Social Research Methods: Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches, 5eApproaches, 5e

Chapter 10: Survey ResearchChapter 10: Survey Research

IntroductionIntroduction Logic of Survey Research.Logic of Survey Research.Constructing the Questionnaire.Constructing the Questionnaire.Types of Surveys: Advantages and Types of Surveys: Advantages and Disadvantages.Disadvantages.Interviewing.Interviewing.Ethical SurveyEthical SurveyConclusionConclusion

IntroductionIntroduction

What is a survey?What is a survey? A form of quantitative research in which the A form of quantitative research in which the

researcher:researcher: Develops a questionnaireDevelops a questionnaire

A set of questions designed to measure one or A set of questions designed to measure one or more variablesmore variables

Administers the questionnaire to a sampleAdministers the questionnaire to a sampleUnit of analysis – most often individual, but can be Unit of analysis – most often individual, but can be family, organization, etcfamily, organization, etc

Records and analyzes the responsesRecords and analyzes the responses

Surveys areSurveys are

The most widely used data gathering The most widely used data gathering technique in sociologytechnique in sociology

Used in many fieldsUsed in many fields

Research Questions Appropriate Research Questions Appropriate for a Surveyfor a Survey

Behavior Behavior How frequently do you or someone else do How frequently do you or someone else do something? something? When is the last time you or someone else When is the last time you or someone else did something?did something?Attitudes and opinionsAttitudes and opinions What kind of job is someone doing? What kind of job is someone doing? What is the biggest problem in this What is the biggest problem in this community?community?CharacteristicsCharacteristics Are you married? Are you married? What is your age?What is your age?

Questions continued…Questions continued…Expectations Expectations Do you plan to do something within the next Do you plan to do something within the next year? year? What will change?What will change?

Self-classificationsSelf-classifications Do you consider yourself liberal? Do you consider yourself liberal? Are you more rural or urban?Are you more rural or urban?

Knowledge Knowledge What is the population of this community?What is the population of this community?

History of Survey ResearchHistory of Survey Research

Based on ancient census, e.g. Domesday Book Based on ancient census, e.g. Domesday Book in England 1085-6in England 1085-6 For taxation, political representationFor taxation, political representation

United States: research on urban poverty mid-United States: research on urban poverty mid-1919thth century, no scientific sampling or statistics century, no scientific sampling or statisticsSocial surveys: 1890s to 1930s – qualitative and Social surveys: 1890s to 1930s – qualitative and quantitative survey research on communities – quantitative survey research on communities – now would be called ‘action-oriented community now would be called ‘action-oriented community survey’ oriented toward social reformsurvey’ oriented toward social reformBy mid-1940s, eclipsed by modern quantitative By mid-1940s, eclipsed by modern quantitative surveysurvey

The modern quantitative survey – The modern quantitative survey – factors in its rise to dominance:factors in its rise to dominance:

Addition of scientific sampling and precise Addition of scientific sampling and precise measurement techniques, after Literary Digest measurement techniques, after Literary Digest casecaseResearchers developed scales and indexesResearchers developed scales and indexesIncreasing use of surveys in other fields – Increasing use of surveys in other fields – market research, journalism, government, market research, journalism, government, private non-profits private non-profits ‘‘Professionalization’ of social science – shift Professionalization’ of social science – shift from non-academics seeking to solve social from non-academics seeking to solve social problems – often at local level – to positivist problems – often at local level – to positivist model, based on natural sciencesmodel, based on natural sciences

Factors leading to professionalization of social Factors leading to professionalization of social sciences and rise of survey researchsciences and rise of survey research

Competition among researchers and Competition among researchers and universities for funding and prestigeuniversities for funding and prestige

Researchers turned away from reform ideals Researchers turned away from reform ideals after the end of the Progressive Era (1895-1915)after the end of the Progressive Era (1895-1915)

