smart grid final

7/27/2019 Smart Grid Final

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Electrcal Engg. Dept. Page 1 of52

1. INTRODUCTION


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INTRODUCTIONSmart Grid is a concept regarding digital technology application and electric power network. It offers a

lot of valuable technologies that can be used within the near future or are already in use today. Smart Gridincludes electric network, digital control appliance, and intelligent monitoring system. All of these, can deliverelectricity from producers to consumers, control energy flow, reduce the loss of watt, and make the performanceof the electric network more reliable and controllable.

In the short term, a smarter grid will function more efficiently, enabling it to deliver the level of servicewe have come to expect more affordably in an era of rising costs, while also offering considerable societabenefits such as less impact on our environment. In longer term, we can expect the Smart Grid to spur thekind of transformation that the internet has already brought to the way we live, work, play and learn

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2. HISTORY OF SMART GRIDS


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HISTORY OF SMART GRID

Commercialization of electric power began early in the 20th century. With the light bulb revolution and

the promise of the electric motor, demand for electric power exploded, sparking the rapid development of an

effective distribution system. At first, small utility companies provided power to local industrial plants and

private communities. Some larger businesses even generated their own power. Seeking greater efficiency and

distribution, utility companies pooled their resources, sharing transmission lines and quickly forming electrical

networks called grids.

Technological improvements of the power system largely rose in the 50s and 60s, post World War II.Nuclear power, computer controls, and other developments helped fine tune the grids effectiveness andoperability. Although todays technology has flown light-years into the future, the national power grid has notkept up pace with modernization. The grid has evolved little over the past fifty years.

The government is keen on overhauling the current electrical system to 21st century standards. Withtodays technology, the power grid can become a smart grid, capable of recording, analyzing and reacting totransmission data, allowing for more efficient management of resources, and more cost-effective appliances forconsumers. This project requires major equipment upgrades, rewiring, and implementation of new technology.

The process will take time, but improvements have already begun to surface. Miami will be the first major citywith a smart grid system. We are witnessing a new stage of technological evolution, taking us into a brighter,cleaner future.

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3. NEED OF SMART GRID FOR INDIA


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NEED OF SMART GRID FOR INDIA

Origins of Indias Smart Grid efforts are multi-factorial in nature but primarily concern three mainissues which are the subject of current or planned government backed initiatives:

1) increased load needs as one of the worlds fastest growing economies, which today cannot be met bypresent supply and hence results in frequent brownouts;

2) the drive to electrify a large segment of its rural population, which have yet to receive electricalservices and finally

3) the need to optimize electrical usage by being able to manage loads and mitigate operatinginefficiencies (the losses in the system, both financial and technical, are amongst the highest in theworld).

India is a fast-emerging economy where the demand for electric power is increasing by leaps andbounds. This can be visualised from the fact that while holding more that 17 per cent of the world's population,India currently consumes around 3 to 4 per cent of the world's electrical energy.

As India strides forward on her economic journey, the demand and consumption of electrical energy byits populace is going to increase dramatically. Yet, although 70 per cent of Indians live in villages, there are stillthousands of villages with no or inadequate access to electricity. In developing economies such as ours, energyefficiency enhancement technologies such as smart grids can leapfrog development by harnessing distributedenergy resources, which nature has so generously bestowed on us.Smart grids use a combination of digitalcommunication and digital control technology to despatch power with minimum loss. Power may be generatedeither centrally in large power stations operated by utilities or by local, small generators using green andrenewable energy resources.

Why smart?

The smart' digital components communicate and compute the most efficient routes to dispatch power toloads, resulting in a better quality of supply. The digital communication elements notify all parts of the gridrapidly in case of breakdowns so that alternative routes for power dispatch may be computed. This combinationof computation and communication is where the smartness' of the smart grid lies.

For the average Indian city- or town-dweller, the development of the smart grid would mean betterquality of power. Voltage and frequency fluctuations would be eliminated, especially the low voltage andfrequency conditions of summer, making power outages and load-shedding relics of a dark past.

Fig. 3.1


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4. WHAT SMART GRID MEAN ?


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WHAT SMART GRID MEAN?

The smart grid will have the ability to generate and move electricity around a grid. In short, the smartgrid is a tool to manage supply and demand of different generation types, including renewable energy, andconsumption. The smart grid will be able to harvest wind energy at night in the desert and move it to an urbanarea for consumption. The smart grid will incorporate electricity pricing that reflects its value at the time ofconsumption. Prices will behave like hotel prices. Room rates are high during the peak season, and lower in theoff peak season.

An electrical grid is not a single entity but an aggregate of multiple networks and multiple power generationcompanies with multiple operators employing varying levels of communication and coordination, most ofwhich is manually controlled. Smart grids increase the connectivity, automation and coordination between thesesuppliers, consumers and networks that perform either long distance transmission or local distribution tasks.

Transmission networks move electricity in bulk over medium to long distances, are actively managed,and generally operate from 345kV to 800kV over AC and DC lines.

Local networks traditionally moved power in one direction, "distributing" the bulk power to consumersand businesses via lines operating at 132kV and lower.

This paradigm is changing as businesses and homes begin generating more wind and solar electricity,enabling them to sell surplus energy back to their utilities. Modernization is necessary for energy consumptionefficiency, real time management of power flows and to provide the bi-directional metering needed tocompensate local producers of power. Although transmission networks are already controlled in real time, andunable to handle modern challenges such as those posed by the intermittent nature of alternative electricitygeneration, or continental scale bulk energy transmission.

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Fig. 4.2


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5. CHARACTERISTICS OF A SMART GRID


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CHARACTERISTICS OF A SMART GRID

A Smart Grid will be fundamentally different to current network operations. The new grid will:

Support wide-spread distributed energy resources by managing;

o Bi-directional flows of power and real-time information;o Intermittent renewable generation;o Supply / demand balancing within the distributed networks;

Facilitate the participation of customers by;

o Enabling new technologies so consumers can monitor and automatically control energy use;o Providing opportunities for consumers to participate in the market to meet demand / response

signals;

Support increased penetration of Electric Vehicles.

Fig. 5.1


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6. DRIVERS FOR A SMART GRID


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DRIVERS FOR A SMART GRID

The drivers for developing a Smart Grid can be grouped into the following three categories:

Government policy; Customer behavior and requirements; and Industry and technology changes.

Government policy drivers include:

Climate change objectives Renewable Energy Targets (RET), feed-in tariffs, and the proposedEmissions Trading Scheme (ETS) are responses to concerns over global warming and its impact on theenvironment. In addition Energy Efficiency policies are being developed that will also contribute toimproving energy security.

