SUMMER 2016Supplement to Country Folks

Good Living and Good Farming – Connecting People, Land, and CommunitiesSMALL FARM QUARTERLY

Feature ArticlesBloom Where You’re Planted: Local Farmers Purchase Conserved Land......Page 2

Climate Smart Farming: How is the Changing Climate Affecting YourFarm?.........................................................................................................Page 9

Incorporating Forage Brassicas into the Grazing System....................... Page 15

Making Connections through Soil Health.................................................Page 17

by Brenna Toman

Conservation Success Begins LocallyCradled by the looming curves of the GreenMountains to the west and the rocky spine ofthe Worcester Range to the east, Stowe is athriving community patchwork of smallfarms, forestland, rural residences, andmountain recreation destinations. As landuse changes over time and populationincreases, however, degradation to vital nat-ural resources can be misunderstood oroverlooked. Innovations in land protectionand responsible stewardship by farmers canhelp change this.

For over 70 years, the Kaiser family hasowned and operated an iconic farm, nestledinto the scenic Nebraska Valley in Stowe.Christine Kaiser has been producing eggs,pork, chicken, and milk here for decades.Christine is ready to retire as new owners,Andrew and Annie Paradee, start a newfarm tradition on the land.

Christine and the Paradees had help fromVermont Land Trust and Stowe Land Trust,who raised over $372,000 to purchase aconservation easement and facilitated thesale of the farm at its lower agriculturalvalue. The new operation will offer vegeta-bles, pork, and eggs available for on-farmpurchase by community members andimprove the woods for sugaring.

“It was important for Christine to know whowas buying the farm,” Annie Paradee point-ed out. “It was a hard process and she per-severed to make sure it got preserved.”Stowe Land Trust discovered that Christinewanted to sell her farm through a post onFront Porch Forum and opened a conversa-tion with her about conserving the land.Meanwhile, Christine approached theParadees, a local couple interested in start-ing a farm of their own. She wanted to makesure the land would be passed down to localfarmers with a vigorous conservation planand existing ties within the community. Aftermany months of legal talks and fundraisingfor the conservation easement, the farm wasofficially sold on April 29th.

A Legacy of Sustainable Farming“It is still hard to believe that the farm is real-ly ours now,” said Andrew, watching theirdog, Waffles, run and roll excitedly in thefield. The Paradees’ work on the farm hasalready begun. A quarter of an acre hasbeen tilled for vegetables, and they plan onplanting up to half an acre. The Paradeeswant to rotationally graze all of their animals,so they have started to construct a mobilechicken coop on an old hay wagon. The newfarmers also plan to continue Christine’slegacy of environmental conservation.

“We want to focus on maintaining andimproving rather than using the land,” saidAnnie. “We have a big responsibility to takecare of it.” Four solar panels stand tall, visi-ble from the road before the farm is. TheParadees plan to use this renewable energyto power greenhouses so they can extendthe growing season, as well as to light theirhome and other buildings. They plan to usea composted bedded pack to minimize nutri-ent runoff and create fertile soil for their hayand pasture lands. Their blend of conven-tional and heritage breed animals will bepastured and fed organic feed only.

Explaining the choice to support more her-itage breed livestock and crops, Annie quot-ed Barbara Kingsolver, “You can’t save thewhales by eating whales, but paradoxically,you can help save rare, domesticated foodsby eating them. They’re kept alive by gar-deners who have a taste for them, and farm-ers who know they’ll be able to sell them.”

Innovative Water Quality ManagementWith community members concerned aboutsediment and nutrient loads from localfarms, roadways, and other developmentdraining into Stowe’s waterways and LakeChamplain, a focus on river stewardship isimperative for this farm conservation project.The property contains 12 acres and 3200feet of frontage on the Miller Brook, an espe-cially important inlet to the Little River andconsequently, Lake Champlain. The newfarm plan for the property maps out how thisstream will be conserved forever.

Riverside property has long been soughtafter for businesses and homeowners alike.As waterfront investments increased, townsand landowners built barriers, berms, andarmor that protect the surrounding develop-ment from flooding and erosion. Over time,however, this method has created massiveflooding and erosion events downstream.

Rivers are wiggly, meandering creatures atheart. Water moves at different speeds oneither side of the river, and curves tend tobecome curvier as sediment is picked up onthe inside curve and deposited on the out-

side curve. When left alone, the river willeventually form many ‘C’ shapes. The ener-gy of the water can dissipate around thiscurve, and it can access the broader flood-plain in a high water event. Once the ‘C’ getscloser to an ‘O’ shape, it is easier for thewater to run in a straight line again, cuttingthrough the top and bottom of the curve.This cycle keeps the balance between landand river in equilibrium.

When the natural curving of the river isrestricted, the energy has nowhere to dissi-pate. The stream surges on, maintaining itsenergy until it eventually causes destructionsomewhere downstream. This also reducesthe possibility of soil creation, as fast movingwater carries sediment away and into largebasins like Lake Champlain instead of set-tling out in fertile floodplains.

