social learning in children and chimpanzees. social learning mechanisms mimicking: learner copies...

Social learning in Social learning in children and children and chimpanzeeschimpanzees

Social learning mechanismsSocial learning mechanisms mimickingmimicking: learner copies actions with no : learner copies actions with no

understanding of underlying goalsunderstanding of underlying goals

emulationemulation: learner achieves same end result : learner achieves same end result using his own actionsusing his own actions

goal emulationgoal emulation: learner achieves intended goal : learner achieves intended goal of demonstrator using his own actionsof demonstrator using his own actions

imitative learningimitative learning: learner copies the : learner copies the demonstrator’s actions in order to achieve the demonstrator’s actions in order to achieve the same goal same goal

(Tomasello, 1990; Whiten & Ham, 1992)(Tomasello, 1990; Whiten & Ham, 1992)

Social learning mechanismsSocial learning mechanisms mimickingmimicking: learner copies : learner copies actionsactions with no with no

understanding of underlying understanding of underlying goalsgoals

emulationemulation: learner achieves same end : learner achieves same end resultresult using his own using his own actionsactions

goal emulationgoal emulation: learner achieves intended : learner achieves intended goalgoal of demonstrator using his own of demonstrator using his own actionsactions

imitative learningimitative learning: learner copies the : learner copies the demonstrator’s demonstrator’s actionsactions in order to achieve the in order to achieve the same same goalgoal

(Tomasello, 1990; Whiten & Ham, 1992)(Tomasello, 1990; Whiten & Ham, 1992)

results

actions

goals

Cole & Cole, 1996

Call & Carpenter (2002)Call & Carpenter (2002)

Three independent sources of information:Three independent sources of information:

RESULTACTION

action: demonstrator’s body movementsresult: changes in the environment

Call & Carpenter (2002)Call & Carpenter (2002)


RESULTACTION

goal: demonstrator’s aimaction: demonstrator’s body movementsresult: changes in the environment

GOAL

GOALS ACTIONS

RESULTS

Imitativelearning

Emulation

Goalemulation Mimicry

Stimulusenhancement

Imitation in infantsImitation in infants

• Development

• The question of what to imitate

• Factors influencing infant imitation

Neonatal imitationNeonatal imitation

from Meltzoff & Moore (1977)

Infants as young as 42 minutes old copy several Infants as young as 42 minutes old copy several facial actions facial actions (e.g., Meltzoff & Moore, 1977).(e.g., Meltzoff & Moore, 1977).

These infants cannot see (and have never seen) These infants cannot see (and have never seen) their own face, and do not have much their own face, and do not have much experience with others’ faces, but they match experience with others’ faces, but they match others’ actions.others’ actions.

Meltzoff and Moore claim that infants do this Meltzoff and Moore claim that infants do this using an innate using an innate active intermodal mappingactive intermodal mapping (AIM)(AIM) system (i.e., they match their own system (i.e., they match their own feltfelt activity to the activity to the seenseen behavior of the other). They behavior of the other). They further claim that this system explains the further claim that this system explains the emergence of understanding of others’ minds.emergence of understanding of others’ minds.

Neonatal imitationNeonatal imitation

ImitationImitationIntrinsic connection between observed and Intrinsic connection between observed and

executed acts, as manifest by newborn imitation.executed acts, as manifest by newborn imitation.

↓↓

First-person experienceFirst-person experienceInfants experience the regular relationship Infants experience the regular relationship

between their own acts and underlying mental between their own acts and underlying mental states.states.

↓↓

Understanding other mindsUnderstanding other mindsOthers who act “like me” have internal states “like Others who act “like me” have internal states “like

me.”me.”from Meltzoff (2005)

But…But… only about 50% of infants do itonly about 50% of infants do it

it is difficult to elicit, and the most it is difficult to elicit, and the most convincing evidence is for a single convincing evidence is for a single action, tongue protrusion action, tongue protrusion (Anisfeld, 1996, (Anisfeld, 1996, 2005)2005) could be due to arousal could be due to arousal

similar responses are seen to nonsocial similar responses are seen to nonsocial stimuli, e.g., lights or music stimuli, e.g., lights or music could be could be exploratory response exploratory response (Jones, 1996, 2006)(Jones, 1996, 2006)

and…and…

Neonatal imitationNeonatal imitation- ?

from Myowa-Yamakoshi, Tomonaga, Tanaka, & Matsuzawa (2004)

Chimpanzees do it too, and they may not have the same understanding of others’ minds.

