22 Veritas

The Sixties in America: Social Strife and International Conflict

by Troy J. SacquetyPhoto collage by D. Telles

“The long decade was an endless pageant of political and cultural protests.” 1 —Dr. Terry H. Anderson

James H. Meredith, flanked by U.S. Marshals, was the first African-American student to attend the University of Mississippi. Supported by Mississippi’s governor, Ross R. Barnett, the school’s refusal to allow Meredith to attend forced President John F. Kennedy to send federal agents and troops to ensure his safety and to quell white mobs.

Organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), the 1961 Freedom Rides were led by James L. Farmer (inset). Violence against the riders, evidenced by the burnt-out bus, raised public attention and garnered status for Farmer as one of the most influential leaders of the Civil Rights movement.

best associated with its counter-culture (flower-power) and music,

the 1960s was a tremendously turbulent decade bothdomestically and internationally for theUnitedStates.As historianDr. TerryH. Anderson stated, “The longdecade was an endlesspageant of political andcultural protests.”1 Otherhistorians, Drs. George B.Tindall and David E. Shisaid that “many social illswhich had been festeringfor decades suddenlyforced their way ontothe national agenda.”2 Any U.S. soldier—serving overseas orstateside—would havebeen affected by thecritical issues definingthis period. This wasparticularly true of theCivilRightsMovementandthe Cold War. This articlewill give a brief snapshotof the decade and showthe reader the chaoticnature of 1960s Americainrelationtoboththemes.ThiswillhelpexplainwhyitwassoimportantfortheU.S. to stem Communistinsurrections in its own“back yard”—like thoseinspired by the Cubans.The “Sixties” as theybecame known, startedoffasacontinuationofthesocially conservative andmaterialistic 1950s—itselfan outgrowth of WWII—but quickly changed asmany social and ethnicgroupssoughtequality.Intheblackcommunity,

the long-simmering CivilRights Movement hadgained momentum, evenas itremainedfragmented,multi-directional,andlacking asingleleader.Althoughthe forced integration of LittleRock Senior High School(LittleRock,Arkansas)in1957andsit-insinGreensboro,North Carolina, in 1960 had gotten national attention,the “FreedomRides,”which began inMay 1961, raisedawarenessmore.TheyweresponsoredbytheCongressofRacial Equality (CORE) and led by JamesL. Farmer.

The rides were designed to test whether the southernstateswouldupholdfederallawstodesegregateinterstatetravelfacilitiesregardlessoflocalmandates.Originallythirteen participants (seven black and sixwhite) beganthe rides aboard commercial Trailways and Greyhound

busses. They faced nosignificant opposition untilreaching South Carolina.Then, hostility increasedto outright violence—often while public lawenforcement stood by andwatched—as they traveledthroughthelowerSouth.Farmer described later

events, “I was scaredspitless and desperatelywanted to avoid takingthat ride to Jackson[Mississippi]. Alabama had chewed up the originalthirteen interracial COREFreedom Riders; theyhad been brutalized,hospitalized, and in onecase disabled . . . blackshad been brutally pistol-whipped and clubbedwith blackjacks and fistsandthenthrown,bloodied,into the back of the bus.Whiteshadbeenclobberedeven worse for trying to intervene.”3 Televisionprovidedpublicityandthemomentumgrew.BetweenJune and September over60separateFreedomRidestook place as volunteerspoured in despite thethreatstolife.TheridesmadetheadministrationofPresident JohnF.Kennedytake notice as nationalattentionwasdrawntotheCivil Rights Movement. At the same time, theviolence embarrassed the UnitedStatesinternationally. However, the ridessucceeded in forcing thedesegregation of interstatetravel facilities.4 Racial

events continued into 1962 to keepCivil Rights on thefrontpagesofnationalnewspapers.James Meredith, an African-American student,

attempted to enroll at the University of Mississippi,known as “Ole Miss,” but had repeatedly been

Although

Vol. 4 No. 4 23

As Dr. Martin Luther King watches, President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 on 2 July. The act, whose passage was cemented by the murders of Schwerner, Goldman, and Cheney and King’s speeches, outlawed racial segregation in schools, public, places, and employment.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have A

Dream” speech inspired millions. King was

assassinated in 1968 for being an outspoken leader.