Competitive economy objectives Governments will introduce policies to spur industry productivityand competitiveness. Given the huge investment in the green race (where Smart Grids play animportant enabling role), countries will need to invest and take advantage of any opportunities they havein this field to ensure employment opportunities are addressing the new industries. Policies will need toencourage R&D, skills development, and working through energy security issues, as well as measuringand monitoring carbon impact.

Customer protection objectives Governments (and regulators) are tasked with ensuring customersreceive reliable and affordable energy supply. There is also a requirement to balance the needs of thecountry to grow energy supply with the impact on consumers and vulnerable parts of the community.

Customer behavior and requirement drivers include:

Increasing demand The growing number and increasing energy requirements of electrical devices inhomes and businesses is pushing up peak demands on networks. Meeting higher peak demands requiresa significant investment by energy companies in new generation and energy efficiency.

Increasing functionality requirements New technological developments, climate change concernsand supportive government policies are encouraging consumers to adopt products such as small scalerenewable solar generation. These technologies require increased network functionality including higherlevels of safety to support their operation.

Industry and technology change drivers include:

Existing technologies are becoming more affordable Technologies that improve monitoring andcontrol throughout transmission networks are becoming more affordable, allowing them to be deployedat a lower level in the distribution networks.

New technologies are available The availability of new technologies creates both opportunities and

threats to the network that will need to be managed. There are new network monitoring and controllingoptions, while new technologies for customers offering higher functionality have to be supported. Bothcontribute to the evolution of the network becoming smarter. In addition, the intermittent nature ofrenewable energy generation (large or small scale), and the resulting mismatch with consumer demand,will require increased functionality to support it in the network. One new technology, the electricvehicle, may become highly useful in facilitating this increased penetration of renewable technologiesthrough their power storage capacity, however, charging the batteries could increase electricity demandand require additional functionality.

Ageing infrastructure needs replacing The network is comprised of high value long life assetswhich are due for replacement to ensure reliability and consistent customer service. Now is the best time


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to reassess the type of investments being made to ensure that the network will remain viable over thelong term and has the right mix of new technologies to maintain network performance.


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7. CONSUMER BENEFIT FROM A

SMART GRID


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CONSUMER BENEFIT FROM A SMART GRID

The Smart Grid will benefit the consumer in a variety of ways:

Supporting a growing economy over the long term that can weather the developing global changes,while minimizing the increase in energy costs;

Providing consumers with greater choice and the opportunity to make informed decisions about their

energy use;o Consumers have the greatest opportunity to reduce their energy bills by changing their behavior;

using less energy, using energy at off peak charging times, by installing energy efficientappliances as well as choosing lower carbon energy supply.

o Suppliers will be able to offer a wider range of products based on a variety of factors includingrenewable sources of energy such as green wind energy, flexible tariffs that may incentivizeload shedding during peak demand, or automated controllers to minimise energy bills.

Increased reliability and resilience to weather events through multiple generation sources and self-healing capabilities in the network;

Automatic fault location removing the need for customers to notify the supplier about power outagesand enabling faster maintenance;

Facilitating long term savings in electricity supplier operations that can be passed onto the consumerfrom:

o Automatic meter readingo Remote connection and disconnectiono Load management especially during peak usage times to relieve grid stresses, enable deferment

of capital for new assets, and align supply and demand loads Providing functionality to enable consumers (prosumers) to sell their generation on the grid.

Fig. 7.1


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8. ENVIRONMENTAL ADVANTAGES OF

A SMART GRID


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ENVIRONMENTAL ADVANTAGES OF A SMART GRID

A Smart Grid can deliver environmental benefits to society from:

Energy Conservation

Reduction in usage by customers making informed decisions in 2006, a pilot project in OntarioCanada, savings of 6.5% were achieved with the introduction of real-time, home energy monitors. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (in a 2010 study for the United States Department of Energy)

found the Smart Grid provides the potential for direct reductions in U.S. electricity sector consumptionand emissions of 12 per cent in 2030, with further indirect reductions of 6 per cent. The study suggeststhat further work is needed to embed these reductions.

Reduced transmission losses through new technologies better managing electricity supply to assistbringing electricity supply closer to the consumer, thereby reducing the amount of wasted power fromlong haul electricity transmission.

Improved voltage regulation by operating the grid at the lower end of the allowable voltage tolerance(230V) the magnitude of transmission and distribution losses can be reduced.

Fig. 8.1


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CO2 Reduction

Customer making informed decisions providing choices, such as renewable energy plans, andinformation on CO2 generation associated with those choices will enable consumers to reduce theircarbon footprint.

Enhanced integration of renewables the integration of renewables is facilitated by the Smart Grid butthe operation of weather dependent sources (solar, wind) can be further enhanced through optimizingoperations using predictive weather information. Running reserve, where less environmentally

friendly power stations keep generators running so that they may be brought on board quickly whenconsumption increases, could be reduced with more predictable renewable sources.

Plug in Hybrid Vehicles and Electric Vehicles (EV) substituting fuel sources in vehicles withrenewable energy sources has the opportunity to lower CO2 production. Alternatively, vehicles pluggedin at night when the majority of electricity generated is running reserve, which would have beengenerated anyway (and wasted), could also lower CO2 generation.

Enhancing Smart Grid operations through Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology facilitating the use of EVbatteries for peak levelling and managing intermittent renewable energy generation could providefurther benefits.


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9. EFFECT ON TRANSMISSION AND

DISTRIBUTION OF POWER


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EFFECT ON TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF POWER

A smart grid is an umbrella term that covers modernization of both the transmission and distributiongrids. The modernization is directed at a disparate set of goals including facilitating greater competitionbetween providers, enabling greater use of variable energy sources, establishing the automation and monitoringcapabilities needed for bulk transmission at cross continent distances, and enabling the use of market forces to

drive energy conservation.

Many smart grid features readily apparent to consumers such as smart meters serve the energy efficiencygoal. The approach is to make it possible for energy suppliers to charge variable electric rates so that chargeswould reflect the large differences in cost of generating electricity during peak or off peak periods. Suchcapabilities allow load control switches to control large energy consuming devices such as water heaters so thatthey consume electricity when it is cheaper to produce.