Major foundations – Carnegie, Rockefeller, Major foundations – Carnegie, Rockefeller, Sage – poured money into quantitative positivist Sage – poured money into quantitative positivist researchresearch

History, continuedHistory, continued

WWII – great government use of surveysWWII – great government use of surveys

Post-war: shift to universities and other Post-war: shift to universities and other settings. Major growth due to:settings. Major growth due to: ComputersComputers New survey research centersNew survey research centers Creation of data archivesCreation of data archives Funding – especially by federal governmentFunding – especially by federal government Improved methodologyImproved methodology

Survey Research TodaySurvey Research Today

Survey research ‘industry’ employs more Survey research ‘industry’ employs more than 60,000 people in U.S. alone, than 60,000 people in U.S. alone, including 6,000 full-time professionalsincluding 6,000 full-time professionals

Surveys are used in Surveys are used in Basic researchBasic research Applied researchApplied research

Chapter 10: Survey ResearchChapter 10: Survey Research

Introduction Introduction

Logic of Survey Research.Logic of Survey Research.Constructing the Questionnaire.Constructing the Questionnaire.Types of Surveys: Advantages and Types of Surveys: Advantages and Disadvantages.Disadvantages.Interviewing.Interviewing.Ethical SurveyEthical SurveyConclusionConclusion

Steps in Conducting a SurveySteps in Conducting a Survey

Surveys follow a deductive processSurveys follow a deductive process

Begin with theoretical or applied research Begin with theoretical or applied research problem(s) or question(s)problem(s) or question(s)

See specific steps in figure 10.1, page 268See specific steps in figure 10.1, page 268

Chapter 10: Survey ResearchChapter 10: Survey Research

Introduction Introduction Logic of Survey Research.Logic of Survey Research.

Constructing the Questionnaire.Constructing the Questionnaire.Types of Surveys: Advantages and Types of Surveys: Advantages and Disadvantages.Disadvantages.Interviewing.Interviewing.Ethical SurveyEthical SurveyConclusionConclusion

Principles of Good Question WritingPrinciples of Good Question Writing

A good questionnaire forms an integrated wholeA good questionnaire forms an integrated whole Introductory remarks and instructionsIntroductory remarks and instructions Measure each variable with one or more questionsMeasure each variable with one or more questions Questions flow smoothlyQuestions flow smoothly

Dilemma:Dilemma: Each respondent should hear the same question, butEach respondent should hear the same question, but Respondents have different backgrounds and frames Respondents have different backgrounds and frames

of reference, so the same wording may not have the of reference, so the same wording may not have the same meaning to different peoplesame meaning to different people

So, question writing is as much an art as a scienceSo, question writing is as much an art as a science

Writing QuestionsWriting Questions

Avoid using jargon, slang, or Avoid using jargon, slang, or abbreviations.abbreviations.

Avoid ambiguity, confusion, and Avoid ambiguity, confusion, and vagueness.vagueness.

Avoid emotional language and prestige Avoid emotional language and prestige bias.bias.

Avoid double-barreled questions.Avoid double-barreled questions.

Writing questions continued…Writing questions continued…

Avoid leading questions.Avoid leading questions.Avoid asking difficult questions.Avoid asking difficult questions.Avoid false premises.Avoid false premises.Avoid asking about future intentions.Avoid asking about future intentions.Avoid double negatives.Avoid double negatives.Avoid overlapping or unbalanced response Avoid overlapping or unbalanced response categories.categories.

