Social Science Contributions

Linda E. Kruger

PNW Research Station

400 N. 34th, Suite 201

Seattle WA 98103

Phone (206) 732-7832

Fax (206) 732-7801

lkruger@fs.fed.us

USDA Forest Service PNW Research StationUSDA Forest Service PNW Research Station

Social Science Contributions

The forest is what sustains life here in southeast. And in one respect or another, it all comes down to the forest whether you are a fisherman, a hunter, a tour guide, or a logger. Southeast is the [Tongass] National Forest, it is us, we are them.

Study Topics

Subsistence activitiesTraditional ecological knowledgeSocial acceptability of forest

managementTourism growth, trends, and issuesEffects of tourism on communities

Research Cited

Schroeder, R. and Mazza, R. A synthesis of recent subsistence work

Schroeder, R. and Mazza, R. Studies of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)

Burchfield, J.A., Miller, J.M., Allen, S., Schroeder, R., Miller, T. Social implications of alternatives to clearcutting on the Tongass National Forest

Research Cited

Schroeder, R., Cerveny, L. Robertson, G. Tourism growth in Southeast Alaska: trends, projections, and issues

Behnke, S. Tongass tourism: research needs and opportunities

Cerveny, L. Tourism perspectives in Haines, Craig, and Hoonah

Subsistence activities

R. Schroeder and R. Mazza

Subsistence

Subsistence activities have economic value, contribute to family and community relations, and are important to the survival of cultural and social traditions.

There is a higher dependence on subsistence resources in Alaska than in other parts of the country.

For many Alaskans participating in subsistence activities defines what being Alaskan is about.

Methods

Interviews in 1064 households in 24 communities between 1997 and 2001

Interviews conducted by ADF&G, Division of Subsistence and with area tribes and communities

Schroeder analyzed the data for trends, intercommunity differences, species dependency, and harvest concentrations

Findings

Subsistence provides a large portion of the diet of residents.

Per capita harvest levels have remained consistent from 1980 to present.

Subsistence levels vary across the region. High harvesting households take much more

than they can consume. There is a high reliance on marine resources.

Research Questions

How are pressures and opportunities of modern society affecting subsistence and the Alaska Natives’ relationship to the land and traditional resources?

What management strategies might be useful in protecting subsistence resources and activities?

Research Questions

How are subsistence resources and activities affected by changing biophysical systems and changing social systems?

How are changes such as regrowth in harvested areas affecting subsistence resources and activities?

What are the impacts of the growing tourism industry on subsistence resources and activities?

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

R. Schroeder and R. Mazza

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

“a cumulative body of knowledge, practice, and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living things (including humans) with one another and with their environment.” (Berkes 1999)

Research process

Document Native heritage and recognize traditional territories

Develop traditional territories as a cultural layer Establish research relationships with tribes Provide scientific expertise for projects

supported by the Forest Service and the Fisheries Information System of the Federal Subsistence Board

Findings

Tlingits share a worldview common among indigenous cultures. The notion of an overriding spirituality in the natural world continues to provide guidance for actions.

Tlingits have a system of clan and tribal property rights that provides a foundation for resource management and identification with place.

Findings

Clan membership and kinship influence interactions between people and natural resources.

Knowledge of location, timing, population strength, and other characteristics have important theoretical and practical implications.

Clan and tribal territory is central to Tlingit culture and society.

Research Needs

Document resource conditions and use--when, where, by whom, how much–to help build understanding of resource conditions over time and relations between resources and human use

Identify the ecological significance of key cultural sites associated with subsistence harvesting

Research Questions

Historically, how did Tlingits respond to Hubbard Glacier surges? How have past surges affected subsistence resources?

What can we learn about declining sockeye salmon systems by learning about historic use, possible causal events, remedial actions?

Timber harvesting practices and social acceptability

J. Burchfield, J. Miller, S. Allen, R. Schroeder, T. Miller

Timber harvesting practices and social acceptability

“People are more likely to find a practice acceptable if they can visualize how it will look,understand its effects on sustaining the natural characteristics of the surrounding forest, believe in the information they have received, feel that the practice will benefit the local community, and that they have had an opportunity to interact in the planning process.”(Shindler et al. 1996).