Fig. 9.1


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10. SMART GRIDS FUNCTIONS


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THE FUNCTIONS REQUIRED FOR SMART GRIDS

Be able to heal itself

Motivate consumers to actively participate in operations of the grid

Resist attack Provide higher quality power that will save money wasted from outages

Accommodate all generation and storage options

Enable electricity markets to flourish

Run more efficiently

Enable higher penetration of intermittent power generation sources

Self-healing

Using real-time information from embedded sensors and automated controls to anticipate, detect, andrespond to system problems, a smart grid can automatically avoid or mitigate power outages, power qualityproblems, and service disruptions. Technology such as Fault Detection Isolation and Restoration (FDIRTM) canbe used in conjunction with protective relays to automatically detect and isolate a fault, and then restore powerto as many customers as possible. This will greatly improve the reliability of the electrical distribution network.

As applied to distribution networks, there is no such thing as a "self healing" network. If there is afailure of an overhead power line, given that these tend to operate on a radial basis (for the most part) there is aninevitable loss of power. In the case of urban/city networks that for the most part are fed using undergroundcables, networks can be designed (through the use of interconnected topologies) such that failure of one part ofthe network will result in no loss of supply to end users. A fine example of an interconnected network using

zoned protection is that of the Merseyside and North Wales Electricity Board.

It is envisioned that the smart grid will likely have a control system that analyzes its performance usingdistributed, autonomous reinforcement learning controllers that have learned successful strategies to govern thebehavior of the grid in the face of an ever changing environment such as equipment failures. Such a systemmight be used to control electronic switches that are tied to multiple substations with varying costs ofgeneration and reliability.

Consumer participation

A smart grid is a means for consumers to change their behavior around variable electric rates orparticipate in pricing programs designed to ensure reliable electrical service during high-demand conditionsHistorically, the intelligence of the grid in North America has been demonstrated by the utilities operating it inthe spirit of public service and shared responsibility, ensuring constant availability of electricity at a constantprice, day in and day out, in the face of any and all hazards and changing conditions. A smart grid incorporatesconsumer equipment and behavior in grid design, operation, and communication. This enables consumers tobetter control smart appliances and intelligent equipment in homes and businesses, interconnecting energymanagement systems in smart buildings and enabling consumers to better manage energy use and reduceenergy costs. Advanced communications capabilities equip customers with tools to take advantage of real-timeelectricity pricing, incentive-based load reduction signals, or emergency load reduction signals.


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There is marketing evidence of consumer demand for greater choice. A survey conducted in the summer of2007 interviewed almost 100 utility executives and sought the opinions of 1,900 households and smallbusinesses from the U.S., Germany, Netherlands, England, Japan and Australia. Among the findings:

1. 83% of those who cannot yet choose their utility provider would welcome that option2. Roughly two-thirds of the customers that do not yet have renewable power options would like the choice3. Almost two-thirds are interested in operating their own generation, provided they can sell power back to

the utility

And as already noted, in the UK where the experiment has been running longest, 80% have not changedtheir utility provider when given the choice (source: National Grid).

Proponents assert that the real-time, two-way communications available in a smart grid will enableconsumers to be compensated for their efforts to save energy and to sell energy back to the grid through net-metering. By enabling distributed generation resources like residential solar panels, small wind and plug-inhybrid, proponents assert that the smart grid will spark a revolution in the energy industry by allowing smallplayers like individual homes and small businesses to sell power to their neighbors or back to the grid. Manyutilities currently promote small independent distributed generation and successfully integrate it with no impact.These sources of power are currently cost-effective with the help government subsidies that are available to help

consumers purchase the often expensive equipment that is required.

The same will hold true for larger commercial businesses that have renewable or back-up power systemsthat can provide power for a price during peak demand events, typically in the summer when air condition unitsplace a strain on the grid. This participation by smaller entities has been called the "democratization of energy"it is similar to former Vice President Al Gore's vision for a Unified Smart Grid.

Resist attack

Smart grid technologies better identify and respond to man-made or natural disruptions. Real-timeinformation enables grid operators to isolate affected areas and redirect power flows around damaged facilities.

One of the most important issues of resist attack is the smart monitoring of power grids, which is thebasis of control and management of smart grids to avoid or mitigate the system-wide disruptions like blackoutsThe traditional monitoring is based on weighted least square (WLS) which is very weak and prone to fail whengross errors (including topology errors, measurement errors or parameter errors) are present. New technology ofstate monitor is needed to achieve the goals of the smart grids.

High quality power

Outages and power quality issues cost US businesses more than $100 billion on average each year. It isasserted that assuring more stable power provided by smart grid technologies will reduce downtime and preventsuch high losses, but the reliability of complex systems is very difficult to analyze and guarantee. A morepractical approach to improving reliability and power quality is to simply follow the well established and welldocumented engineering principles developed by federal agencies like the USDA's Rural Utility Service.

Accommodate generation options

As smart grids continue to support traditional power loads they also seamlessly interconnect fuel cellsrenewable, micro turbines, and other distributed generation technologies at local and regional levels. Integrationof small-scale, localized, or on-site power generation allows residential, commercial, and industrial customers


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to self-generate and sell excess power to the grid with minimal technical or regulatory barriers. This alsoimproves reliability and power quality, reduces electricity costs, and offers more customer choice. It will be along time before a smart grid is actually necessary to realize these benefits. The existing grid can typicallyaccommodate an order of magnitude more than the existing small-scale localized generation without the benefitof the smart grid. Most obstacles to the integration of larger renewable projects, like wind farms, is due tolimitations of traditional infrastructure.

Enable electricity market

Significant increases in bulk transmission capacity will require construction of new transmission linesbefore improvements in transmission grid management proposed by smart grids can make a difference. Suchimprovements are aimed at creating an open marketplace where alternative energy sources from geographicallydistant locations can easily be sold to customers wherever they are located.

Intelligence in distribution grids are not required to enable small producers to generate and sellelectricity at the local level using alternative sources such as rooftop-mounted photo voltaic panels, small-scalewind turbines, and micro hydro generators. For example Chelan PUD's SNAP program promotes distributed,consumer owned small scale generation. Only after very high penetration of these types of resources isadditional intelligence provided by sensors and software designed to react instantaneously to imbalances caused

by intermittent sources, such as distributed generation, necessary.

Optimize assets

A smart grid can optimize capital assets while minimizing operations and maintenance costs. Optimizedpower flows reduce waste and maximize use of lowest-cost generation resources. Harmonizing localdistribution with inter-regional energy flows and transmission traffic improves use of existing grid assets andreduces grid congestion and bottlenecks, which can ultimately produce consumer savings.