Overview of development and Overview of development and patterns of imitationpatterns of imitation

Some reports of imitation in 6- and 9-month-old Some reports of imitation in 6- and 9-month-old infants; more beginning at 12 monthsinfants; more beginning at 12 months

General findings: General findings: typically-developing childrentypically-developing children usually copy the usually copy the

way others do things (their actions along with their way others do things (their actions along with their results)results)

apesapes usually reproduce the result using their own usually reproduce the result using their own actionsactions

children with autismchildren with autism may copy only some aspects may copy only some aspects of actionsof actions

But this is not the entire story…But this is not the entire story…


• Development



Bushnell (1998, submitted)Bushnell (1998, submitted)

pet catpet cat insert insert tapetape

scratch scratch headhead

knock knock over over

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push push ‘play’ ‘play’ buttonbutton

music music startsstarts

Demonstration





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Demonstration

• like the ‘problem of reference’ in language like the ‘problem of reference’ in language acquisition acquisition (another type of imitation):(another type of imitation):

When watching a demonstration, how do When watching a demonstration, how do you know which of the many possible you know which of the many possible aspects of it should be copied?aspects of it should be copied?





blocksblocks



Demonstration

• like the ‘problem of reference’ in language like the ‘problem of reference’ in language acquisition acquisition (another type of imitation):(another type of imitation):

When watching a demonstration, how do When watching a demonstration, how do you know which of the many possible you know which of the many possible aspects of it should be copied?aspects of it should be copied?

X X X


• Development



Three main (social-cognitive) factors Three main (social-cognitive) factors determine which aspects of a determine which aspects of a demonstration infants will choose to demonstration infants will choose to copy:copy:

1)1) infants’ understanding of others’ infants’ understanding of others’ goals and goals and intentionsintentions

2)2) infants’ understanding of others’ infants’ understanding of others’ communicative intentionscommunicative intentions

3)3) infants’ infants’ ownown social versus instrumental social versus instrumental goalsgoals

Carpenter (2006)Carpenter (2006)





(e.g., Tomasello, Kruger, & Ratner, 1993)


Meltzoff (1995)Meltzoff (1995)

18-month-olds watched as 18-month-olds watched as E either successfully E either successfully achieved some result or else achieved some result or else tried but failed to achieve tried but failed to achieve the result. the result.

Infants in both of those Infants in both of those conditions completed the conditions completed the result.result.

15-month-olds but not 12-15-month-olds but not 12-month-olds show the same month-olds show the same pattern of results. pattern of results. (Bellagamba (Bellagamba & Tomasello, 1999; Johnson, Booth, & & Tomasello, 1999; Johnson, Booth, & O’Hearn, 2001) O’Hearn, 2001) – But maybe 12-– But maybe 12-month-olds toomonth-olds too (Nielsen & Kennedy, (Nielsen & Kennedy, 2006)2006)

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Target (fulldemo)

Intention(failed

attempt)

ManipulationControl

Baseline

Some of the same studies with three 2- to 4-Some of the same studies with three 2- to 4-year-old, year-old, nursery-rearednursery-reared chimpanzees chimpanzees (Tomasello & Carpenter, 2005)(Tomasello & Carpenter, 2005)

Tomasello & Carpenter (2005)Tomasello & Carpenter (2005)based on Meltzoff (1995)based on Meltzoff (1995)

Chimpanzees also Chimpanzees also completed the result completed the result in the failed attempt in the failed attempt condition.condition.

Two similar studies Two similar studies with mother-reared with mother-reared chimpanzees found chimpanzees found similar results but similar results but had problems with had problems with too low or too high too low or too high levels of responding levels of responding (Call, Carpenter, & (Call, Carpenter, & Tomasello, 2005; Myowa-Tomasello, 2005; Myowa-Yamakoshi & Yamakoshi & Matsuzawa, 2000).Matsuzawa, 2000).

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Target (full demo) Intention (failedattempt)

ManipulationControl

Call, Carpenter, & Tomasello Call, Carpenter, & Tomasello (2005)(2005)

Carpenter, Akhtar, & Tomasello (1998)Carpenter, Akhtar, & Tomasello (1998)

14- to 18-month-olds 14- to 18-month-olds watched as E watched as E performed two actions, performed two actions, one accidentally one accidentally (“whoops!”) and one (“whoops!”) and one intentionally (“there!”). intentionally (“there!”).

Infants copied more Infants copied more intentional than intentional than accidental actions.accidental actions.

Tomasello & Carpenter (2005)Tomasello & Carpenter (2005)based on Carpenter, Akhtar, & Tomasello (1998)based on Carpenter, Akhtar, & Tomasello (1998)

These chimpanzees also These chimpanzees also copied more intentional copied more intentional than accidental actions.than accidental actions.

