SOCIAL DIFFERENCE

Race and Ethnicity

Anthropology of Social Anthropology of Social DifferenceDifference

►What is the basis for the recognition of What is the basis for the recognition of difference within and between social difference within and between social groups? – groups? – what is the role of culturewhat is the role of culture??

►What is the relationship of recognized What is the relationship of recognized social differences to political power social differences to political power and inequality? – and inequality? – what are the what are the processes of societyprocesses of society? (social ? (social stratification)stratification)

CULTURE & SOCIETYCULTURE & SOCIETY

►Geertz (1973) on Geertz (1973) on cultureculture -- "a historically -- "a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life“about and attitudes toward life“

►Geertz on Geertz on societysociety – “the pattern of social – “the pattern of social interaction”interaction”

► Culture & societyCulture & society – “capable of wide range – “capable of wide range of modes of integration” of modes of integration”

Geertz on Society and Culture Geertz on Society and Culture Again…Again…

►Culture – logico-meaningful integrationCulture – logico-meaningful integration A unity of style, of logical implication, of A unity of style, of logical implication, of

meaning and valuemeaning and value Fabric of meaningFabric of meaning

►Society – causal-functional integrationSociety – causal-functional integration Kind of integration one finds in an organismKind of integration one finds in an organism All parts united in a single causal webAll parts united in a single causal web Keep the system goingKeep the system going Actually existing network of social relationsActually existing network of social relations

Social Differences & SocietySocial Differences & Society

►shift from homogeneous kin based societies (mechanic) to heterogeneous societies of associations (organic) involves increased social differentiation

► Increased differentiation & integration Increased differentiation & integration = INCREASED SOCIAL STRATIFICATION = INCREASED SOCIAL STRATIFICATION (social differences)(social differences)

Society & Social StratificationSociety & Social Stratification

► inequality in society► the unequal distribution of goods and services,

rights and obligations, power and prestige►all attributes of positions in society, not

attributes of individuals►Stratified society is:

when a society exhibits stratification it means that there are significant breaks in the distribution of goods services, rights obligations power prestige

►as a result of which are formed collectivities or groups we call strata

Stratification & SocietyStratification & Society

►Integration and equilibrium►Society is a system of action►stratification is a generalized aspect of

the structure of all social systems►Social Strata emerge from the process

of differentiation and evaluation in the form of social statuses, differences, and classes

Stratification & Social PowerStratification & Social Power

►Power – domination and the process of legitimization by which a dominant status group becomes accepted as dominant

►pre-industrial society – power based on traditional respect or allegiance to charismatic leaders

► industrial society – power based on legality, consensus on the rules and procedures concerning the selection and limits of power

3 TYPES OF SOCIETIES

►egalitarian societies - no social groups having greater access to economic resources, power, or prestige - usually foragers

► rank societies - do not have unequal access to economic resources or to power, but they do contain social groups having unequal access to prestige

► class societies - unequal access to all 3 advantages, economic resources, power, prestige open & closed class systems - the extent to which

mobility occurs allowing people to pass through inequalities

Understanding Social Understanding Social Differences: Differences: StatusStatus

►status - ascribed & achieved►ascribed status - social positions that

people hold by virtue of birth sex, age, family relationships, birth into class

or caste►achieved status - social positions attained

as a result of individual action►shift from homogenous kin based

societies to heterogeneous society of associations involves growth in importance of achieved status

Race & SocietyRace & Society►There are no biological human races►Racial social stratification is built upon idea

that social differences are linked with hereditary characteristics which differ between races As indicated by perceived physical differences and As indicated by perceived physical differences and

cloaked in the language of biologycloaked in the language of biology

► social racessocial races – groups assumed to have a – groups assumed to have a biological basis but social constructedbiological basis but social constructed

► Racism – systematic social and political bias Racism – systematic social and political bias based on idea of racebased on idea of race

►Operates as a form of classOperates as a form of class

American Anthropological Assoc. American Anthropological Assoc. statement on racestatement on race

► ““Evidence from the analysis of genetics Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. racial groups.

► Conventional geographic ‘racial’ groupings Conventional geographic ‘racial’ groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes…. their genes….

► ‘‘Race’ thus evolved as a world view, a body Race’ thus evolved as a world view, a body of prejudgments that distorts our ideas of prejudgments that distorts our ideas about human differences and group about human differences and group behavior….behavior….