Enable high penetration of intermittent generation sources

Climate change and environmental concerns will increase the amount of renewable energy resourcesThese are for the most part intermittent in nature. Smart Grid technologies will enable power systems to operatewith larger amounts of such energy resources since they enable both the suppliers and consumers to compensatefor such intermittency.


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11. FEATURES OF SMART GRIDS


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FEATURES OF SMART GRIDS

Load adjustment

The total load connected to the power grid can vary significantly over time. Although the total load isthe sum of many individual choices of the clients, the overall load is not a stable, slow varying, average powerconsumption. Imagine the increment of the load if a popular television program starts and millions of

televisions will draw current instantly. Traditionally, to respond to a rapid increase in power consumption, fasterthan the start-up time of a large generator, some spare generators are put on a dissipative standby mode. A smartgrid may warn all individual television sets, or another larger customer, to reduce the load temporarily (to allowtime to start up a larger generator) or continuously (in the case of limited resources). Using mathematicalprediction algorithms it is possible to predict how many standby generators need to be used, to reach a certainfailure rate. In the traditional grid, the failure rate can only be reduced at the cost of more standby generators. Ina smart grid, the load reduction by even a small portion of the clients may eliminate the problem.

Demand response support

Demand response support allows generators and loads to interact in an automated fashion in real time

coordinating demand to flatten spikes. Eliminating the fraction of demand that occurs in these spikes eliminatesthe cost of adding reserve generators, cuts wear and tear and extends the life of equipment, and allows users tocut their energy bills by telling low priority devices to use energy only when it is cheapest.

Currently, power grid systems have varying degrees of communication within control systems for theirhigh value assets, such as in generating plants, transmission lines, substations and major energy users. Ingeneral information flows one way, from the users and the loads they control back to the utilities. The utilitiesattempt to meet the demand and succeed or fail to varying degrees (brownout, rolling blackout, uncontrolledblackout). The total amount of power demand by the users can have a very wide probability distribution whichrequires spare generating plants in standby mode to respond to the rapidly changing power usage. This one-wayflow of information is expensive; the last 10% of generating capacity may be required as little as 1% of the

time, and brownouts and outages can be costly to consumers.

Greater resilience to loading

Although multiple routes are touted as a feature of the smart grid, the old grid also featured multipleroutes. Initial power lines in the grid were built using a radial model, later connectivity was guaranteed viamultiple routes, referred to as a network structure. However, this created a new problem: if the current flow orrelated effects across the network exceed the limits of any particular network element, it could fail, and thecurrent would be shunted to other network elements, which eventually may fail also, causing a domino effectSee power outage. A technique to prevent this is load shedding by rolling blackout or voltage reduction(brownout).


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Decentralization of power generation

Another element of fault tolerance of traditional and smart grids is decentralized power generation.Distributed generation allows individual consumers to generate power onsite, using whatever generationmethod they find appropriate. This allows individual loads to tailor their generation directly to their load,making them independent from grid power failures. Classic grids were designed for one-way flow of electricity,but if a local sub-network generates more power than it is consuming, the reverse flow can raise safety andreliability issues. A smart grid can manage these situations, but utilities routinely manage this type of situationin the existing grid.

Fig. 11.1

Price signaling to consumers

In many countries, including Belgium, Greece, the Netherlands and the UK, the electric utilities haveinstalled double tariff electricity meters in many homes to encourage people to use their electric power duringnight time or weekends, when the overall demand from industry is very low. During off-peak time the price isreduced significantly, primarily for heating storage radiators or heat pumps with a high thermal mass, but also


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for domestic appliances. This idea will be further explored in a smart grid, where the price could be changing inseconds and electric equipment is given methods to react on that.


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12. TECHNOLOGY FOR SMART GRIDS


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TECHNOLOGY FOR SMART GRIDS

Integrated communications

Some communications are up to date, but are not uniform because they have been developed in anincremental fashion and not fully integrated. In most cases, data is being collected via modem rather than directnetwork connection. Areas for improvement include: substation automation, demand response, distribution

automation, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), energy management systems, wireless meshnetworks and other technologies, power-line carrier communications, and fiber-optics. Integratedcommunications will allow for real-time control, information and data exchange to optimize system reliability,asset utilization, and security.

Sensing and measurement

Core duties are evaluating congestion and grid stability, monitoring equipment health, energy theftprevention, and control strategies support. Technologies include: advanced microprocessor meters (smart meter)and meter reading equipment, wide-area monitoring systems, dynamic line rating (typically based on onlinereadings by Distributed temperature sensing combined with Real time thermal rating (RTTR) systems)

electromagnetic signature measurement/analysis, time-of-use and real-time pricing tools, advanced switches andcables, backscatter radio technology, and Digital protective relays.

Smart meters

A smart grid replaces analog mechanical meters with digitalmeters that record usage in real time. Smart meters are similar toAdvanced Metering Infrastructure meters and provide acommunication path extending from generation plants to electricaloutlets (smart socket) and other smart grid-enabled devices. Bycustomer option, such devices can shut down during times of peakdemand.

Phasor measurement units

Fig. 12.1

High speed sensors called PMUs distributed throughout their network can be used to monitor powerquality and in some cases respond automatically to them. Phasors are representations of the waveforms ofalternating current, which ideally in real-time, are identical everywhere on the network and conform to the mostdesirable shape. In the 1980s, it was realized that the clock pulses from global positioning system (GPS)satellites could be used for very precise time measurements in the grid. With large numbers of PMUs and the

ability to compare shapes from alternating current readings everywhere on the grid, research suggests thatautomated systems will be able to revolutionize the management of power systems by responding to systemconditions in a rapid, dynamic fashion.

Advanced components

Innovations in superconductivity, fault tolerance, storage, power electronics, and diagnosticscomponents are changing fundamental abilities and characteristics of grids. Technologies within these broadR&D categories include: flexible alternating current transmission system devices, high voltage direct current,


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first and second generation superconducting wire, high temperature superconducting cable, distributed energygeneration and storage devices, composite conductors, and intelligent appliances.

Advanced control

Power system automation enables rapid diagnosis of and precise solutions to specific grid disruptions or

outages. These technologies rely on and contribute to each of the other four key areas. Three technology

categories for advanced control methods are: distributed intelligent agents (control systems), analytical tools

(software algorithms and high-speed computers), and operational applications (SCADA, substation automationdemand response, etc.). Using artificial intelligence programming techniques, Fujian power grid in China

created a wide area protection system that is rapidly able to accurately calculate a control strategy and execute

it. The Voltage Stability Monitoring & Control (VSMC) software uses a sensitivity-based successive linear

programming method to reliably determine the optimal control solution.