The conservation easement, secured byStowe Land Trust and Vermont Land Trust,will ensure that at least 50 feet on either sideof the Miller Brook will remain forested andthe river channel will be allowed to meander

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STEWARDSHIP AND NATUREBloom Where You’re Planted: Local Farmers Purchase Conserved LandLocal farmers plan to continue the legacy of environmental conservation left by Christine Kaiser in Stowe, Vermont.

The Miller Brook runs through the Long Winter Farm. Photo by Vermont Land Trust

The new farmers, Andrew and AnnieParadee.

Photo by Stowe Land Trust See Bloom page 3

New Manual AvailableThe Cornell Small Farms Program ispleased to announce the new Baskets toPallets Teaching Manual (1st Edition). The16 lesson plans in the Manual are intendedfor an audience of small and mid-scale farm-ers in New York and the Northeast, whohave been primarily direct marketing, butwho are seeking to explore wholesale mar-kets — specifically groceries, food hubs,restaurants or cooperatives. The Manualcontains a series of presentations, discus-sions, activities, videos and other teachingresources that an agricultural serviceprovider can adapt and tailor to local farmeraudiences. The Manual incorporates twoCase Study Farms, based on an actual pro-

duce and livestock farm currently operatingin New York. Over the course of theTraining, various Units examine the twofarms from different angles, enablingtrainees to understand real-life manage-ment, production, and promotion strategiesthrough the lens of ‘wholesale’ marketing.

The lesson plans may be taught insequence over the course of a two-day train-ing, or excerpted for a series of shorterworkshops. To access the Manual, fill outthe user request form athttp://smallfarms.cornell.edu/projects/wholesale. The Baskets to Pallets TeachingManual was produced in collaboration withCornell Cooperative Extension and

Northeast SARE. For more information, con-tact Project Manager Violet Stone atvws7@cornell.edu or 607-255-9227.

Summer Field Day on Reduced Tillage inOrganic Vegetables Our Cornell Reduced Tillage Team is offer-ing an in-depth field tour of strategies toimprove soil health in organic vegetables.Our tour will highlight current research onintegrating cover crops and reducing tillagefor farms at multiple scales. We will demon-strate strip tillage for small-scale farmersand review impacts of new mulching andcovering cropping techniques on weeds andcrops. We will also have an in-field demon-stration of measuring soil health impactsafter different practices. Learn more abouthow these practices may impact pest or dis-ease challenges, such as Swede Midge.

Date: August 17, 2016 from 4 to 7 p.m. Location: Freeville Organic Research Farmat the HC Thompson Vegetable ResearchFarm, 133 Fall Creek Road, Freeville NY. Register: This is a free event. For registra-tion information, contact Ryan Maher atrmm325@cornell.edu. The event is spon-sored by NOFA-NY.

For more details on our Reduced Tillageproject, visit our projects page: http://small-farms.cornell.edu/projects/

Grants Awarded to New York StateAgricultural Experimental StationThe New York State AgriculturalExperimental Station received four grants tosupport research in organic grains, maltingbarley production, and apple varieties forhard cider.

The grant comes from $1.1 million dedicat-ed to projects that strengthen the research,promotion, and development of New YorkState’s agriculture industry.

Cornell University College of Agriculture andLife Sciences Associate Dean andGoichman Family Director of the New YorkState Agricultural Experiment Station Dr.Susan K. Brown said, “We greatly appreci-ate this generous investment, which helpssupport the College of Agriculture and LifeScience’s (CALS) and its New York StateAgricultural Experiment Station’s (NYSAES)commitment to deliver outstanding scienceand outreach essential to the expandingbrewing and farm-based beverage industryin New York State. Our partnership withgrowers, producers, and entrepreneurs, fos-ters economic development, and expandsthe diversity and quality of New York bever-ages available to consumers.”

More information can be found athttp://tinyurl.com/AgGrants

July 4, 2016 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY Page 3

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within its natural corridor without interfer-ence. Luckily, Christine’s past participationin the USDA’s Conservation ReserveEnhancement Program has already alloweda forested river corridor to generate. TheParadees are excited to keep up the buffer.

“We can’t change the natural stabilizers ofthe river,” explains Annie Paradee, “it has togo where it has to go.” The continuedforestation of the river’s ‘meander belt’ willdo far more than allow the stream to curve.Wildlife is drawn to native vegetation and thevertical diversity of a land gone wild. Rootswill soak up water, nitrogen, and phospho-rus, filtering the runoff water from the sur-rounding farm and watershed, while reduc-ing the risk of soil erosion in events of high

water. Continuing to protect watersheds,streams, and rivers will allow many riversthat are currently unstable to settle into equi-librium.

The conservation of the Long Winter Farm isa significant step forward for Stowe towardsworking with — not armoring against — theriver that runs through it. The Paradees willcontinue to use responsible and sustainablepractices to leave the land even better thanthey found it.

Brenna Toman is the Stewardship &Outreach Coordinator at Stowe Land Trustand a VHCB AmeriCorps Member. She canbe reached at brenna@stowelandtrust.orgor at 802-253-7221.

Cornell Small Farms Program Update

Message from the Editor

Summer is upon the farm and this always means sweaty long days where we oftenpush our bodies and minds to their limit; sometimes not leaving the field until the sunhas slipped down over the horizon. We are busy as farmers, and there never seems tobe enough time in the day.

