in the

respective TCS.

When current water resource management

practices are compared with those of ancient Sri

Lanka, one finds evidence of a more sustainable

and socially integrated past (Jayasena and

Selker, 2004). The current systems, adorned

with highly mechanized control structures, may

be technically efficient during the period

following installation; however, troubles arise

when they do not function efficiently due to the

need for maintenance or short design life.

Removing these colossal structures will

adversely affect the adjacent environment

including social displacements, as opposed to

the previous easily moved clay and rubble

structures, which only created minor local

effects when failures occurred. In the ancient

periods the maintenance of tanks and canals

was done with the readily available local

materials, however at present one has to depend

on outside products and manufacturers.

Therefore, the current system is not sustainable

and will not provide long term benefits to the

society, in large part due to a lack of


27

consideration of ST factors. Considering these

issues, in relation to the current water

management problems that has been emerged in

Sri Lanka, the linear ST system as discussed

above related to LD does not appear to

encompass a wide scope of soft systems

understanding as evident in the ancient TCS.

DISCUSSION

It is important to consider the overall

management of water resources in Sri Lanka

within the framework of socio-technical and

large technological systems. Historical evidence

shows a significant synergistic technical and

social development surrounding the evolving

TCS. This innovation-based advancement was

responsible for the broad and sustained societal

development witnessed from the 2nd

century BC

to the 12th century AD. The areas affected by

TCS encompass about 60 % of the island

(Jayatilake et al., 2001). The water demand

increased due to agricultural requirement,

population increase and drought. To address

these requirements within the societal context,

the TCS evolved thorough organized public

participation and labour supported by

indigenous knowledge and techniques. The

modern technical elements such as plumes,

weirs and pumps recently introduced into these

irrigation systems must also be compatible with

the user friendly systems approach, so that

operational planning and maintenance could be

immediately handled by local organizations.

Even in historical periods, evidence of

application of similar ST system framework on

TCS could be traced.

The ST system had a significant bearing on

the development of TCS as it proceeded in its

initial steps along a pathway of survival, the

first ST system criterion (Trist, 1973).

Subsequently, the TCS may have generated

sufficient economic assets within the kingdom

which were used to develop large and strong

irrigation systems including meso level urban

centres. The basic requirements for the meso

level urban development in the society, such as

water supply for agriculture, food supply,

regular tank and canal maintenance and

festivals organized through cultural and

religious practices were at a satisfactory level as

evident by the thriving agriculture based society

(Geiger, 1958). During the planning process of

the TCS, the main focus was improved

irrigation management. However, concern for

environmental impacts also seems to have been

a priority since population even in this early

period was expected to increase within TCS. It

can be seen that the surrounding environment

associated with the tanks is influenced by the

TCS, so that the TCS can be considered as an

open socio-technical system.

The new LD’s recently introduced into the

water management in Sri Lanka mainly provide

hydropower aiming at large technology-based

systems. While providing irrigation water

through upgrading and maintaining the

reservoirs in the dry zone was a lesser interest

in the planning process. However, the irrigation

interests were directly allied with the STS

framework which has been familiar to the

society. The entire WM operation shows a

strong bias towards the application of modern

technical elements and top-down management,

which isolates it from social elements. There is

a clear-cut difference between these two

systems. The longevity and maintenance of

TCS were dependent on public participation

through organized socio-technical events, such

as routine maintenance undertaken communally

and farmer-organized festivals. The large dams

display some elements associated with LTS,

such as generation of power and distribution

network as well as complex economic and

cultural changes. However, large dams lack the

ST web of activities familiar to Sri Lanka. This

alien situation adversely affects the overall

output as these dams are socio-economic and

environmental burdens. The linear top-down

approach to management through government

machinery with maintenance requiring

expensive and specialized technical equipment

alienates the society which once significantly

contributed for the development and

maintenance of the ancient TCS.


28

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The STS framework of water resources

management is necessary for efficient

implementations of irrigation and water supply

projects. The TCS operates as an open

integrated ST system with strong considerations

of irrigation and environmental issues. In

contrast, the LD operates as a linear isolated LT

system with primary goals of power supply and

irrigation issues. Within the TCS and LD

systems, I found that elements and actors bound

together to create two different ST frameworks

for water management. However, the TCS

management displayed longevity and

sustainability throughout a period of more than

1500 years compared with the LD management

which only may continue for a maximum of

150 years. Therefore, I conclude that smaller,

more user-friendly irrigation and water supply

schemes are appropriate for rural areas of

developing countries or regions with inadequate

resources. The larger, more technically

advanced water supply systems are more

appropriate for regions with abundant

resources, since these systems require advanced

technology and technologically explicit

maintenance.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

HAHJ acknowledges the financial support given by

the Biological and Ecological Engineering

Department of the Oregon State University (ORST),

USA and the Research Promotion Centre of the

UGC, Colombo, Sri Lanka to complete this research

work. Author conveys his gratitude to Prof. John

Selker of the Biological and Ecological Engineering,

Ms. Kelly Kibler of the Forest Engineering and Ms.

Lisel Kopel of the Writing Center, ORST, USA for

their editorial assistance and to anonymous

reviewers for their constructive suggestions. Prof.

Rohana Chandrajith from the University of

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka and Mr. Titus Cooray from

the Uwa Wellassa University, Sri Lanka are also

mentioned with gratitude for the diagrams they

provided for the manuscript.

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