Andrew Goldman, James E. Chaney, and Michael H. Schwerner were CORE workers murdered by white-supremacists on 21 June 1964 near Philadelphia, Mississippi. Their gruesome deaths forced President Lyndon B. Johnson to send in Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents because local authorities were complicit in the murders.

denied admission. The state government supportedthat position. After President Kennedy ordered U.S.MarshalsandfederaltroopstoOxford,Mississippi,on1October1962,Meredithwasfinallygrantedadmission.Eventually12,000U.S.troopswererequiredtokeepandrestore order atOleMiss.5 But nowWashingtonwasactingonbehalfofthemovement.PresidentLyndonB.Johnson’sMemorialDayaddress

on 30 May 1963 at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania [wherePresident Abraham Lincolnhad spoken a hundred yearsbefore] reinforced the federalgovernment’sposition:“Untiljustice is blind to color, untileducation is unaware ofrace, until opportunity isunconcernedwiththecolorofmen’sskins,emancipationwillbeaproclamation,notafact.”6 On28August1963onthestepsof the Lincoln Memorial inWashingtonD.C.,CivilRightsleader Dr. Martin LutherKing, Jr. gave his famous “IHaveaDream”speechduringthe “March on Washingtonfor Jobs and Freedom.” Thespeech—consideredoneofthemost influential in Americanhistory,endedwiththewords,“Letfreedomring.Andwhenthis happens, and when weallow freedom ring - whenweletitringfromeveryvillageand every hamlet, from everystate and every city, we willbe able to speed up that daywhen all of God’s children -blackmenandwhitemen,Jewsand Gentiles, Protestants andCatholics -will be able to joinhandsandsinginthewordsofthe old Negro spiritual: ‘Freeatlast!Freeatlast!ThankGodAlmighty,wearefreeatlast!”7 ThespeechelectrifiedAmerica,spurred theMovement forward,and helped to pave the wayfortheCivilRightsActof1964which outlawed segregationand discrimination in publicplaces, schools, andplaces of employment. ButKing’sfervent speech was short-circuited by an event thatshockedAmerica.On21 June1964 threeCivilRightsworkers,Michael

Schwerner,AndrewGoldman,andJamesChaneywerebrutallybeatenandkilledbyKuKluxKlanmembersnearPhiladelphia,Mississippi.Themurdersrockedthenation

anddrewnationalattention.Finallythebrutalitybeingimposedonthoseadvocatingequalitybecameabhorredandrepugnant.ButinternallytheCivilRightsMovementbegantosplinter,andradicalgroupsemerged—notablythe “Black Power” element—to push away from non-violent activities. This further strained relations withwhiteswithinandoutsidetheMovement.8

One of the first and mostvisible reactions was theWatts Riots in Los Angeles,California, that stretchedfrom11to15August1966.Tostem the escalating violence,themilitary had to be calledin.Whenorderwasrestored,34 people were dead, 1,000injured, 4,000 arrested, andover $35 million of propertydestroyed.9 Watts and otherriots to come destroyed thephilosophy of non-violentrevolutionthatMartinLutherKing and other early CivilRightsleadershadadvocated.Asonehistorianreflectedlater, “TheWattsRiotwas thefirst majorlessonfortheAmerican public on the t inderbox volatilityofsegregatedinner-city neighborhoods. The riotprovided a sobering previewof the violent urban uprisingof the late 1960s and helped define several hardcore political camps: militant blacksapplaudedthespectacleof rage;moderates lamented the riots senselessness and self-destructiveness; andconservative whites viewedthe uprising as a symptomof the aggressive pace of thecivilrightslegislation.”10Oneof those in the last categorywas future PresidentRichardM.Nixon.Hecondemnedtherioters in a 15 August 1966U.S. News and World Report editorial, by declaring thatthe riotswere a catalyst for ageneraldeclineinAmericans’

respectforlawandorder,andthat“thenationsimplycannolongertoleratemenwhoareabovethelaw.”HecitedAbrahamLincolnwhosaid,“Thereisnogrievancethatisafitobjectofredressbymoblaw.”11But,theviolenceonlygotworse.BlackPowerwasmostnotablyinfluencedbyMalcolmX.

Considered its “father,” he was a member of the

24 Veritas

The anti-Castro 2506 Brigade was trained by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to invade Cuba. The 17 April 1961 invasion was a disaster, and the survivors were ransomed to the United States in December 1962.

In August 1961, President John F. Kennedy, shown here with Alberto Lleras Carmargo, President of Colombia, enacted the Alliance for Progress. It was designed to bolster economies and living standards in Latin America and to counter Cuban-inspired Communist movements.

Francis Gary Powers was shot down over the Soviet Union on 1 May 1960 while conducting a covert reconnaissance mission. The U.S. denied that it was conducting such flights and was deeply embarrassed when the Soviets presented Powers…alive.