I’ve been reflecting on this recently – these notions of being “so busy” and not having“enough time” to get the list of tasks completed. In many ways these statements, whichI say myself frequently and hear often from other farmers, are true. Yet we also are thevictims of our own creation. We can choose to feel overwhelmed and busy, yet we canalso choose to take time off and enjoy ourselves, too.

This year on our farm my wife and I have made a pact to be okay with the list not beingdone, and to be sure to carve our time for swimming, hiking, kayaking, and picnickingtogether with our dogs. As a farmer friend recently reminded me, “The farmers are thefarm’s greatest asset.”

Just like our crops and animals, we need to be taken care of, too. Here’s to a produc-tive (and relaxing) summer for you and yours.

— Steve

The Miller Brook runs through the Long Winter Farm. Photo by Vermont Land Trust

Bloom from page 2

Page 4 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY July 4, 2016

SMALL FARM QUARTERLYGood Farming and Good Living —

Connecting People, Land, and CommunitiesSmall Farm Quarterly is for farmers and farm families — including spouses andchildren - who value the quality of life that smaller farms provide.

OUR GOALS ARE TO: • Celebrate the Northeast region’s smaller farms; • Inspire and inform farm families and their supporters; • Help farmers share expertise and opinions with each other; • Increase awareness of the benefits that small farms contribute to society

and the environment; • Share important research, extension, and other resources.

Small Farm Quarterly is produced by Lee Publications, Inc., and is distributed fourtimes a year as a special section of Country Folks. Publication dates: January11th, April 4th, July 4th and October 3rd, 2016.

EDITORS & CONTRIBUTORS:

• Steve Gabriel, Cornell Small Farms Program Managing Editor sfg53@cornell.edu • Anu Rangarajan, Cornell Small Farms Program Editor-in-Chief ar47@cornell.edu• Tara Hammonds, Cornell Small Farms Program Student Intern tkh25@cornell.edu• Ryan Maher, Cornell Small Farms Program Vegetables ryan.maher@cornell.edu• Rich Taber, CCE Chenango County Farm Tech/Farm Woodlot rbt44@cornell.edu• Ulf Kintzel, White Clover Sheep Farm Sheep ulf@whitecloversheepfarm.com• Rachel Carter, VT Farm to Plate Vermont Correspondent Rachel@vsjf.org• Petra Page-Mann, Fruition Seeds Seed Stories petra@fruitionseeds.com• John Thurgood, USDA Natural Resources Stewardship and Nature john.thurgood@vt.usda.gov• Jason Foscolo, The Food Law Firm Farm Law info@foodlawfirm.com • Reuben Dourte, Ruhl Insurance Farm Insurance ruhlinsurance@gmail.com• Elizabeth Burrichter, Capital Roots Local Foods elizabeth.burrichter@gmail.com• Elizabeth Henderson Labor elizabethhenderson13@gmail.com• Edward DuQuette Western Correspondent eduquetteut@gmail.com

FOR SUBSCRIPTION INFORMATION CONTACTTracy Johnson, Lee Publications, Inc., PO Box 121, Palatine Bridge, NY 13428

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SEND YOUR LETTERS AND STORIES TO:Cornell Small Farms Program

15A Plant Science Building, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853607-255-2142 •  sfg53@cornell.edu

Small Farm Quarterly is compiled by the Cornell Small Farms Program, based at CornellUniversity in Ithaca, NY. The Cornell Small Farms Program fosters the sustainability of diverse,thriving small farms that contribute to food security, healthy rural communities, and the environ-

ment. We do this by encouraging small farms-focused research and extension programs.

Anyone is welcome to submit articles for consideration. See our guidelines at smallfarms.cornell.edu/quarterly/writers/ and contact Steve Gabriel with inquiries. Articles should be

1,000 - 1,600 words in length with 2 - 3 high-resolution pictures.

Topics should be appropriate for a farmer audience, and not promote a single organization orbusiness. We focus on articles with relevant information that helps to improve the practice of

farming and agriculture in New York and the Northeast.About copyright: The material published in Small Farm Quarterly is not copyrighted unless otherwise noted.

However, we ask that you please be sure to credit both the author and Small Farm Quarterly

TABLE OF CONTENTSSMALL FARM PROGRAM UPDATECornell Small Farms Program Update ..................Page 3

BUSINESS MANAGEMENTSuccessful Farm Succession

by John H. Lavelle..............................................Page 14

COMMUNITY AND WORLDMaking Connections through Soil Health

by Jena Buckwell...............................................Page 17

FARM SAFETYNortheast Ag Safety & Health Coalition Meets for their

Second Annual Meetingby James Carrabba.............................................Page 12

GRAZINGIncorporating Forage Brassicas into a Grazing System

by Dr. Leanne Dillard..........................................Page 15

HIGH TUNNELSOld Order Farmer has Ivy League Role

by R.J. Anderson................................................Page 16

LIVESTOCK AND POULTRYPig Production Grows Quickly

by Jo E. Prout.......................................................Page 7

NEW AND BEGINNING FARMERSFarmers Should Know Their Responsibilities, Workers

Their Rights by Elizabeth Henderson......................................Page 12

Know Your Costsby Krati Pachori...................................................Page 19