(no published studies of (no published studies of this in children with autism this in children with autism yet)yet)

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I Only A Only AI IA

*

Some advantages to using goals Some advantages to using goals over actions and resultsover actions and results

can filter out accidental, irrelevant, or unsuccessful can filter out accidental, irrelevant, or unsuccessful actions actions more efficient and conventional performance more efficient and conventional performance

can achieve same end even if there are differences in can achieve same end even if there are differences in body size, situation, constraints body size, situation, constraints (Nehaniv & Dautenhahn, (Nehaniv & Dautenhahn, 2001).2001).

sometimes the same actions have different goals sometimes the same actions have different goals (e.g., (e.g.,

Behne et al., submitted)Behne et al., submitted) and different actions have the and different actions have the same goal same goal (e.g., Meltzoff, 1995).(e.g., Meltzoff, 1995).

avoid copying superfluous or insufficient elements avoid copying superfluous or insufficient elements of the demonstration; more flexible imitationof the demonstration; more flexible imitation

One-year-old infants and (at least One-year-old infants and (at least some) chimpanzees can understand some) chimpanzees can understand others’ others’ goalsgoals and use them to work and use them to work out what others are doing, and thus out what others are doing, and thus what they themselves should do.what they themselves should do.

But in order to imitate flexibly, But in order to imitate flexibly, sometimes copying actions like sometimes copying actions like human infants do, one needs in human infants do, one needs in addition to be able to infer the addition to be able to infer the demonstrator’s demonstrator’s intentionintention..

Understanding others’ Understanding others’ goalsgoals: actor has a goal and : actor has a goal and behaves with behaves with persistencepersistence until reality matches the until reality matches the goal. goal. endend

Understanding others’ Understanding others’ intentionsintentions: actor considers : actor considers action plans and action plans and chooseschooses which of them to enact (and which of them to enact (and these plans may be more or less rational depending these plans may be more or less rational depending on their fit with perceived reality). on their fit with perceived reality). means (+end)means (+end)

Understanding others’ Understanding others’ intentionsintentions might be might be particularly important in imitation: if I know you particularly important in imitation: if I know you chose that means for a reason, I’m more likely to chose that means for a reason, I’m more likely to copy it myself.copy it myself.

Goals versus intentionsGoals versus intentions

Tomasello, Carpenter, Call, Behne, & Moll (2005)

ResultReality

failure

success

accident

stateof world

+ constraintsAction

Attention

GOAL

Reaction


ResultReality

failure

success

accident

stateof world

+ constraintsAction

Attention

GOAL

relevant skills,knowledge

INTENTION

Decision-makingrelevantreality

Reaction



GOAL/INTENTION

RESULTACTION

goal: demonstrator’s aimintention: plan of actionaction: demonstrator’s body movementsresult: changes in the environment

Gergely, Bekkering, & KirGergely, Bekkering, & Kiráály (2002)ly (2002)

Hands-occupied: Hands-occupied: constraint constraint hadhad to use unusual to use unusual meansmeans..

Hands-free: Hands-free: no constraint no constraint chosechose to use unusual to use unusual meansmeans..

Blue = used head Green = used hand

(from Gergely et al., 2002)

14-month-olds copied the unusual action more 14-month-olds copied the unusual action more when E when E chosechose to use it than when she had to use it. to use it than when she had to use it.

Schwier, van Maanen, Carpenter, & Tomasello (in Schwier, van Maanen, Carpenter, & Tomasello (in press)press)

Door Closed: Door Closed: constraint constraint hadhad to use to use unusual means (chimney)unusual means (chimney)..

Door Open: Door Open: no constraint no constraint chosechose to use unusual to use unusual means.means.

(For infants, the door was always (For infants, the door was always open.)open.)

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Door closed Door open

Condition

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IMN

EY

* 12-month-olds 12-month-olds copied the unusual copied the unusual action more when E action more when E chosechose to use it than to use it than when she had to use when she had to use it.it.

Tomasello & Carpenter (2005)Tomasello & Carpenter (2005)

Chimpanzees watched Chimpanzees watched as E pulled in a grape as E pulled in a grape using a tool, either:using a tool, either: with a barrierwith a barrier (like (like

hands occupied: E hands occupied: E had had to to

use tool)use tool) or or without a barrierwithout a barrier

(like hands free: E (like hands free: E chosechose

to use tool)to use tool) present. present. Chimpanzees used the Chimpanzees used the tool equally often in both tool equally often in both conditions.conditions.