Research process

A series of 8 harvest treatments was completed at Hanus Bay in 1998

In 1998 and 1999, 27 respondents were interviewed to solicit their reactions to the treatments

Treatments

No harvest (100%) Even moderate thinning between unharvested clumps

(75%) Evenly spaced light thinning across the unit (75%) Full harvest of small clumps across the unit (75%) Full harvest of small clumps with thinning on remainder

(25%) Full harvest will small clumps unharvested (25%) Even heavy thinning (25%) Clearcut (0%)

Groups included in study

  managers of logging/timber companies   logging and timber laborers   conservationists/environmentalists   Alaskan Natives active in subsistence   active hunters commercial fishers tourist industry operators sport fishers recreational users

Research process

A posterboard displaying the estimated consequences of each harvest treatment was used to help respondents think about each treatment

Arial photos of each treatment were also provided

Estimated consequences

Fish productivity Deer productivity Timber yield Biodiversity Residual stand

damage Visual appearance

Findings

Responses differed based on individual preference.

Each area of possible consequence was important.

Respondents considered visual appearance and tradeoffs involving effects on ecosystems and human communities.

Findings

The no-harvest alternative scored highest of all the options.

Those with direct ties to the timber industry preferred the clearcut alternative.

Other respondents preferred 75 % retention over 25% or the clearcut alternative.

Discussion

Acceptability was tied to three elements: a) balance of positive effects; b) sustaining natural conditions; and c) thoroughly considering contextual attributes.

Sustaining benefits to rural communities and subsistence lifestyles was also important.

Balance

Respondents evaluated the balance of effects on all six areas of consequences.

Under the 25% retention alternative impacts to visual appearance, possible erosion, residual stand damage, impacts on deer and fish productivity, and potential for blowdowns outweighed the benefits of extra timber volume.

Naturalness

The natural environment is important to the quality of life in southeast Alaska.

People define “natural” in many different ways. How they define natural affects how they judge harvest treatments.

Harvest of small clumps appeared unnatural to many; others equated clearcuts with blowdowns and found them acceptable.

Contextual elements

Location and extent of harvest operation—adjacent land use, cumulative effects, potential for ecological deterioration, economic feasibility, effect on ecological processes, spatial and temporal dimensions

Link between harvest and community well-being and lifestyles—site specific meanings and significance, community vitality and economic diversity

Conclusions

Visual appearance and effects on ecosystems and human communities are important considerations in evaluating acceptability of forest practices.

Respondents favored lower levels of harvest with minimal disturbance to other resources.

The study demonstrates both the complexity and sophistication of people’s evaluation of forest management activity.

Research Needs

Further work is needed to address the usefulness of different decisionmaking frameworks, formats, and processes, the role of science, the explication of risks, and the design of a systems approach that incorporates social, cultural, economic, and biophysical concerns and issues.

Tourism growth, trends, and issues

R. Schroeder, L. Cerveny, and G. Robertson

S. Behnke

Tourism growth, trends, and issues

Tourism is one of the largest and fastest growing industries in the world.

Alaska is one of the top tourist destinations. Tourism is growing in importance in relation to

logging, fishing, and government. In Juneau 7 times more visitors arrived by

cruise ship in 2000 as did in the early 80s.

Characteristics of Alaska tourism

The most important tourism resources are public resources held in common.

The places that support tourism are home to Alaskans.

Alaskans recreate along side visitors. Tourism is location specific. There is no one entity to manage and direct

tourism growth.

Key visitor activities

Helicopter touring to the Juneau Icefield has become one of the most popular attractions with over 85,000 people taking helicopter flights, interpretive walks, dog sled rides, and trying out ice climbing in 1999.

Key visitor activities

Most visitors are interested in seeing wildlife—especially bears and whales.

Key visitor activities

Sport fishing is also a popular activity. In 1998 non-residents caught 1.6 times the number of king salmon taken by residents.

Key visitor activities

Visitors also participate in freshwater fishing, biking, hiking, river rafting, sea kayaking, and canoeing

Effects of tourism on communities

Many residents have concerns about community impacts

Tourism related impacts include helicopter noise, commercial use and crowding of public trails and facilities, control of businesses by out-of-town interests

Interference with commercial fishing, subsistence and local recreation

Tourism growth

Tourism has grown at a compounding rate of over 10 percent per year over the past 20 years.

Projections

Schroeder et al. estimate a rate of growth of between 8.5 and 10.5 percent over the next ten years.

This means current numbers could double in less than 8 years.

An estimated 20 percent of cruise ship passengers will return as independent travelers or on package tours.

Tourism issues and questions

What determines acceptable capacity for a community?