RESOURCE SPOTLIGHTCertified Naturally Grown Offers Mushroom

Certification Program.......................................Page 18Cornell Crop and Pest Management Guidelines....Page 18 “One Stop Shop” - Starting a New York Winery

by Jesse Strzock.................................................Page 18

SOIL HEALTHA Vegetable Farm Covered in Green

by Brian Caldwell .................................................Page 6Crucifer Cover Crops for Small Farms

by Thomas Bjorkman..........................................Page 10

STEWARDSHIP AND NATUREBloom Where You’re Planted

by Brenna Toman..................................................Page 2Climate Smart Farming

by Jonathan Lambert............................................Page 9

SOCIAL STRUCTURESDIY Farm Fixes: Conflict

by Claudia Kenny..................................................Page 5

YOUTH PAGEA Frosty Night from a Young Farmer’s Perspective

by Lianna Bonacorsi.............................................Page 8

ABOUT OUR ADS...All advertisements in Small Farm Quarterly are managed by Lee Publications. Cornell’s SmallFarms Program, Cornell Cooperative Extension, and other Small Farm Quarterly sponsors andcontributors do not endorse advertisers, their products or services. We receive no revenues fromadvertisers.

To find out how your business or organization can advertise in Small Farm Quarterly, contact:Richard Barrett, Lee Publications, 518-673-0118 or 800-218-5586, ext. 118, rbarrett@leepub.com

SMALL FARM QUARTERLY - SUMMER 2016

Cornell Small Farms Programwww.smallfarms.cornell.edu607-255-9227

http://www.vsjf.org/802-318-5527

SUPPORTING ORGANIZATIONS:

www.nrcs.usda.gov802-865-7895

Cover: Hands with BerriesPhoto by Becca Rimmel

by Claudia Kenny

As farmers we are masters of the quick fix. We are good atmending fences on the fly and cobbling together a piece ofbroken equipment to finish the job before the day ends.Farm conflict, whether with family members, coworkers,employees, or even neighbors, is like any other problem wesolve. Having a plan, some awareness, and a few tools canhelp out with the short-term fixes you need to get throughthe day.

Conflict is a normal part of any farm business. Conflictscome often when people have different values, goals, andperspectives. Conflict can be a positive force on the farm, ifwe manage it well. Conflict can create energy, focus andchange. It can also cause us to revisit a decision and con-sider it more carefully. Conflict can help us understand whatis important to us and to others. The way we manage con-flict means the difference between the conflict becoming anegative or positive experience.

Fight, Flight, FreezeMost of us are not at our best during a conflict. We saythings we don’t really mean, make accusations, and refuseto hear what the other person is saying. We get locked in anarrow mindset feeling like one way is the right way and theonly way. There is a biological reason for this “my way or thehighway” attitude!

According to neuroscience, we actually don’t have our fullcapacity to see multiple perspectives or make complex deci-sions, when we are “triggered”, or in fight, flight, freezemode. When we are “triggered,” stress hormones flood ourbody and then neural pathways to the prefrontal cortex, shutdown. The prefrontal cortex is the area of the brain thathelps us sort conflicting thoughts and right from wrong. Thisis a big deal! We feel tense, irritated and unable to stopthinking in a loop.

Below are a few techniques to help you manage conflict onthe farm:

1. Notice when you are triggered and take a break Noticing you are triggered helps you begin to shift from reac-tivity to managing your conflicts productively. Cool off anddo nothing for a little while.

Make a practice of noticing when you are triggered and in“fight, flight or freeze”. Name it. Just noticing can help youshift from being triggered. Since we don’t have access to ourfull capacity when we a triggered, building awareness willhelp you know when to take a break during a conflict insteadof engaging.

2. ReflectReflect on the situation. Review your observations. Whathappened, what did you see or hear, what words were said?(think of what a video camera can see or record — just theobservables). We often mix observations with evaluationsand you will want to try to separate evaluations from yourobservations.

Evaluative Observation: “She angrily dropped her hoe andstormed up to the barn.”

Observation: “She dropped her hoe and went to the barn.”

Reflect on self. What feelings do we experience as a resultof the data we observe? Usually there are a range of feel-ings. “I feel angry and disappointed and frustrated and mostof all just really tired of the tension.” What are the needs orvalues that relate to those feelings? For instance, if you arefeeling angry it is easy to think it is because someone didsomething that really pissed you off. But we are the onlyones who create our response. No one can really make usangry. What is it that you were really wanting, is there avalue you care about? (ex. if you are really tired of the ten-sion you might really value and want ease and peace etc.).

Reflect on the other. How might the other person be feel-ing in relation to the observable data? What are the needsand values they might be holding that relate to those feel-ings? Try to put yourself in their shoes and understand thesituation from their perspective.

3. Talk about itSometimes we learn something about ourselves in thereflective process and don’t need to talk about anything. Ifyou decide a conversation is the next step here are a fewtips.

Listen first. Focus carefully on what is said and reflect back

the information and opinions. You don’t have to rememberevery detail but try to get the gist of the story. Use theirwords and phrasing rather than your own interpretation. Youdon’t have to agree with what they are saying. Check to findout if you are hearing them in the way they want to be heard.