Infants do more than copy actions. They use Infants do more than copy actions. They use others’ goals to decide which actions to copy. others’ goals to decide which actions to copy. They can see:They can see:

two different actions as having the same goal two different actions as having the same goal (Meltzoff, (Meltzoff, 1995)1995)

the same actions as having different goals or intentions the same actions as having different goals or intentions (Carpenter et al., 1998; Gergely et al., 2002)(Carpenter et al., 1998; Gergely et al., 2002)

Sometimes the action is part of the Sometimes the action is part of the goal/intention. When it is, children copy it.goal/intention. When it is, children copy it.

Chimpanzees may understand and use goals Chimpanzees may understand and use goals but not intentions. This might be one reason but not intentions. This might be one reason why they do not usually copy others’ actions.why they do not usually copy others’ actions.

SummarySummary





(Bushnell, 1998; Gergely & Csibra, in press)


ostensive-communicative cuesostensive-communicative cues(eye contact, attention getters)(eye contact, attention getters)

KirKiráály, Csibra, & Gergely (in prep.); Nielsen (in press)ly, Csibra, & Gergely (in prep.); Nielsen (in press)

Watch!

versus

infants copy unusual action in hands-free

infants rarely copy unusual action (just copy result)

Infants use communicative cues to help decide what to copy.

No studies of apes’ understanding of No studies of apes’ understanding of communicative intentions within communicative intentions within imitation tasks, but much evidence imitation tasks, but much evidence outside of imitation tasks that they outside of imitation tasks that they have difficulties understanding have difficulties understanding others’ communicative intentions. others’ communicative intentions. (more on this tomorrow)(more on this tomorrow)





blocksblocks



Demonstration

When watching a demonstration, how When watching a demonstration, how do you know which of the many do you know which of the many possible aspects of it should be copied?possible aspects of it should be copied?





blocksblocks



Demonstration

XGoal Goal

IrrelevantIrrelevantXGoal Goal

IrrelevantIrrelevant XAccident

Accident

WatcWatch!h!






blocksblocks



Demonstration


XGoal Goal

IrrelevantIrrelevantXGoal Goal

IrrelevantIrrelevant XAccident

Accident

WatcWatch!h!

(index (index finger? finger? gently gently

or or harshlyharshly

?)?)

Three main (social-cognitive) factors determine Three main (social-cognitive) factors determine which aspects of a demonstration infants which aspects of a demonstration infants will choose to copy:will choose to copy:

1)1) infants’ understanding of others’ infants’ understanding of others’ goals goals and intentionsand intentions




(Užgiris, 1981)

Uzgiris (1981)Uzgiris (1981) identified two identified two functions of imitation in infancy: functions of imitation in infancy:

an an instrumentalinstrumental function in which the function in which the imitator learns something about the imitator learns something about the object or action in the demonstration, object or action in the demonstration, and and

a a socialsocial function in which the imitator function in which the imitator and the demonstrator are and the demonstrator are “communicating mutuality and shared “communicating mutuality and shared understanding” with each other. understanding” with each other.

- another social function: to be another social function: to be moremore like you like you

Tomasello, Petschauer, & Carpenter (in Tomasello, Petschauer, & Carpenter (in preparation)preparation)

6-, 9-, and 12-month-olds 6-, 9-, and 12-month-olds watched as E performed watched as E performed actions with a particular actions with a particular stylestyle (Hobson & Lee, 1999)(Hobson & Lee, 1999) e.g., illuminated light panel e.g., illuminated light panel

with fist instead of flat handwith fist instead of flat hand

We coded whether infants We coded whether infants reproduced the same end reproduced the same end result, and whether they result, and whether they did so using the same did so using the same unnecessary action style.unnecessary action style.

Compared to Manipulation Compared to Manipulation Control condition. Control condition.

Copying of resultsCopying of results (preliminary results)(preliminary results)

05

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6 months 9 months 12 months

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DemonstrationManipulation Control

age: F(2,32) = 4.31, p=.022condition: F(1,16) = 12.90, p=.002age x condition: F(2,32) = 4.44, p=.02

*

Copying of styleCopying of style(preliminary results)(preliminary results)

05

101520253035404550

6 months 9 months 12 months

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yle


age: F(2,32) = 6.73, p=.004condition: F(1,16) = 6.80, p=.019age x condition: F(2,32) = .71, p=.50

Infants copied E’s style more after a Infants copied E’s style more after a demonstration than in a control condition, and demonstration than in a control condition, and this is a pattern that can be seen already at age this is a pattern that can be seen already at age 6 months.6 months.