Aiding Respondent RecallAiding Respondent Recall

Memory is less trustworthy than social Memory is less trustworthy than social scientists once assumedscientists once assumed

Need to customize questions and interpret Need to customize questions and interpret results cautiously results cautiously

Provide respondents with special Provide respondents with special instructions and extra thinking timeinstructions and extra thinking time

Types of Questions and Response Types of Questions and Response CategoriesCategories

Threatening (to self-image, etc.) questions Threatening (to self-image, etc.) questions can be mitigated bycan be mitigated by ‘‘enhanced’ wordingenhanced’ wording Gender of researcherGender of researcher AnonymityAnonymity

Knowledge questionsKnowledge questions Pilot test questionsPilot test questions Sleeper questionsSleeper questions

Types of Questions and Response Types of Questions and Response Categories, continuedCategories, continued

Skip or contingency questionsSkip or contingency questions

Open vs. Closed questionsOpen vs. Closed questions See box 10.2, page 278 – advantages and See box 10.2, page 278 – advantages and

disadvantages of eachdisadvantages of each

Agree/Disagree, Rankings or Ratings?Agree/Disagree, Rankings or Ratings?

Wording IssuesWording Issues

Questionnaire Design IssuesQuestionnaire Design Issues

Instrument length.Instrument length.

The order or sequence of the questions.The order or sequence of the questions. Order effectsOrder effects Context effectsContext effects

Format and LayoutFormat and Layout

Non-response, refusals.Non-response, refusals.

Response rateResponse rate See box 10.6, page 287See box 10.6, page 287

Chapter 10: Survey ResearchChapter 10: Survey Research

Introduction Introduction Logic of Survey Research.Logic of Survey Research.Constructing the Questionnaire.Constructing the Questionnaire.

Types of Surveys: Advantages and Types of Surveys: Advantages and DisadvantagesDisadvantages..

Interviewing.Interviewing.Ethical SurveyEthical SurveyConclusionConclusion

Types of Surveys: Advantages and Types of Surveys: Advantages and DisadvantagesDisadvantages

See Table 10.4, page 290See Table 10.4, page 290

Chapter 10: Survey ResearchChapter 10: Survey Research

Introduction Introduction Logic of Survey Research.Logic of Survey Research.Constructing the Questionnaire.Constructing the Questionnaire.Types of Surveys: Advantages and Types of Surveys: Advantages and Disadvantages.Disadvantages.

Interviewing.Interviewing.Ethical SurveyEthical SurveyConclusionConclusion

Interviewing – the Survey InterviewInterviewing – the Survey Interview

The survey research interview is:The survey research interview is: A special kind of interviewingA special kind of interviewing A social relationshipA social relationship

Role of the interviewerRole of the interviewer Gain cooperation, build rapport, butGain cooperation, build rapport, but Remain neutral, unbiased, nonjudgmentalRemain neutral, unbiased, nonjudgmental

““Stages” – see 294-295 for specific techniquesStages” – see 294-295 for specific techniques

Training InterviewersTraining Interviewers

Interviewer BiasInterviewer Bias

Cultural Meanings and Survey InterviewsCultural Meanings and Survey Interviews

Feminist Approaches to Interviewing Feminist Approaches to Interviewing (Contrast with Positivist)(Contrast with Positivist)

See box 10.11, p. 299See box 10.11, p. 299

Computer Assisted Telephone Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (Interviewing (CATICATI) and Web-Surveys) and Web-Surveys CATICATI

Interviewers read questions from a computer screen and input Interviewers read questions from a computer screen and input responsesresponses

Speeds interviewing and decreases interviewer errors. Speeds interviewing and decreases interviewer errors. Well suited to contingency questionsWell suited to contingency questions elemarketers are making this technique problematic as respondents elemarketers are making this technique problematic as respondents

have become suspicious of survey callers.have become suspicious of survey callers.

Web-SurveysWeb-Surveys Promising in terms of cost Promising in terms of cost Can have high rates of coverage error in terms of who really completes Can have high rates of coverage error in terms of who really completes

the instrumentthe instrument Many people still lack access to the internet.Many people still lack access to the internet.

The Ethical SurveyThe Ethical Survey

Key issuesKey issues Privacy Privacy Voluntary participationVoluntary participation Pseudosurveys Pseudosurveys

““suppression polls”suppression polls”

““push polls”push polls” Misuse of surveysMisuse of surveys Uncritical reporting of bad surveysUncritical reporting of bad surveys