NationofIslam,aBlackMuslimgroupthatpromotedthe superiority of their race. Although MalcolmX later left the organization and was murdered in 1965, the outspoken, powerful orator, had a lastinginfluence on black America.Stokely Carmichael, chairmanof the Student Nonviolent CoordinatingCommittee(SNCC)wantedtoremovewhites from black-dominated Civil Rights organizations demandingequality now. His rationalewasthatblackshadtoachieveequality themselves, withoutrelying on help from whites. Not surprisingly, Carmichaeladvocated abandoning non- violence to achieve equality:“Wemustwageapsychologicalbattle on the right for blackpeople to define themselvesas they see fit, and organizethemselves as they see fit . ..Weareon themove forourliberation . . . Move on over,or we’re going to move overyou.”12 Although the U.S.Army had been integratedby the mid-1950s, racialstigmas persisted. The riotsandthegrowingBlackPowerradicalism were somethingthat American soldiers couldnotignore.The distracted military

also faced threats associatedwith theColdWar—thearmsraces and inherent state oftension between the twosuperpower competitors; theUnited States and the SovietUnion. Communism wasposedasagravethreattotheAmericanwayoflife.In1964,the Republican Presidentialcandidate, Senator BarryGoldwater, said, “The fact isthat Communism is the onlygreatthreattothepeace!Thefact is that Communism is athreat to every free man.”13 This attitude permeatedconservative America andmade anticommunism abipartisannationalpolicy. While the riseofSocialismandCommunism became prevalent in LatinAmerica,afterFidelCastro’ssuccessfulrevolutiondeposedCuban

dictator General Fulgencio Batista in 1959, the SovietUnionwasperceivedasAmerica’sgreatestthreat.TheColdWar“heatedup”on1May1960whenthe

U-2 reconnaissance aircraft piloted by Francis GaryPowerswas shotdowndeepinside the Soviet Unionwhile conducting a covertflight. Powers survived andbecameanewsspectaclewhodebunked U.S. governmentdenials that it had violatedSovietairspace. ThePremierof the Soviet Union, NikitaS. Khrushchev canceled theUS-Soviet Summit talksin Paris. This exacerbatedthe rivalry between thesuperpowers that continuedthroughout the decade.14 Tofurther fuel the Cold War,the strained relations withCuba were torn apart by aninternationalincident.Newly elected President

JohnF.KennedyinheritedtheBayofPigsinvasionauthorizedby President Dwight D. Eisenhower. American-Cuban exiles (Brigade 2506) were toinvadetheislandinthespringof 1961 and overthrow therevolutionary government ofFidelCastro.Theinvasiontookplaceon17Aprilatasitelocallyknown as Bahía de Cochinos [Bay of Pigs]. Although theinvasion force got ashore,air superiority had not beenestablishedandtheanticipatedpopularuprisingsagainst theregime did not occur. TheCuban Revolutionary Forces,personallydirectedbyCastro,launched airstrikes andvigorously counter-attacked.By 21 April, the remnants ofBrigade2506hadbeencapturedorkilled. PresidentKennedydidnotauthorizeU.S.militaryinterventiontoinsuresuccess.Some of the captured exiles,along with several hundredCubancitizens,wereexecutedfortheirrolesintheinvasion.

On21December1962,1,113survivorswererepatriatedtotheUnitedStatesfor$53milliondollarsworthoffoodandmedicine. The KennedyAdministrationwas severely

Vol. 4 No. 4 25

By 1961, Cuba had openly moved into the Soviet sphere, as Fidel Castro and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev show. The U.S. was determined not to allow another Socialist government in the Western Hemisphere.

President Kennedy and Premier

Khrushchev defused the Cuban Missile

Crisis. It was likely the closest that the world has come to

nuclear war.

On 13 August 1961, East Germany began to build the Berlin Wall to separate it from the West. It became a symbol of Communist oppression until torn down in late 1989.