What facilities are needed and where? How, where, and what kinds of tourism growth

should be encouraged? Discouraged?

Research Needs

What are the relations among tourism, recreation, subsistence, commercial fishing, and other uses of public lands and waters?

How are recreation and subsistence activities changing in response to tourism pressures?

What opportunities are there to meet the growing demand for wildlife viewing?

How does forest management affect tourism?

Research Needs

Should tourist activities be concentrated or disbursed?

Should the forest be zoned by activity? Should National Forest land be leased for

commercial development? How should priorities for maintenance or

expansion be determined?

Research Needs

How can effects on subsistence be minimized? How can tourism be managed so that the well-

being and quality of life is maintained in communities?

How can quality recreation and tourism experiences be maintained?

Research Needs

What is the Forest Service’s role in tourism? What types of tourism should the agency

encourage, accommodate, restrict, or prohibit, where and for what reasons?

Should non-commercial zones be created or should commercial activities be allowed across the forest?

Effects of tourism on three communities

Lee Cerveny

Tourism in Southeast Alaska

Communities are changing. Tourism is a cause and an effect of change. Sentiment in most communities is mixed.

Residents like the economic contribution to the economy and don’t like the associated impacts.

Stage Features Examples

No Organized Tourism

    No basic accommodations        No established eateries         No or minimal guest facilities

Tenakee Springs, Hydaburg, Hollis, Edna Bay, Klukwan, Meyer’s Chuck, Angoon

Early Signs

Of Tourism

 

    Basic accommodations and eating facilities for independent travelers;    Basic tourism infrastructure;   

Low visitor volume;    Low diversity of activities.

Hoonah, Pelican, Klawock, Thorne Bay, Coffman Cove, Naukati

Specialized Tourism

   Few accommodations for independent travelers;   Self-contained facilities (e.g., wilderness or fishing lodge);   Guided/packaged programs.

Fishing: Elfin Cove, Waterfall, Port Alexander, Yakutat, Point Baker  Cultural: Saxman, Kake

Developed Tourism 

   Full range of accommodations, eateries & guest services;    Developed infrastructure;   Moderate visitor volume;   Moderately diversified tourism activities;

Wrangell, Petersburg, Craig, Gustavus

Mass Tourism(cruise ships)

                  Full range of accommodations & guest services;                  Developed infrastructure;                  High visitor volume;                  Highly diversified tourism activities.

Juneau, Ketchican, Skagway, Sitka, Haines

 

Methods

Haines, Craig, and Hoonah were selected for study.

The three communities share a similar economic history but are experiencing different types and levels of tourism.

Haines

Haines hosted over 187,000 visitors in 2000.

Cruise Ship, Haines Harbor

Craig

Craig is in the middle stages of tourism development with fewer than 10,000 visitors each year.

Craig Harbor, South Cove

Hoonah

Hoonah had fewer than 2500 visitors in 2000. Huna Totem is planning to renovate the cannery for cruise ship visits

View of Hoonah

Pt. Sophia Cannery, Hoonah

Methods

In 2000 and 2001 Cerveny conducted between 60-75 interviews in each community.

People with leadership roles in community organizations, local governments, and clans as well as business owners and people in the tourism industry were interviewed.

The goal was to ensure that all neighborhoods, ethnic groups, and major viewpoints were represented.

Findings

Positive economic effect Fishbowl effect Fear of impacts on wildlife and subsistence

resources Desire to maintain rural lifestyle and sense of

community, community character Fear of loss of local control

Conclusions

Tourism assumes many forms Tourism leads to growth in jobs, business, and

income to the community As tourism expands encounters between

residents and tourists increase Tourism represents a real potential for social

change

Conclusions

Tourism causes Alaskans to think about the natural resources they value

The presence of visitors causes Alaskans to think about what it means to be Alaskan

Further research questions

How can tourism growth be accommodated while maintaining local lifestyles, community character, and the natural resources so important to Alaska residents?

Closing remarks

“Ecological awareness will arise only when we combine our rational knowledge with an intuition for the nonlinear nature of our environment. Such intuitive wisdom is characteristic of traditional, nonliterate cultures, especially of American Indian cultures, in which life was organized around a highly refined awareness of the environment.” (Capra 1982)

Our challenge

How can we work together to increase our ability to combine our rational knowledge and the intuitive wisdom that Capra speaks of as we strive to increase our ecological awareness and our understanding of the interrelations between human systems and the greater biophysical systems of which we are a part?