Avoid reflecting back judgments. For example “Jon is a jerk”might be reflected back as “you are thinking Jon is a jerk.” Ifthe story is very long interrupt and reflect back in chunksrather than at the end. Interrupt by saying something like,“Let me see if I am understanding what you are saying so faris…”

Then check to see if you understand their feelings. Askinginstead of telling someone how they feel is most effective.“So I am wondering if this is really frustrating for you?” Ifyour guess is wrong the person will give you more informa-tion. “I am not frustrated, I am mad.”

Reflect back what is most important to the person. Make aguess? “So are you really wanting _______?” (ex: things torun efficiently on the farm? )

When you feel the person has said everything that theywanted to be heard about see if they are willing to hearabout your experience.

Share your experience. Share your observations, and thefeelings that came up for you. Share what you care aboutnow in relation to the conflict and what is most important toyou? Focus on the problem or the issue and not the person.

4. Find SolutionsMake requests (not demands); accept a “NO” and be pre-pared with a second request. If you are not really willing tohear a no you are most likely making a demand and not arequest.

You may want to propose “experiments” to test potentialsolutions.

5. Know when to get helpIf you try these things and realize you are in over your headwith a situation consider “borrowing” the skills of a mediatorjust in the same way you might “borrow” the skills of anaccountant to help you figure out how to manage a tightfinancial spell. Mediators are third party neutrals trained incommunication who can offer individuals conflict coachingor can offer two or more parties mediation.

Even the best fences need maintenance and repairs. If abroken fence is not repaired there are going to be problems.It is not the broken fence that determines the outcome buthow quickly we notice and how we choose to respond.Same with our relationships to people and conflict. When wenotice a conflict, and how we choose to respond or managea conflict, makes a difference to the outcome.

Claudia Kenny has managed Little Seed Gardens with herhusband in Columbia County, NY since 1995. Learning tomanage conflict constructively has been vital to their farm’ssuccess which is dependent on webs of family, labor, com-munity and business relationships. She has her MastersDegree in Conflict Analysis and Engagement and is current-ly Statewide Director of New York State AgriculturalMediation Program (NYSAMP). NYSAMP offers confiden-tial, low or no cost mediation to the Agriculture community.

July 4, 2016 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY Page 5

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SOCIAL STRUCTURES

DIY Farm Fixes: Conflict

Author Claudia Kenny

Page 6 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY July 4, 2016

SOIL HEALTHA Vegetable Farm Covered in GreenBlue Heron Farm uses grass strips and cover crops to improve soils, increase productivityBy Brian Caldwell

The arrangement of vegetable fields into a bed layout withpermanent growing areas and separate wheeltracks (alleys)has several advantages. In contrast to systems in whichbeds are re-formed every year, compaction from tractor tiresis confined to the non-cropped area. Beds can be managedindividually by crop which simplifies planning. The beds mayalso be raised compared to the alleys if necessary, allowingthem to dry out earlier for timely planting in spring.

These advantages can be augmented by leaving the alleysin permanent grass sod. Such grass strips between the bedsallow workers to be in a clean area without mud, provide ben-eficial insect habitat, help dry the growing beds out earlier bytranspiring water, reduce the tilled area, and build soil car-bon. However, the grass strips need to be managed to pre-vent too much growth and consequent competition with thecash crops and the buildup of perennial weeds. These nega-tive aspects have thwarted many organic vegetable farmerswho have attempted to implement permanent beds withgrass strips. Blue Heron Farm in Lodi, NY is one of the fewwho succeed with this approach. How do they do it?

First, some background. Lou Johns and Robin Ostfeld start-ed Blue Heron Farm near Olympia, WA in 1981. Theybought a semi-abandoned 150 acre farm, mostly wooded,and moved to Lodi, NY in 1986. They started over in theirNew York location where the soil was fairly productive buthad drainage issues. The heavy traffic of vegetable produc-tion took its toll over the first several seasons. Compactionwas an issue due to high clay content soils and shallow top-soil layer and likely to get worse. Lou and Robin had beenthinking about a system of permanent beds with grassalleys, and perhaps this was a good opportunity to try it out.They had read and studied about the soil, and knew thatgood soil stewardship was key to productivity on their certi-fied organic farm. Experts and other farmers, however, werenot optimistic about the grass strip approach.

By 1995 Lou and Robin were ready to embark on a radicalidea. At this point they were growing about 12 acres of cashand cover crops. They laid out one of the three main cropfields in a pattern of 70” wide beds separated by strips justwide enough for the tractor tires. The “grass” strips weresimply left to grow whatever grasses and weeds emerged.Beds were flat, not raised, because managing the sides ofraised beds was problematical. They had their tractor axlesextended to straddle such wide beds, which equaled thewidth tilled by their rototiller. And thus the 5-year process ofconverting the whole farm began.

