social perspectives on gender © 2005, john b. pryor illinois state university
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Social Perspectives on Gender
© 2005, John B. Pryor
Illinois State University
Gender Stereotypes Broverman et a. (1972)
Competency clusterCompetency cluster::
aggressive, direct, aggressive, direct, independent, active, independent, active, not emotional, not emotional, objective, worldly, objective, worldly, logical, dominant, logical, dominant, acts as a leader, acts as a leader, never criesnever cries
warmth-warmth-expressiveness expressiveness cluster:cluster:
gentle, tactful, quite, gentle, tactful, quite, religious, neat, religious, neat, aware of others’ aware of others’ feelings, easily feelings, easily expresses tender expresses tender feelings, enjoys art & feelings, enjoys art & literature, need for literature, need for securitysecurity
Describe a healthy, mature, sociallly competent
a) male, b) female, or c) adult (sex unspecified)
Healthy women are Healthy women are expected to be expected to be less:less:
independentindependent adventurousadventurous aggressiveaggressive competitivecompetitive
Healthy women are Healthy women are expected to be expected to be more:more:
submissivesubmissive easily influencedeasily influenced excitable in minor excitable in minor
crisescrises conceited about conceited about
their appearancetheir appearance
from Broverman, et al.
Consequences of stereotypes
at work Ideal managers are described as more male-like
(women no longer believe this in the U.S.) Stereotypes of people who earn more money involve
strong increases in positive male qualities (e.g., independence) moderate increases in negative male qualities (e.g., aggressiveness) and overall decreases in female qualities
Employees question the competency of female managers
Female leaders receive more negative non-verbal cues from groups members than men
Leadership Styles of Women and MenFrom Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Engen (2003)
•Women are more likely than men to be TRANFORMATIONAL LEADERS
-Transformational leaders communicate values, purpose,and importance of organization’s mission-Transformational leaders exhibit optimism & excitementabout goals-Transformational leaders examine new perspectives forsolving problems-Transformational leaders focus on the development andmentoring of followers
•Men are more likely than women to be TRANSACTIONAL or LAISSEZ-FARE LEADERS
Women's Earning in the US as a Percent of Men's Earnings
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
195119531955195719591961196319651967196919711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003
Year
Percent
Gender Wage Gap Comparing USA to Selected European Countries
75.578 78 79 79 81 81 82 83
86 86 87 88 89 9195
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
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80
90
100
United States
Ireland
United Kingdom
Austria
Netherlands
FinlandGermany
Luxembourg
SwedenDenmarkSpain Greece FranceBelgium
ItalyPortugal
countries
percent
Reasons women expect lower salaries
Women expect to take more time off work (e.g. for child rearing)
Women place less importance on job outcomes than men
Women earn less in reality Women have lower self-confidence
in many achievement situations
Stereotypes are maintained even
when the evidence is conflicting.
Research by Deaux
Weiner’s Taxonomy
LUCK
TASKDIFFICULTY
ABILITY
EFFORT
EXTERNALINTERNAL
TEMPORARY
STABLE
ATTRIBUTIONS ABOUTPERFORMANCE
Why do womenfail?Why do women succeed?Why do menfail?Why do mensucceed?
“He’s skilled, she’s lucky”Swim & Sanna, 1996
Women generally do not score as high as men on
standardizedtests of math and
science competence.Why?
The Performance of Women on Masculine-Tasks is Influenced by
Stereotype Threat Stereotype Threat is being concerned about a
negative stereotype of your group. For example, women might be concerned about the stereotype that women are inferior in math.
This concern can lead to distress and distraction when stereotypes are thought to be relevant to performance
This distress can interfere with performance Some women are more conscious of group
membership (I.e., being a woman) than others
Schmader (2003)
Male & Female college students selected who scored 500-700 on quantitative part of SAT
Measured Collective Self-Esteem: e.g., “Being a woman/man is an important part of my self-image.”
Participants told either that their scores on a test would be compared to other students or that males and females would be compared--Gender Relevance Manipulation
Participants took math section of GRE
Gender Identification as a Moderator of Gender Identity Relevance Effects on Women's and Men's Math Performance (Schmader,
0
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Men Women Men Women
Gender Identity Not Relevant Gender Identity Relevant
Math Test Performance
Low IdentifiedHigh Identified
Only significantMale/femaledifference
What are the actual gender differences in social behavior?
Eagly & Wood (1991)Nine sex differences in adults observed
across many studies:
1. Women are better at sending and receiving messages nonverbally.
2. Women conform to group pressure more than men.
3. Women act more friendly and agree more with other group members in small groups.
Eagly & Wood (1991)4. Men are more strictly task-oriented in
work groups.
5. All female groups typically perform better than all male groups.
6. Men are more likely to emerge as leaders in initially leaderless groups.
Eagly & Wood (1991)7. Men are more helpful in short-term
interactions with strangers.
8. Men behave more aggressively to others than women, particularly when the aggression brings about physical harm or pain.
9. Women report more life satisfaction and happiness than men.
Why do women
and men differ in
theirsocial
behaviors?
Three types of explanations of sex differences (Wood & Eagly,
2002)
Social constructionism - e.g., Eagly’s Social-Role Theory - sex differences are the products of arbitrary socialization experiences
Evolutionary psychology - sex differences are “hard-wired” - the results of evolutionary pressures
Biosocial theory - sex differences are emergent from biological differences (e.g., male size & female capacity to bear children), developmental experiences (e.g., socialization), and cultural factors
Analyses from 185 societies show male/female divisions of labor
Percent of male participation
Predominantly masculine activities: Hunting large land fauna (99.3%)
Quasi-masculine activities:House building (77.4%)
Swing activities:Care of small animals (35.9%)
Quasi-feminine activities:Cooking (8%)
Eagly’s Social-Role Theory ofsex differences in social behavior
Gender-RoleExpectations
Division of LaborBetween the Sexes
Sex-TypedSkills & Beliefs
Sex Differencesin Social Behavior
Analyses from 185 societies show male/female divisions of labor
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