► The ‘racial’ world view was invented to The ‘racial’ world view was invented to assign some groups to perpetual low status, assign some groups to perpetual low status, while others were permitted access to while others were permitted access to privilege, power, and wealth”privilege, power, and wealth”

Race: A Brief HistoryRace: A Brief History

Distribution of Human Skin Color Distribution of Human Skin Color before 1400 A.D.before 1400 A.D.

Race & Age of DiscoveryRace & Age of Discovery

► Race did not exist until the European expansion and exploration beginning 1500

► ancient Greeks -- first among civilized nations around the Mediterranean did not link physical appearance and cultural

attainment.► Ancient Greeks granted civilized status to the

Nile Valley Nubians who were among the darkest skinned people they knew

► did not grant it to European barbarians to the north who were lighter skinned than they were

► People were divided on the basis of religion, class or language or status

Europe & Race before Age of Europe & Race before Age of DiscoveryDiscovery

►up until 14th cent. in Europe cultural & social evolution based on the idea of progress from kinbased societies to civil society through governance & law

►after 16th cent. in Europe dispositions of blood distinguished the character of difference (racist notions of social & cultural evolution)

After 1500After 1500

► European exploration – increased contact with other human societies

► exploration turned to conquest and Ethnocentric feeling of European superiority

The Enlightenment: 17The Enlightenment: 17thth & 18 & 18thth Century EuropeCentury Europe

►race used interchangeably with type, variety, people, nation, generation & species

►race equated with “breeding stock”

►1700s – Enlightenment science social phenomena and the world’s

peoples into natural schemes

Formal Human ClassificationFormal Human ClassificationLinneaus Systemae Naturae, Linneaus Systemae Naturae,

17581758►Europeaeus

White; muscular; hair – long, flowing; eyes blue

►Americanus Reddish; erect; hair – black, straight, thick;

wide nostrils►Asiaticus

Sallow (yellow); hair black; eyes dark►Africanus

Black; hair – black, frizzled; skin silky; nose flat; lips tumid

1795 Johann Friedrich 1795 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach: ”race” Blumenbach: ”race”

classificationsclassifications► Malayan► Ethiopian► American ► Mongolian ► Caucasian► coined the term

"Caucasian" because he believed that the Caucasus region of Asia Minor produced "the most beautiful race of men".

1830s: Philadelphia doctor and 1830s: Philadelphia doctor and polygenist Samuel Morton polygenist Samuel Morton

► collected hundreds of human skulls of known races

► measured them by filling the skulls with lead pellets and then pouring the pellets into a glass measuring cup

► tables assign the highest brain capacity to Europeans (with the English highest of all) Second rank goes to Chinese, third to Southeast

Asians and Polynesians, fourth to American Indians, and last place to Africans and Australian aborigines.

work establish the “scientific basis” for physical anthropology but also the idea that race is inherently biological

Stephen Jay Gould:Stephen Jay Gould:“The Mis-measure of Man” “The Mis-measure of Man”

(1981) (1981) ► Re-analyzed Re-analyzed

Morton’s dataMorton’s data Morton’s racist

bias -- prevented identification of fully overlapping measurements among the racial skull samples he used

Race & Social StatusRace & Social Status

►Operates as an ASCRIBED status►Race and racial differences as a state of

nature►Sociobiological notion that racism

derives from genes that cause groups to compete against those who are genetically different

►Nature outside of culture►Phenotype & blood quantum

Social Status and Affects of Social Status and Affects of “Race”“Race”

►Life chances►Where you live►How you are treated►Access to wealth, power and prestige►Access to education, housing, and

other valued resources►Life expectancy

Society & First Nation HealthSociety & First Nation Health

► Compared with the Canadian population in Compared with the Canadian population in 1996, the First Nations population (1996, the First Nations population (on and off on and off reservesreserves) rated lower on all educational ) rated lower on all educational attainment. attainment.

► Among First Nations, the 1996 labour Among First Nations, the 1996 labour participation rate was 59% and the participation rate was 59% and the employment rate was 43%. employment rate was 43%. Rates for Canada as a whole were 68% and 62%, Rates for Canada as a whole were 68% and 62%,

respectively. respectively.

► First Nations unemployment rate was twice First Nations unemployment rate was twice the Canadian rate in 1996. the Canadian rate in 1996.

Society & First Nation healthSociety & First Nation health

►56.9% of homes were considered 56.9% of homes were considered adequate in 1999--00. adequate in 1999--00.