Improved interfaces and decision support

Information systems that reduce complexity so that operators and managers have tools to effectively andefficiently operate a grid with an increasing number of variables. Technologies include visualization techniques

that reduce large quantities of data into easily understood visual formats, software systems that provide multipleoptions when systems operator actions are required, and simulators for operational training and what-ifanalysis.


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13. INNOVATIVE IDEAS


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INNOVATIVE IDEAS

LED IN SWICTH BOARD

FORECASTING SOFTWARE

ON TRACK CHARGER

SMALL GENERATOR FOR CANALS


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LED IN SWICTH BOARD

Basically we know that smart meter is the essential part in smart grids. Its shows the peak load

on the power station according to the user demand. It also shows the rate per unit of the electrical

energy. Today we are using electronic & electrical equipments from mobile to the car. All need

electrical energy to run just like to iron the cloth we need iron which convert the electrical energy into

thermal energy. In our home appliances which are used in kitchen mostly used electrical energy to

operate or run.

If we are using this home appliance at the peak hours were cost of the electrical energy is at the

crest level. So the amount to paid for using electrical energy is more without knowing that we are using

home appliances at peak load.

Fig. 13.1

In this image display of LED or LCD is not

there so without the condition whether it is

time of peak or off load. We are using the

electrical equipment or home appliance.

This Fig. 13.2 show LED in switch board

We introduced LED or LCD display the switch board. This is directly connected to the smart meter.

This function of this display is only to display the information on the board. It shows the peak load or base load,

total energy consumed and it also shows rate per unit charge of electrical energy. so by viewing on the display

before using any electrical appliances can get the information about load condition and rate per unit. So by this

person decide whether he want to operate it or not.


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ON TRACK CHARGER

Today fuel price are going higher and demand is also increasing. Due to this consumption of the fossil

fuel is also increasing rapidly and there shortage of fossil fuel in near future as these fuels are limited. Vehicles

like car, bike, moped and trucks are using petrol and diesel as their fuel. People generally use vehicles which

consume fuels like petrol or diesel or CNG. So instead of using these cars or bikes electric vehicles can be used

so we can save petrol or diesel and environment pollution can be prevented.

The main difficulties arise will using electric vehicle is.

Battery backup

In electric vehicle battery backup is for 15-20 km in single charge. So if destination of the person more than

20 km it cant use electric vehicle because there is charging problem. So eliminate these problem ON

TRACK CHARGER should be installed on the road side (both side) at every 3 to 5 km so electric vehicle

can be charged.

On track charger can also be installed on the place like malls, school, collages, cinema offices etc. so any

one can charge their electric vehicle

Fig. 13.3


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FORECASTING SOFTWARE

A Smart grid is a digitally enabled electrical grid that gathers, distributes, and acts on information about thebehaviour of all participants (suppliers and consumers) in order to improve the efficiency, importancereliability, economics, and sustainability of electricity services.

Today we generally forecast the average load on the power station. It indicates that power station willsupply that load on that day or that time. It is not affected by any factor. So for proper forecasting software canbe used. This software forecast the future or expected load on the power station on the basis of following

parameters.

Temperature

Day

Time

Season

Area

For example:Suppose an area has a average power demand of 100MW. On Monday it may be 105MW or On

Tuesday it may be 90MW and it changes with day and time.At starting of the week on Monday load on the power station is 110MW than with help of forecasting

software we can decide the approximate load on next Monday. If there is public holiday on the next Monday.On that day load of government offices, school and collage etc. is reduced so with the help of forecastingsoftware we can easily calculate the approximate load on power station on that day.


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SMALL GENERATOR FOR CANALSCanal:

It is run from river tapi in various area. The canal on which it is install is run from Sayan to Olpad.The company situated near the canal.

Fig. 13.4

Companys worker are living near to company in colony were homes are provide. There are 80-85 homes inthe colony. The average electricity bill of colony is 40-50 thousands Rupees. The total load of the colony is 65amps

The efficiency of most micro-hydro generators ranges from 3070%. They are viable as small-scaleelectricity generators that can provide electricity to a building or property. The main requirements are that themicro-hydro system has:

sufficient water head and flow rate access to a regular water source (stream or spring).

A micro-hydro system typically includes:

a water source a continuous flow of water such as a creek, stream, waterfall, small dam or spring-feddam, with a drop in level, and that can be wholly or partially redirected through a micro-hydro system

a turbine turned by water acting on the blades of a runner or wheel a water intake or forebay a catchment area that directs water into the turbine inlet pipe, while allowing

sediment to settle and maintaining the water pressure head examples of intakes include a dam, weirbin, box or channel race from a stream


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a filter mesh to catch leaves, sticks, stones and debris and stop them entering the water intake pipewhere they may otherwise block the pipe, reduce water pressure, cause rapid pressure fluctuations, ordamage the turbine

water inlet pipeline or penstock the pipe transferring water from the water intake pipe to the turbinewhich should be fully submerged at the inlet

water outlet pipeline or tailrace or draft pipe the pipe discharging water from the turbine back to thestream or creek note that a water outlet pipeline may not be required with an impulse turbine as itgenerally sprays out water

alternator alternating current is generated by rotor windings connected to the shaft from the turbineturning inside the stator windings of the alternator body

rectifier converts AC to DC for electricity that is being sent to a battery storage system the generatorinitially produces AC, but is called a DC generator if the output electricity is immediately sent throughthe rectifier

electricity cables transfer the electricity from the generator to the electricity supply or storage system a spill way or bypass for excess water to be able to flow past the system or allow the system to be shut

down.

Block Diagram:

Fig. 13.5

Water flowing in the canal has hydraulic energy, it is converted into mechanical energy with help of

turbine these mechanical energy is transmitted to generator through belt drive. The generator may be induction

or synchronous type. Electricity generated is given to the power switch then transformer to output line.

CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF TURBINESTurbines can be either reaction or impulse types. The turbines type indicates the manner in which the

water causes the turbine runner to rotate. Reaction turbine operates with their runners fully flooded and


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develops torque because of the reaction of water pressure against runner blades. Impulse turbines operate withtheir runner in air and convert the waters pressure energy into kinetic energy of a jet that impinges onto therunner buckets to develop torque. Reaction turbines are classified as Francis (mixed flow) or axial flow. Axiaflow turbines are available with both fixed blades (Propeller) and variable pitch blades (Kaplan). Both axialflow (Propeller & Kaplan) and Francis turbines may be mounted either horizontally or vertically.