President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, TX, on 22 November 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald. The death of the youthful and popular President shocked America.

embarrassedbythe“failurethat reverberated aroundtheworld”asoneBayofPigsveteranlaterdescribedit.15 TheBayofPigs insured

that the Soviet Unionwould have a satellitestate in the hemisphere.Fearing a falling “dominoeffect,” the United States,henceforth, did its best toprevent the further spreadof Communism in theregion.Tooffset the imagecausedbytheBayofPigs,PresidentKennedypushed the Alliance for Progress for LatinAmerica.Itwastobea10-yearefforttohelptheeconomiesandimprovelivingstandardsintheregion.U.S.officialsthoughtthatthiswouldreducetheconditionsforinsurgencythat allowed the Cuban revolution tosucceed.TensionsinEuropewereincreasedon13

August 1961, when the Soviet-dominatedEast German government began to erect awalltoisolateAllied-controlledWestBerlin.The number of defections to theWest hadbecome an embarrassment. The “Wall”becameasymbolofSovietoppressionuntilitwastorndownin1989.East-West tensions continued toescalateuntil 1962,when theycametoaheadintheWesternHemisphere.One of the most pivotal

eventsintheColdWar,havinghugerepercussionsworldwide,was the Cuban Missile Crisis.After the Bay of Pigs fiasco,the Soviets reinforced Cuba’sdefenses. Bomber and fighteraircraft, anti-aircraft weapons,and troops were provided torepel another U.S. invasion.16 On 14 October 1962, a U-2reconnaissance flight revealedthepresenceofnuclearmissilesin Cuba. The Soviet Unionhad positionedmedium rangeballistic missiles on the islandafter denying that it hadfurnished offensive weaponstoCuba. These Sovietnuclearweapons threatened the southeasternUnited States, theCaribbean, Mexico, Central America, and the northernSouthAmerican nations. PresidentKennedy could notignoretheSoviet’sblatantactofaggression.

Instead of conducting the air strikes and landinvasion recommended by the Joint Chiefs of Staff,PresidentKennedydecided that anaval “quarantine”toblockfurthermissilesfromgettingtoCubawasthe

best response.17 He thoughtthis plan would prevent theSoviets from countering withan invasion of West Berlin.TheOrganization ofAmericanStates (OAS) supported thequarantine and several LatinAmerican countries providedwarships for the blockade.These nations were aware that any missile on Cubacouldalsobedirectedatthem.Initially, the Soviet Union didnotbackdown.TheUnitedStatesalertedits

forcesforaninvasionofCubatophysicallyremovethemissiles.It was assumed that if thishappened, the Soviet Union,would conduct a retaliatoryattackelsewherewhichwouldcause a nuclear confrontation.U.S. reconnaissance flightscontinueduntilaU-2wasshotdown over Cuba. That wasmost likely the closest thattheworldhas ever come to afull-scale nuclear exchange.Fortunately, cooler heads ofstateprevailed.PremierKhrushchevagreed

to remove all missiles fromCuba. In return, the UnitedStates agreed that it wouldrespect Cuba’s sovereigntyand not allow another

invasion force to be based onU.S. soil.Secretly, theU.S.pledged to theSovietsthatitwouldremoveitsnuclearcapablemissilesfromTurkey. CubawasoustedfromtheOAS.But,solidaritywasshort-livedintheregion.While touring Dallas, Texas on 22

November 1963, President Kennedy wasshot and killed by Lee Harvey Oswald.AboardAir Force Onejusttwohourslater,Vice-President Lyndon B. Johnson wassworn in as the 36th President. Americawas in shock. Its popular and youthful

president had been assassinated. Most Americans stillrememberwhere theywere themoment theyheard thenews of PresidentKennedy’s death. An uncomfortableuneasinessdominatedthenationalpsycheastheUnited

26 Veritas

• May 1 - A Soviet missile shoots down an American Lockheed U2 spy plane; the pilot Francis Gary Powers is captured. U.S.-Soviet Summit meeting cancelled.

• November 8 - In a close race, John F. Kennedy defeats Richard M. Nixon to become the youngest (43) president.

1960

1961

• April 17 - The Bay of Pigs Invasion fails by April 19.

• May 4 - 13 Black and white student Freedom Riders from the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) leave Washington DC on 2 buses, to test mandated integration laws in bus stations in the deep South.

• August 13 - Construction of the Berlin Wall begins, restricting movement between East Berlin and West Berlin and forming a clear boundary between West Germany and East Germany, Western Europe and Eastern Europe.

1964

• June 21 - Three civil rights workers, Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, and James Chaney, are murdered near Philadelphia, Mississippi, by white supremacists.

• November 3 - U.S. presidential election, 1964: Incumbent U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson defeats Republican challenger Barry Goldwater garnering more than 60 percent of the popular vote.

• December 3 - Berkeley Free Speech Movement: Police arrest over 800 students at the University of California, Berkeley, following their takeover and massive sit-in at the administration building to protest the Regents' decision to forbid Vietnam War protests on university property.