Results were good enough to continue, though it took 10years before their soils reached their full potential. In thosefirst years of permanent beds, they encountered difficultykeeping the bed edges even with the sod strips. Unevenedges and stones thrown into the strips made mowing diffi-cult, and ruined many lawnmowers. They welded plates ontotheir tiller to keep stones and soil in, and added spider gangsfrom Lilliston cultivator units to smooth the soil gently backtoward the bed during tillage. (The spider gangs have since

been removed and additional shielding has been added tothe end plates of the tiller. These now contain all the soil andstones worked by the tiller in the bed.) Similar modificationswere made to cultivators to maintain the bed edges. Alsoover the years, they widened the sod strips substantially. Thisallowed use of a riding mower on the widest ones, which wasmost useful in spring when the grass grew rapidly.

By 2010, roughly 1/3 of each field was taken up by the grassstrips. Lou and Robin felt that the benefits of the strips andthe high productivity of the beds more than justified thatapparent “loss” of growing area. The permanent beds wereeasy to track for crop rotation purposes, which was impor-tant given the high diversity of crops that Blue Heron Farmgrew, often with multiple planting dates.

It is hard to know which aspects are fundamental for the suc-cess of this integrated system. Certainly, the equipmentmodifications enabling management of bed edges andweeds were critical. The farm uses overhead irrigation, sosod strips receive water as well as the crop beds — thus sodroots are not robbing moisture from the beds. Compostapplications to the beds are fairly high. Nothing is applied tothe strips, but the sod’s roots probably scavenge nutrientsfrom the beds. It is possible that the wide 70” beds are opti-mal to prevent sod roots from competing much with cashcrops. When the strips are mown, clippings are usuallyblown into the beds, capturing nutrients and organic matterin the beds. Wood chips are present in the compost appliedto the beds, which has likely improved water-holding capac-ity over time. Cover crops are used heavily, and beds are putinto a grass/legume fallow every 10 years or so. All of theseaspects may contribute to good results from this system.

The downsides of this system are the time required to mowthe grass strips, and also the high level of skill needed to tilland prepare the beds. Lou does all of the prep work. Overthe years they upgraded to 4-wheel drive tractors whichtrack straighter than 2-wheel. They maintain multiple mow-ers, and in May, it is often hard to keep up with the mowing.It is also possible that during very dry weather, the sod stripsmay reduce overall moisture in the fields, increasing theneed for irrigation. These negative management factors arecounterbalanced by the ease of working in the fields — plen-ty of room for workers, a clean area to put boxes and bunch-es of produce ready for packing, and no slogging throughmud to move irrigation pipe. In very wet periods, nearby sodroots may actually help beds dry out more quickly.

However, the overriding factor may be persistence. Lou says,“Recognize the benefit of being persistent and focused on yourgoals. Don’t give up too soon, but do stop and look at what youare doing and decide if it is worth it to continue on this path.Give yourself enough time to carry out your goals. Goodresults take time.” Lou and Robin were convinced that theirapproach would yield rewards after they worked out the kinks.

A similar mentality governs crop practices on their farm.Cover crops are used extensively and with the sod strips,the soil is covered by green growing plants for almost all ofthe year. Two practices set them apart. Blue Heron Farmgrows many July-planted storage crops including carrotsand brassicas. These usually follow overwintered cover

crops. Often the problem in this situation is that the covercrops reach maturity and threaten to set seed before thecash crops are ready to be planted. Lou and Robin deviseda novel practice of mowing to solve this problem and get themost growth out of their cover crops. Cover crops (often amix of wheat, vetch, and Austrian winter peas) are allowedto get 3’ tall, typically in late May, then flail mowed at a heightof 1’. The regrowth is dominated by legumes and is againmowed about a foot high.

The second regrowth is again dominated by the legumes.When it gets to a foot or so, it is mowed close to the soillevel. All of the residue is then tilled in roughly. After a weekor so, it is tilled again for July transplants. Timing can bealtered a bit to allow for the extra tillage needed to producea fine seedbed for root crops. Using this approach, covercrops are growing, covering the soil, fixing nitrogen andadding organic matter until shortly before planting. Bare fal-low periods are eliminated.

Another remarkable practice is how Blue Heron Farm man-ages asparagus. For many organic asparagus growers,weeds are a constant struggle. Blue Heron overcomes thisproblem, again with cover crops.

In early spring before emergence if weather allows, theasparagus beds are tilled lightly to a depth of about 3”. Thisdoes not harm the crop. Harvest proceeds normally. Afterthe harvest is over, beds are again tilled shallowly, killingweeds but again not harming the asparagus crowns. Thenext day, a cover crop mix of soybeans, hairy vetch, fieldpeas, and buckwheat is drilled to fill the beds. This mix, withasparagus ferns growing above, is left for the rest of the sea-son. When the asparagus ferns yellow, the entire mass isflail mowed. It is roughly tilled in if time allows. Similar totheir novel cover crop mowing regime, this process controlsweeds, grows biomass, adds some fixed legume nitrogen,and protects the soil over winter.

Lou and Robin created a productive and profitable veg-etable production system for Blue Heron Farm. They puttogether the pieces within a vision of improving soil healthand managing their challenging soil moisture regime. Part ofthis was reducing tillage only to crop bed areas while main-taining soil-enhancing sod strips throughout their fields.Field traffic never compacts the beds. Beneficial insects livein the strips right next to the crops. They manage covercrops intensively and a high percentage of their land is cov-ered in winter. All these practices result in a beautiful, viable,and sustainable farm.