FRANCIS TURBINESA Francis turbine is one having a runner with fixed buckets (vanes), usually nine or more, to

which the water enters the turbine in a radial direction, with respect to the shaft, and is discharged in an axialdirection. Principal components consist of the runner, a water supply case to convey the water to the runnerwicket gates to control the quantity of water and distribute it equally to the runner and a draft tube to convey thewater away from the turbines.

Fig. 13.6A Francis turbine may be operated over a range of flows approximately 40 to 105% of rated discharge

Below 40% rated discharge, there can be an area of operation where vibration And or power surges occur. Theupper limit generally corresponds to the generator rating. The approximate head range for operation is from65% to 125% of design head. In general, peak efficiencies of Francis turbines, within the capacity range of 25MW, will be approximately 88 to 90%.

The conventional Francis turbine is provided with a wicket gate assembly to permit placing the unit online at synchronous speed, to regulate load and speed, and to shutdown the unit. The mechanisms of large unitsare actuated by hydraulic servomotors. Small units may be actuated by electric motor gate operations. It permitsoperation of the turbine over the full range of flows. In special cases, where the flow rate is constant, Francisturbines without wicket gate mechanisms may be used. These units operate in case of generating units in MicroHydel range (upto 100 kW) with Electronic Load Controller or Shunt Load Governors. Start up and shut downof turbines without a wicket gate is normally accomplished using the shut off valve at the turbine inlet

Synchronising is done by manual load control to adjust speed.Francis turbines may be mounted with vertical or horizontal shafts. Vertical mounting allows a smaller

plan area and permits a deeper setting of the turbine with respect to tail water elevation locating the generatorbelow tail water. Generator costs for vertical units are higher than for horizontal units because of the need for alarger thrust bearing. However, the savings on construction costs for medium and large units generally offsetthis equipment cost increase.

Horizontal units are more economical for small higher speed applications where standardhorizontal generators are available. The water supply case is generally fabricated from steel plate. Howeveropen flume and concrete cases may be used for heads below 15 meters.

Francis turbines are generally provided with a 90-degree elbow draft tube, which has a venture


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design to minimize head loss. Conical draft tubes are also available, however the head loss will be higher andexcavation may be more costly.

AXIAL FLOW TURBINESAxial flow turbines are those in which flow through the runner is aligned with the axis of rotation. Axial

flow hydraulic turbines have been used for net heads up to 40 meters with power output up to 25 MWHowever, they are generally used in head applications below 35 meters Tubular turbine (S-type). S-turbines areused below 30 meters head and 8 MW capacity. Bulb units can be used full low head if runner diameter is more

than 1 meter. Specific mechanical designs, civil construction, and economic factors must be given fullconsideration when selecting among these three axial flow turbine arrangements. A propeller turbine is onehaving a runner with four, five or six blades in which the water passes through the runner in an axial directionwith respect to the shaft. The pitch of the blades may be fixed or movable. Principal components consist of awater supply case, wicket gates, a runner and a draft tube. The efficiency curve of a typical fixed bladePropeller turbine forms a sharp peak, more abrupt than a Francis turbine curve. For variable pitch blade unitsthe peak efficiency occurs at different outputs depending on the blade setting. An envelope of the efficiencycurves cover the range of blade pitch settings forms the variable pitch efficiency curve. This efficiency curveis broad and flat. Fixed blade units are less costly than variable pitch blade turbines; however, the poweroperating ranges are more limited. Four blade designs may be used upto 12 meters of head, five blade designs to20 meters and six blade designs to 35 meters. In general, peak efficiencies are approximately the same as for

Francis turbines.

Propeller turbines may be operated at power outputs with flow from 40-105% of the rated flow. Discharge rates above 105% may be obtained; however,the higher rates are generally above the turbine and generator manufacturersguarantees. Many units are in satisfactorily operation is from 60 to 140% ofdesign head. Efficiency loss at higher heads drops 2 to 5% points below peakefficiency at the design head and as much as 15% points at lower heads.

Fig. 13.7The conventional propeller or Kaplan (variable pitch blade) turbines are mounted with a vertical shaft

Horizontal and slant settings will be discussed separately. The vertical units are equipped with a wicket gate

assembly to permit placing the unit on line at synchronous speed, to regulate speed and load, and to shutdownthe unit. The wicket gate mechanism units are actuated by hydraulic servomotors. Small units may be actuatedby electric motor gate operators. Variable pitch units are equipped with a cam mechanism to coordinate thepitch of the blade with gate position and head. Digital control envisages Control of wicket gates and blade angleby independent servomotors co-ordinated by digital control. The special condition of constant flow, aspreviously discussed for Francis turbines, can be applied to propeller turbines. For this case, elimination of thewicket gate assembly may be acceptable. Variable pitch propeller turbines without wicket gates are called semiKaplan turbine.

The draft tube designs discussed for Francis turbines apply also to propeller turbines.

TUBULAR TURBINES

Tubular or tube turbines are horizontal or slant mounted unitswith propeller runners. The generators are located outside of the waterpassageway. Tube turbines are available equipped with fixed orvariable pitch runners and with or without wicket gate assemblies.Performance characteristics of a tube turbine are similar to theperformance characteristics discussed for propeller turbines. Theefficiency of a tube turbine will be one to two % higher than for avertical propeller turbine of the same size since the water passagewayhas less change in direction.

Fig. 13.8


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The performance range of the tube turbine with variable pitch blade and without wicket gates is greaterthan for a fixed blade propeller turbine but less than for a Kaplan turbine. The water flow through the turbine iscontrolled by changing the pitch of the runner blades. When it is not required to regulate turbine discharge andpower output, a fixed blade runner may be used. This results in a lower cost of both the turbine and governorsystem. To estimate the performance of the fixed blade runner, use the maximum rated power and discharge forthe appropriate net head on the variable pitch blade performance curves.

Several items of auxiliary equipments are often necessary for the operation of tube turbines. All tube

turbines without wicket gates should be equipped with a shut off valve automatically operated to provide shut-off and start-up functions. Tube turbines can be connected either directly to the generator or through a speedincreaser. The speed increaser would allow the use of a higher speed generator, typically 750 or 1000 r/min,instead of a generator operating at turbine speed. The choice to utilize a speed increaser is an economicdecision. Speed increasers lower the overall plant efficiency by about 1% for a single gear increaser and about2% for double gear increaser. (The manufacturer can supply exact data regarding the efficiency of speedincreasers). This loss of efficiency and the cost of the speed increaser must be compared to the reduction in costfor the smaller generator. It is recommended that speed increaser option should not be used for unit sizes above5 MW capacity.