1965

• March 7 - Bloody Sunday in Selma, Alabama: Some 200 Alabama State Troopers clash with 525 civil rights demonstrators.

• May 5 - The first draft card burnings take place at the University of California, Berkeley.

1966

• August 1 - Sniper Charles Whitman kills 13 people and wounds 31 from atop the University of Texas tower, after earlier killing his wife and mother.

1967

• July 15 - The Detroit race riots occur.

• August 28 - Martin Luther King, Jr. delivers "I Have A Dream" speech at the Lincoln Memorial to 250,000 during the “March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.”

1963

• November 22 - President John F. Kennedy assassinated in Dallas, Texas, and Texas Governor John B. Connally is seriously wounded. Vice President Lyndon Baines Johnson becomes the 36th President.

1962

• October 14 - Cuban Missile Crisis begins after a U-2 flight over Cuba reveals Soviet nuclear weapons being installed. A stand-off ensued to threatened the world with nuclear war.

• October 28 - The crisis ends when Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev announces that he has ordered the removal of Soviet missile bases in Cuba.

• October 22 - In a televised address, U.S. President John F. Kennedy tells the nation that Soviet missiles are in Cuba.

1960 -1967 United StatesTimeline by L. Goddard.

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One of the most popular forms of protest in the 1960s to the escalation of combat in Vietnam was to burn draft cards. Every male from the ages of 18 to 26 had to register for military service. Most male college students received deferments until their grades became substandard.

On 10 August 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, giving President Johnson the authority as Commander-in-Chief to use military force in Southeast Asia without a declaration of war. The number of U.S. servicemen in Vietnam was quickly increased.

Statesenteredthemid-1960s.OppositiontoanescalatingwarinVietnamaddedto

theuneaseinAmerica. InearlyAugust1964,twoU.S.NavyDestroyers, theUSSTurner Joy andUSSMaddox, wereallegedlyfireduponbyNorthVietnamesegunboatswhilepatrollinginternationalwatersoffVietnam.TheGulfofTonkinResolution,passedbyCongressjustdayslater,authorizedPresidentJohnsonastheCommander-in-ChieftoescalatemilitaryforceinVietnamwithoutaformaldeclarationofwar.18ThenumberofU.S.troopssenttoSouthVietnamcorrespondedwithincreasedgroundcombatuntilearly1968.Bythen,thereweremorethan400,000AmericanservicemenincountryandnumerousAlliedcontingents.TheVietnamWarwasbroughthometoAmericabynightlytelevisionnewscoverage.19AstheU.S.roleinthewarbecamemorecontentious,oppositiongrewasthenumbersofservicemeninvolvedescalated.Militaryservicefortwoyearswasthenormformen

from 18 to 26 years of age. Registration for the draftwasmandatory formaleson theireighteenthbirthday.This was not a popular war. Many American youthwere against the war. In 1965, draft card burningdemonstrations came into vogue as opposition to thewarbegantotearthecountry’sfabric.By1967,theanti-establishmentcounter-culturemovement—followerswhowere often called “hippies”—was gainingmomentum,rocking the country’s conservative roots. In manyrespects,theUnitedStatesgovernmentfacedaninternallow-level insurgency. The opposition included severaldomestic terrorist organizations. In the meantime,Cuban-sponsoredWars ofNational Liberation becamethemainthreatsinLatinAmerica.Washington was determined not to allow another

“Cuba”intheWesternHemispere.InApril1965,whenapopulistrevoltfollowedthecoupagainstleftistPresidentJuan Bosch of the Dominican Republic, PresidentJohnson reacted quickly. U.S. Marines and the 82nd AirborneDivision—supportedbyOAScontingentsfrom

Brazil,Honduras,Paraguay,Nicaragua,andCostaRica—invaded thecapitalofSantaDomingo to restoreorder.The intervention sent a signal to Latin America. TheU.S.governmentwouldnottolerateanotherCommunistcountry in thehemisphere. This isoneof the reasonswhySpecialForcesweresenttoBoliviain1967:toinsurethattherewouldnotbeanother“Cuba.”20The 1960s were a tumultuous period in American

history.ThepressuresofCivilRightsandracialequality,combinedwithincreasinglyviolentpoliticalradicalism,stretchedthefabricofAmericansociety.Overseas,theColdWarandthestruggletocontainthefurtherspreadof Communism dominated national policy. WhileAmerica was becoming polarized at home, it had topresent a strong front internationally. It was vitallyimportantfortheU.S.tobecomeabulwarkagainstthespread of Communist-inspired insurgencies in LatinAmerica. Theywere simply “too close to home” andposedathreattoafragileanddividedAmerica. 