From very early, infants are motivated to From very early, infants are motivated to align themselves with others and copy align themselves with others and copy exactly what they do. exactly what they do.

They do this even when it results in them They do this even when it results in them performing worse on the task than they performing worse on the task than they otherwise would otherwise would (e.g., Nagell, Olguin, & Tomasello, (e.g., Nagell, Olguin, & Tomasello, 1993).1993).

There may be developmental changes in There may be developmental changes in the importance of the social function:the importance of the social function: Children > adultsChildren > adults Particular peaks around 18 months (with Particular peaks around 18 months (with

adults), adolescence (with peers)??adults), adolescence (with peers)??

Tomasello & Carpenter (2005)Tomasello & Carpenter (2005)based on Tomasello, Petschauer, & based on Tomasello, Petschauer, &

Carpenter (in prep.)Carpenter (in prep.)

E performed actions with a particular E performed actions with a particular stylestyle (Hobson & Lee, 1999)(Hobson & Lee, 1999)

e.g., illuminated light panel with fist instead of flat e.g., illuminated light panel with fist instead of flat handhand

We coded whether Ss reproduced the same We coded whether Ss reproduced the same end result, and whether they did so using the end result, and whether they did so using the same unnecessary action style.same unnecessary action style.

Copying of resultsCopying of results

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Chimpanzees did not produce E’s style more Chimpanzees did not produce E’s style more when they saw it than when they did not.when they saw it than when they did not.

Children with autismChildren with autism

Goals and intentionsGoals and intentions

•Young children with autism may have an Young children with autism may have an understanding of others’ goals (failed understanding of others’ goals (failed attempts):attempts):

They perform the action E meant to do, not They perform the action E meant to do, not what E actually did what E actually did ((Carpenter, Pennington, & Rogers, Carpenter, Pennington, & Rogers, 2001,2001, using Meltzoff’s, 1995, procedure).using Meltzoff’s, 1995, procedure).

• But they might not understand others’ But they might not understand others’ intentions as rational choices of action intentions as rational choices of action plans:plans:

They copy E’s unusual action equally often They copy E’s unusual action equally often whether she had to use it or freely chose to use whether she had to use it or freely chose to use it it ((Somogyi et al., 2005, using Gergely et al.’s, 2002, Somogyi et al., 2005, using Gergely et al.’s, 2002, procedure). procedure).

Communicative intentionsCommunicative intentions

• People with autism (even adults) have difficulty People with autism (even adults) have difficulty with many aspects of communicative intentions, with many aspects of communicative intentions, both in their own and others’ communication both in their own and others’ communication (see (see

Sabbagh, 1999, for a review).Sabbagh, 1999, for a review).

• Children with autismChildren with autism• are less responsive to speech and other social are less responsive to speech and other social stimuli than are children without autism stimuli than are children without autism (Dawson et (Dawson et al., 1998; Klin, 1991).al., 1998; Klin, 1991).

• pay less attention to others’ eyes, and have pay less attention to others’ eyes, and have more difficulty detecting eye contact more difficulty detecting eye contact (Klin et al., 2002; (Klin et al., 2002; Senju et al., 2003).Senju et al., 2003).

• have trouble understanding the “language of have trouble understanding the “language of the eyes” the eyes” (Baron-Cohen et al., 1995, 1997).(Baron-Cohen et al., 1995, 1997).

• If children with autism do not realize the If children with autism do not realize the significance of demonstrators’ ostensive-significance of demonstrators’ ostensive-communicative signals, they miss out on an communicative signals, they miss out on an important channel of information.important channel of information.


Social function of imitationSocial function of imitation

• Although children with autism sometimes Although children with autism sometimes copy the means others use to achieve an copy the means others use to achieve an end, they do not copy the particular action end, they do not copy the particular action style others use style others use (Hobson & Lee, 1999; Hobson & Meyer, (Hobson & Lee, 1999; Hobson & Meyer, 2006).2006).


SummarySummaryInfantsInfants ChimpanzChimpanz

eeseesChildren Children

with with autismautism

GoalsGoals IntentionsIntentions (()) (())

CommunicaCommunicative tive intentionsintentions

(()) (())

Social Social functionfunction

It is the social/sharing/collaborative It is the social/sharing/collaborative

aspects that are missing in apes and aspects that are missing in apes and children with autism.children with autism.

social learning in children and chimpanzees. social learning mechanisms mimicking: learner copies...

Documents

actions goal emulation

demonstrators actions

goals actions

learner copies actions

neonatal imitation slide

actions children

environment goal slide

infant imitation slide