The required civil features are different for horizontal units than for vertical units. Horizontallymounted tube turbines require more floor area than vertically mounted units. The area required may be lessened

by slant mounting, however, additional turbine costs are incurred as a large axial thrust bearing is requiredExcavation and powerhouse height for a horizontal unit is less than that required for a vertical unit. StandardTube turbines of Bharat Heavy Electricals based on runner diameter.

BULB TURBINESBulb Turbines are horizontal, which have

propeller runners directly connected to the generator.The generator is enclosed in a water-tight enclosure(bulb) located in the turbine water passageway. Thebulb turbine is available with fixed or variable pitchblades and with or without a wicket gate mechanism.

Performance characteristic are similar to the vertical andTube type turbines previously discussed. The bulbturbine will have an improved efficiency ofapproximately 2% over a vertical unit and 1% over atube unit because of the straight water passageway.

Due to the compact design, powerhouse floorspace and height for Bulb turbine installationsare minimized. Maintenance time due to accessibility,however, may be greater than for either fig. 13.9the vertical or the tube type turbines. Figure shows transverse section of bulb turbine

installation proposed for Mukerain SHP 2 x 9 MW rated anddesign head 8.23 m.

Vertical Semi-Kaplan Turbine With Syphon IntakeLow specific speed Vertical semi-Kaplan turbine set

above maximum tailrace level with Syphon intake withadjustable runner blade and fixed guide vane. As the namesuggests, the Vertical Turbine with Syphon Intake operation Fig.13.10


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on the Syphon Principle i.e. the intake flume chamber valve is closed and made water tight and vacuum iscreated by a vacuum pump which enables water to enter flume chamber and energise the runner.Shut down is brought about by following the reverse procedure i.e. by breaking vacuum. Since turbine operateson a Syphon Principle, it is not necessary to have Intake and Draft gates thereby reducing the cost. The SyphonIntake semi Kaplan Vertical Turbine part load efficiency at about 30% load is about 76%. Turbine is suitablefor variable head also. Dewatering and drainage arrangements are also not requested.This type of turbine has been found to be most economical for canal drop falls (upto 3-4 m head). The turbine isset above maximum tail water level and hence lower specific speed.

PIT TYPE BULB TURBINEPit type turbine is a variation of bulb arrangements. Standardised Bulb Turbines coupled to standard

high speeds generator through step up bevel gears are generally used. Overall efficiency is lower because ofgear box. Maximum size depends upon gear box and is generally limited to 5 MW. Higher sized units upto 10MW have been recently installed.

IMPULSE TURBINESAn impulse turbine is one having one or more free jets discharging into an

aerated space and impinging on the buckets of a runner. Efficiencies are often 90%and above. In general, an impulse turbine will not be competitive in cost with a

reaction turbine in overlapping range. However, economic consideration (speed)or surge protection requirements may warrant investigation into the suitability of animpulse turbine in the overlapping head. Single nozzle impulse turbine have a veryflat efficiency curve and may be operated down toloads of 20% of rated capacity with good efficiency. For multi-nozzle units, therange is even broader because the number of operating jets can be varied. Fig. 13.11

TURGO IMPULSE TURBINESAnother type of impulse turbine is the Turgo impulse. This

turbine is higher in specific speed than the typical impulse turbine.The difference between a Pelton unit and a Turgo is that, on a Turgounit, the jet enters one side of the runner and exits the other side. TheTurgo unit operates at a higher specific speed, which means for thesame runner diameter as a Pelton runner, the rotational speed can behigher. The application head range for a Turgo unit is 15 meters to300 meters. Turgo units have been used for application up to 7,500kW. Efficiency of turgid impulse turbine is about 82 to 83 %.

Fig. 13.12

CROSS FLOW TURBINESA cross flow turbine is an impulse type turbine with partial air

admission. Performance characteristics of this turbine are similar to animpulse turbine, and consist of a flat efficiency curve over a wide range offlow and head conditions. Peak efficiency of the cross flow turbine is lessthan that of other turbine types previouslydiscussed. Guaranteed maximum efficiency of indigenous availableturbines is about 60-65%.

Fig. 13.13


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Additionally, Propeller turbines may be slant mounted.Penstocks

The penstock inlet should be located as low as possible in the water so that it remains submerged whenwater levels are low. However, if it is too low, it may get blocked by sediment building up in front of it. An airvent may be required near the intake to prevent damage if the intake blocks and a vacuum is created. Penstocksmust slope downwards or an air lock may form, affecting performance.

A penstock should include a shut-off valve to stop water flow during maintenance of the turbine. Theymust be strong enough to resist the design water pressures and be protected from rapid starting and stopping ofthe water flow. They must also be protected from impact damage and exposure to the sun by being buried orenclosed in a box structure.

Capacity

Electricity generation of micro-hydro systems is directly proportional to the head of water and the waterflow rate, e.g. the same power generation can potentially be achieved by a generator with a low head and highwater flow rate (e.g. flat terrain with a large water catchment) or a high head and low water flow rate (e.gsteeper terrain with less water catchment area).

Static head

The static head (or gross head) is the vertical distance between the water level at the intake and thedischarge point. Both these levels are where the water has contact with air. The water discharge level for animpulse turbine is where the water leaves the inlet pipe and enters the turbine. For a reaction turbine, thedischarge level is where the water is discharged from the outlet pipe.

The static head increases as the water level at the intake increases. Minimum static head is where the water levelaligns with the top of the inlet pipe keeping in mind the inlet pipe entry needs to remain submerged.

Dynamic head

The dynamic head (in meters) is the static head (or gross head) less the losses in the pipework. The losses aresummed and converted to a pressure head value in meters. The dynamic head is therefore the actual amount ofwater pressure head available to generate electricity.

Friction losses should be minimized by:

short pipe lengths large pipe diameters few pipe bends high-radius pipe bends steep gradient.

Friction losses will also occur when the intake gets blocked.

Water flow rate

The water flow rate (in litres per second) is the amount of water moving through a pipe in a specific period oftime. As the water flow rate increases, the turbine spins faster and more electricity is generated.


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The main water flow will typically vary during the year and between years and may be dependent on:

seasonal rainfall snow and ice melt in the mountains cycles of flooding or drought blockages higher up the water source.

Micro-hydro generators work best where there is reasonably continuous water supply, giving a reasonably

constant static head. It is important to determine what the average year-round water level is at the intake, as thiswill be used for the static head to determine the year-round power output.