Endnotes1 TerryH.Anderson,The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America From

Greensboro to Wounded Knee (NewYork,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1995),preface.

2 GeorgeB.TindallandDavidE.Shi,America: A Narrative History (NewYork,NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,1989),863.

3 James Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement (NewYork,NewYork:Plume,1986),2.

Troy J. Sacquety earned an MA from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln and his PhD in Military History from Texas A&M University. Prior to joining the USASOC History Office staff he worked several years for the Central Intelligence Agency. Current research interests include Army and Office of Strategic Services (OSS) special operations during World War II, and Special Operations Units in Vietnam.

28 Veritas

U.S. intervention in the Dominican

Republic in April 1965 showed Latin America

that Washington would permit no

more “Cubas” in the Western Hemisphere.

The 1964 Tonkin Gulf Resolution allowed President Johnson to increase the number of troops in Vietnam without a declaration of war. Opposition to the war increased in conjunction with the escalation.

4 “FreedomRides,” in theMartinLutherKing, Jr.,ResearchandEducationInstitute at Stanford University, http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/,accessed23October2008.

5 PaulJ.Scheips,The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic Disorders: 1945-1992(Washington,D.C.:CenterofMilitaryHistory,2005),121.;RichardW.Stewart, ed.,American Military History; Volume II; the United States Army in a Global Era, 1917-2003 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. ArmyCenter ofMilitaryHistory,2005),270.

6 Lyndon B. Johnson, A Time for Action: A Selection From the Speeches and Writings of Lyndon B. Johnson(NewYork,NewYork:AtheneumPublishers,1964), 127. For more on Johnson’s presidency, see Vaughn Davis Bornet,The Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson(Lawrence,Kansas:UniversityPressofKansas,1983).

7 MartinLutherKing,I Have a Dream,http://usinfo.state.gov/infousa/government/overview/38.html,accessed7November2008.

8 TindallandShi,America: A Narrative History,883.9 NellIrvinPainter,Creating Black Americans: African-American History and its

Meanings, 1619 to the Present (NewYork,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2006),284.

10 EricBennett,“WattsRiot,”inAfricana: The Encyclopedia of the African & African American Experience, Vol Five. (New York, New York: Oxford UniversityPress)ed.KwameAnthonyAppiahandHenryLouisGates,Jr.

11 RichardM.Nixon, “IfMobRulesTakesHold in theU.S.—aWarning fromRichardNixon,”U.S. News & World Report,15August1966,foundonlineathttp://www3.niu.edu/~td0raf1/history468/feb2105.htm, accessed 16 November2008.AlsofoundinWilliamDudley,Ed.,The 1960s Opposing Viewpoints(SanDiego,California:GreenhavenPress,1997),182-187.

12 Stokely Carmichael, “Black Power,” 1966 Berkeley, California, http://www.sojust.net/speeches/stokely_carmichael_blackpower.html,accessed13November2008.

13 WilliamDudley,Ed.,The 1960s Opposing Viewpoints(SanDiego,California:GreenhavenPress,1997),48.

14 FormoreontheU-2incident,seeMichaelR.Beschloss,May-Day: Eisenhower, Khrushchev and the U-2 Affair(NewYork,NewYork:Harper&Row,1986).

15 GraysonLynch,Decision for Disaster: Betrayal at the Bay of Pigs (WashingtonD.C.:Brassey’s,1998),xvi.

16 TheSovietUnionplanned toprovidefivenuclearmissile regiments, fourmotorized regiments, two cruise missile regiments, two tank battalions,aMiG-21fighterwing,42 Il-28 lightbombers, someanti-aircraftbatteries,andtwelveSA-2units(SAMs).Inall,thiswouldhavebeen50,874militarypersonnel.AleksandrFursenkoandTimothyNaftali,“One Hell of a Gamble”: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958-1964 (New York, New York: W.W.Norton,1997),188.

17 Roger Hilsman, To Move a Nation: The Politics of Foreign Policy in the Administration of John F. Kennedy (Garden City, New York: Doubleday &Company,1967),203.

18 Robert H. Ferrell,American Diplomacy: A History (New York, New York:W.W.Norton&Company,1975).808-809.

19 TindallandShi,America: A Narrative History,886.20 RobertL.Scheina,Latin America’s Wars: The Age of the Professional Soldier,

1900-2001; Volume Two (Washington,D.C.:Brassey’sInc,2003),276-277.

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