►33.6% of First Nations communities had 33.6% of First Nations communities had at least 90% of their homes connected at least 90% of their homes connected to a community sewage disposal to a community sewage disposal system. system.

► In 1999, 65 First Nations and Inuit In 1999, 65 First Nations and Inuit communities were under a boil water communities were under a boil water advisory for varying lengths of time advisory for varying lengths of time

►Many communicable diseases can be Many communicable diseases can be traced to poor water qualitytraced to poor water quality

Variation in recognized “racial” Variation in recognized “racial” typestypes

► USUS Bi-racial societyBi-racial society

► JapanJapan a nation whose population is greater than 99% born in a nation whose population is greater than 99% born in

Japan Japan racism in Japan is often not directed so much against racism in Japan is often not directed so much against

people of a particular race or ethnic group but rather people of a particular race or ethnic group but rather against those who are non-Japanese against those who are non-Japanese

puritypurity► Brazil Brazil

long history with slavery and as a recipient of emigrants long history with slavery and as a recipient of emigrants from all over the world from all over the world

racial paradise image racial paradise image processprocess of whitening -- racial and cultural means through of whitening -- racial and cultural means through

which outsiders became "Brazilian" which outsiders became "Brazilian" While racial divisions in Brazil are not clearly defined, class While racial divisions in Brazil are not clearly defined, class

lines are lines are ► CanadaCanada

Vertical mosaicVertical mosaic

Social “Races”Social “Races”

►Geertz (1973) on Geertz (1973) on cultureculture -- "a historically -- "a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life“about and attitudes toward life“

►Geertz on Geertz on societysociety – “the pattern of social – “the pattern of social interaction”interaction”

► Culture & societyCulture & society – “capable of wide range – “capable of wide range of modes of integration”of modes of integration”

Ethnicity: A Cultural Logic of Race?

►ethnicity forged in the process of historical time

►subject to shifts in meaning shifts in referents or markers of ethnic identity

►subject to political manipulations►ethnic identity is not a function of

primordial ties, although it may be described as such

►always the genesis of specific historical forces that are simultaneously structural & cultural

Building Blocks of Ethnicity/Ethnic Identity

►associated with distinctions between language, religion, historical experience, geographic isolation, kinship, notions of race (phenotype)

►may include collective name, belief in common descent, sense of solidarity, association with a specific territory, clothing, house types, personal adornment, food, technology, economic activities, general lifestyle

cultural markers of difference must be visible to members and

non-members

►valued markers of difference by insiders may become comic or derided by outsiders

►caricature and exaggeration frequently mark outsider depictions of boundary mechanisms stereotype is one form

ethnicity and boundariesethnicity and boundaries

►where there is a group there is some sort of boundary

►where there are boundaries there are mechanisms for maintaining boundaries cultural markers of difference that must

be visible to members and non-members

►Code switching►Marked and unmarked categories

Boundary maintenance

►The ethnic boundary canalizes social life ►Boundaries may also be territorial►Distinctions between us and them criteria

for judgment of value and performance and restrictions on interactions Allows for the persistence of cultural differences Identities are signaled as well as embraced

►All ethnic groups in a poly-ethnic society act to maintain dichotomies and differences

ethnogenesisethnogenesis►fluidity of ethnic identity ►ethnic groups vanish, people move

between ethnic groups, new ethnic groups come into existence

►ethnogenesis emergence of new ethnic group, part of

existing group splits & forms new ethnic group, members of two or more groups fuse

Ethnicity, Culture, and Ethnicity, Culture, and SocietySociety

►ethnicity is founded upon structural inequities among dissimilar groups into a single political entity -- society

►based on cultural differences & similarities perceived as shared -- culture

Ethnicity and class

►Many poly-ethnic societies are ranked according to ethnic membership

►May be a high correlation between ethnicity and class

Ethnicity as identity formation and political organization

►Ethnic groups – those human groups that entertain a SUBJECTIVE belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of customs or of both

► feelings of ethnicity & associated behavior vary in intensity within groups (& persons) over time & space

►Belief in group affinity can have important consequences for the formation of a political community

““Ethnic” GroupsEthnic” Groups

►Geertz (1973) on Geertz (1973) on cultureculture -- "a historically -- "a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life“about and attitudes toward life“

►Geertz on Geertz on societysociety – “the pattern of social – “the pattern of social interaction”interaction”

► Culture & societyCulture & society – “capable of wide range – “capable of wide range of modes of integration”of modes of integration”