Reduced tillage takes many forms. This story is the 4th ina series featuring organic vegetable growers that havetransitioned to reduced tillage systems toward greater farmsustainability. Experienced growers at diverse scales aredeveloping reduced tillage strategies for tackling weeds,managing rotations and cover crops, and incorporatingamendments. Look for past and future SFQ issues to learnthe practices that are helping these growers build bettersoils. Contact Ryan Maher of the Cornell Small FarmsProgram for more information on this project:ryan.maher@cornell.edu

Permanent beds with grass strips at Blue Heron Farm.

Plates welded onto the front of the rototiller keep stonesoff the grass strips.

Lush cover crops at Blue Heron Farm.

July 4, 2016 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY Page 7

by Jo E. Prout

Greene County farmer Bitta Albright is enter-ing her fourth season in pig production, afterstarting with only two to raise for herself.

“They’re very addictive. You can’t just haveone pig,” she said. “We enjoy it. Oh, mygosh! I started with two for meat for myfreezer. We got one a boyfriend. She had 13piglets.”

Albright’s husband, Bill, is retiring from dairyfarming and now keeps beef cattle, whoshare pasture with Bitta Albright’s pigs.

“I’ve got six acres I pasture my pigs on,” shesaid. “They’re not too aggressive with the

cows. They’re very mellow-natured. Theypasture well together. The pigs will eat theweeds the cows won’t eat.” Her pigs eat poi-son oak, horse nettles, and poison ivy, shesaid.

“They rut the land — it aerates the land,” shesaid. “They will go out in the wild and maketheir own nests, and farrow out there. Theyhave six to 14 piglets in a litter. The gesta-tion is three months.”

Albright’s pigs also have access to fencedwoodland, a spring-fed pond, and barn shelter.

“They’re friendly, and smarter than a dog.Good fencing is the key, and keeping themwell fed, or they’ll be gone!” she said. “Youfool them once. That’s it.”

Describing the pigs as self-regulating,Albright said her pigs farrowed outdoors lastwinter during the coldest February in years,choosing their own place rather than thecozy barn.

“They eat hay, pasture grass, and grain,”she said. “They have excellent night vision.They run out in the woods. The woods arefenced with electric to keep the pigs in, andpredators out.

“You have to set it up right,” she said. “Wehave set it up to work for us.”

“Water is the key to every animal. With freshwater, they will grow well,” Albright said. “A

pig will drink five to 10 gallonsof water in the summer.”

In six months, Albright’s pigs willbe 250-pound animals. Herlarge-animal veterinarian visitstwice a month, but Albright’spigs rarely need restraint — shefeeds some grain to the animalbeing treated, gives him a bellyscratch until he is comfortable,then the vet is able to examinethe pig, she said.

“We are small farmers. If youhave only a few animals, theyhave to be friendly. We’re tooold to chase them!” Albrightsaid. “They must be friendly soyou can handle them, andcheck their hooves and teeth.”

“If they’re not friendly, they’regoing down the road,” she saidof sending a pig to the butcher.

Choosing breeds“There are no micro pigs,” she said. Sheraises Yorkshire and Hampshire crosses,and the heritage breeds, Red Wattle andBerkshire pigs.

“The Berkshire is known for dark meat andmarbling,” she said. “The Yorkshire is thenumber-one breeder in the country for com-mercial for bacon — it’s longer. TheHampshire is known for ham.”

The Red Wattles are known for their meat’sfine texture and for their fast growth, shesaid.

“I like to cross breed them,” Albright said. “Itgets you a little stronger animal, and givesyou a healthy, strong piglet that grows in sixmonths — you get more for your money.”

Types of productionSows can have one or two litters per year,but Albright generally breeds hers once.

“Every sow is different,” she said.

Sales of her pig products are seasonal, shesaid. Piglets are popular in the spring, whensmall farmers buy them from her and takethem home to raise for six to eight months,before putting them in their freezers. Shesells a dozen or more piglets each year atmarket price, generally at $100 per piglet.

Customers also purchase fully-grown pigsfrom Albright, and order custom butcheringincluded in the price. A pig will take up foursquare feet in a freezer, she said.

“Not everyone wants to breed pigs,” shesaid. “For some, it’s easier to buy piglets andraise what you need.”

Her pigs will be between 100 and 175pounds hanging weight after they arebutchered, she said. She does not let themgrow too large, or they would have too muchfat on them, she said.

Her pigs are given no hormones, medica-tions, or vaccines.

“Mine are pastured,” she said. “It makes fora very hardy animal.”

“I use a USDA-certified butcher I found onthe USDA website,” Albright said. “Alwaysget someone who is recommended. Ask fel-low farmers.”

Albright drives her pigs to a butcher inStanford, NY.

“It tastes different. It’s just awesome,” she saidof her own products. The bacon is leaner thanbacon bought in grocery stores, she said.Customers can order jowl bacon, regularbacon, Irish country bacon, or Canadianbacon. She does not use nitrate-smokedprocesses.