Any intake water storage system (e.g. dam, bin) with a reasonably constant water flow into it will maintain aconsistent or equilibrium water level. When storage water levels are:

higher, the generator flow rate increases until the level drops lower, the generator flow rate decreases until the level rises.

This equilibrium water level will be the design static head for the system. However, it can be difficult todetermine initially as it is related to the water flow rate through the generator and in the main water source. The

water flow rate at a site is not simple to measure and may require the temporary installation of a weir. The waterflow rate through the generator can be determined by iterative design techniques for different water heads.

Turbine capacity

The micro-hydro generation capacity specific to the installed system depends on the effectiveness of convertingthe linear water pressure force into turbine rotary inertia and then electricity. This increases with:

larger pipe diameter and turbine size allowing a higher water flow rate appropriate turbine blade profile for the average water flow rate and pressure lower friction losses in the turbine shaft assembly.

Installation

The micro-hydro system:

will require a building consent and a resource consent should be installed as close as possible to the electricity supply or storage system, to reduce line power

losses must withstand the water loads must have protection from impact, particularly for the less solid pipework

generally requires little maintenance as it has few moving parts the main issue is normally having toreplace the alternator brushes and flushing the turbine may need regular cleaning of the filter, depending on the amount of debris in the water supply must incorporate a means of restricting the natural outward flow of water to build up reserve capacity must incorporate a bypass overflow in case of flooding of the reservoir.

Electricity supply connection

Electrical power from the micro-hydro generator system can be available continuously at consistent outputlevels. The output AC may be:


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transferred as AC to the building for immediate use, via a controller that gives a 240V AC at 50 Hzpower supply, or

converted by a rectifier to DC for storage in batteries.

The choice between AC supply and DC storage is dependent on the reliability of electrical generation and thecapacity of the generator to meet peak demand.

Options include:

output all the AC directly to the building, where electrical generation is continuously guaranteed andgenerator capacity is greater than peak demand

output some of the AC directly to the building, with the rest converted to DC storage, where peakdemand is occasionally a little higher than generator capacity or there is occasional reduced electricalgeneration

convert all of the AC to DC storage, where electrical generation is inconsistent, or peak demand greatlyexceeds generator capacity.

Environmental impact

Micro-hydro generator systems have an impact on the water course. They may potentially affect:

plant and fish life in the water plant and animal life beside the water other users of the water further down stream the stability of the surrounding land thought the excavation for the reservoir.

Cost ElementsIn small and micro hydel power projects as per National Consultants

recommendations UNDP These cost elements are for type of micro hydro in remote hilly area. Efficiency ofindigenous turbines in the microhydel range is approx. as follows:

Pelton - 90%Turgo Impulse - 80%Cross flow - 60%Francis - 90% (Peak Efficiency at 90%)

Minimum weighted average efficiency of turbine and generator set ( Tv) 0.50x T100+ 0.5 T50specified in micro hydel standard issued by AHEC (extracts at Annexure 5). Accordingly weightedaverage efficiency of different category (size) of micro hydro is as follows:-Category A Category B Category CUpto 10 45 kW Upto 50 kW Upto 100 kW45% 50% 60%

Step by step procedure for selection of turbine is detailed below:1) Obtain Field Data as follows:a) Discharge data - Q cumecs


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b) Head - H head in meterc) Voltage Net work (415 volts or 11 kV)d) Nearest grid sub-station (optional) kV and length of interconnecting line

Compute kW capacity (P)P = Q x H x 9.804 x 0.8

Fix unit size, number and installed capacity based on data collected and requirement.

Using kW; H and Q per unit select usable turbine.

In case of turbine in overlapping range determine speed and specific speed relation and determine synchronous speed based on applicable range of specific as per Para 5.1. Higher

speed machine is cost effective.

Review turbine limitation and fix turbine type as per micro hydro standards.

GeneratorIn small hydropower schemes generally two types of generators i.e. induction and synchronous are installed. Incase of induction generator, excitation system gets the power from grid and is considered rugged in design,however commercially available induction generators are limited upto a capacity of 3500 kW

SpecificationAC GENERATOR

KG 075 D 225M M/C NO. HM002G2243

FRAME KG 225M RATING S1 DUTY TO IS: 4722-1922

KVA 75.0 INSUL. CLASS F PH. SEQ.PHASECONN.ALTD.

UVW

KW 60.0 POWER FACTOR 0.8 THREE

AMPS 104.0 ROTATON/DE CW STAR

VOLTS 415 AMBT. oC 40 1000W

RPM 1500 EXCITATION AMPS. 4.2 VOLTS 290

Hz 50 BEARING 63122ZZ NDE 6308ZZ


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If electricity can be generated from flowing water in canal it proves to be economical to company andpollution can be prevented.

Cost of installation:

Equipment Quantity Rate Total

Generator 1 300000 Rs. 300000 Rs

Turbine 1 60000 Rs 60000 RsCivil work - 50000-80000 Rs 50000 Rs

Transformer 1 90000 Rs 90000 Rs

Labour Charge - 35000 Rs 35000 Rs

Other - 90000-120000 Rs 90000 Rs

Total 590000 Rs

Total installation cost of project is appro. 625000 Rs.


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Payback PeriodCompany is investing money on these project it as to recovered within short period of time.

The average monthly bill of colony is 40000 - 50000 Rs.Total cost of project 625000 Rs.

If we taking 40000 Rs as a monthly bill

Payback period=total cost of project/monthly bill= 625000/40000=15.625

= 16 month


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ConclusionRising fuel costs, underinvestment in an aging infrastructure, and climate change are all converging to

create a turbulent period for the electrical power-generation industry. To make matters worse, demand forelectricity is forecast to exceed known committed generation capacity in many areas across the India. And, asutility companies prepare to meet growing demand, greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation maysoon surpass those from all other energy sources.

Fortunately, the creation of a Smart Grid will help solve these challenges.

A Smart Grid can reduce the amount of electricity consumed by homes and buildings, and accelerate theadoption of distributed, renewable energy sourcesall while improving the reliability, security, and useful lifeof electrical infrastructure.

Despite its promise and the availability of most of the core technologies needed to develop the SmartGrid, implementation has been slow. To accelerate development, state, county, and local governments, electricutility companies, public electricity regulators, and IT companies must all come together and work toward acommon goal.


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Bibliographywww.wikipedia.comwww. howstuffworks.comhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/research/rtdinfo/index_en.htmlwww.cse-wustl.eduwww.pge.com

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