“It has less salt, and they get a better flavor,”

LIVESTOCK AND POULTRYPig Production Grows Quickly

• Potting Soil• Greenhouses• Fertilizers• Irrigation• Pots & Planters• Row Covers• Fungicides• Insecticides• Stakes & Twine• and much more!

Bitta Albright scratches her sheltered pigs, that arenow ready for market.

All photos by Jo E. Prout

A row of pigs lines up for a tasty graintreat at Albright's Dairy Farm in Climax,New York.

Bitta and Bill Albright raise pigs on sixfenced acres in Greene County, NewYork, and sell them from the farm and atlocal farmers' markets. See Pig page 8

by Lianna Bonacorsi

Just about eight years ago, my family had outgrownour tiny house in Trenton, NJ, with the birth of my lit-tle sister Nora, the fifth child. My father had grown upon a muck farm in Oswego, NY, and my mother in asmall town just outside of Albany, NY. They hadalways dreamt of owning a fruit farm, and eight yearsago their dreams became reality in HunterdonCounty, NJ. It was a change for all of us; my older sis-ters (ages 12 and 13) were switching from an urbanmiddle school to a rural, very small, grade K-8 schoolthat both my younger brother (age 5) and I (age 8)also attended. This was the beginning of a real fami-ly adventure, one that would last forever and makememories that would never be forgotten.

Of all the challenges we’ve had to face, weathermight just have been our most difficult. Not just hur-ricanes Sandy and Irene, or the insane winters withfour feet of snow overnight, but the frost. All farmersknow and understand the all too real threat of frost,myself included. Every spring, we all know to expectsome damage on our blossoms, whether it be topeach or strawberry, it happens. However, this yearfarmers have been noticing some odd and unfortu-nate numbers.

Recently New Jersey residents have enjoyed somefantastic working weather: nice high 70s, evensome days in the low 80s. On the other hand, we’vehad some cold fronts come through where nightsgot into the very low 20s. There was one night inparticular when every farmer’s favorite weathersource was finally in agreement with one fact: it wasgoing to be cold, cold enough for a 90% kill on ouralready first bloom buds, which is 21 degrees forpeaches, inconveniently one of our larger crops.This frost started as an advection frost and later inthe night became a radiant frost. An advection frostusually occurs on a windy night, where there’s noinversion, and the temperature is less than 32 degreesFahrenheit. A radiant frost would usually occur when it’scalm and clear out; there is inversion, and the temperatureis greater than 32 degrees Fahrenheit up higher, and afrost or freeze at the ground level.

Allow me to set the scene of our dinner table the nightbefore the frost: My father at the head of the table sippinghis homemade wine, discussing all chances of saving ourfruit with my mother, also enjoying wine. My siblings and Isit quietly eating our venison, salad, and applesauce, mylittle sister only piping in to suggest that we lure the deer toour field with corn in hopes that their body heat would raise

the temperature a few degrees. While she is quite thecomedian and pretty cute, we were still all stressed out.While looking at the pros and cons of our options, our localfruit agent had advised us to burn fires, and to, “not be aboy scout about it”, in his words. If we had prepared morein advance, we could have considered the variety of chem-ical options for protecting our fruit, but because we’re asmaller farm and only run by our family, they were nottaken into consideration at the dinner table that night.

My parents had never started fires to save our fruit before;they never felt it necessary before that night. The state ofNew Jersey had already announced it was permitting farm-

ers controlled open burning for a few nights thatweek due to the low temperatures. It was reallyonly that day that we would be lighting fires everyten feet or so throughout one of our two orchards.

When I got home from school that day, my moth-er and I began using our tractors to bring woodout to the field, making little stacks of seven oreight pieces, which we did until the sun wentdown. Meanwhile, my father worked on fixingthree huge fans, strapping them to our tractor,and getting the tractor plus a generator into theupper field where we didn’t plan on lighting firesthat night. We knew it wouldn’t save our wholeupper field, but we had to focus on just one.

That night was comprised of lots of caffeinatedtea, heavy coats, my little sister and I crumplingpaper to start fires, and my parents up all nightkeeping the fires lit. It was hard work, loadingwood onto tractors endlessly; there’s no fun way tophrase staying up all night in the low 20-degreeweather working. Not to mention, my father hadwork the next morning as he’s a chemist workingfive days a week from 8 a.m. till 5 p.m., and mymother had volunteered to help with a fundraiserat the local school the next morning. Their dedica-tion and hard work is really something. The entiretime I was preparing for the cold night, all I couldthink about was our warm, juicy peaches in July;so ripe that they just wanted to fall into your handsfrom the tree, and when you bit into them theirintense flavor could make you cry from joy as thedelicious juice erupted all over your face andhands. Losing our peaches would’ve been a bigdisappoint for both us and our customers, as ourpeaches are definitely a highlight to the farmingseason.

While I’m not sure that all of that time and hardwork actually did save our peaches, farming has

once again has taught me a lesson. Everything I’velearned from just one night is astonishing, about the differ-ence between advection and radiant frosts, solutions fordifferent frosts, the temperatures for 10% and 90% kill ofdifferent stages of blossoms, controlled open burning forfarmers that New Jersey allows, and so much more. Luckyus, I’m certain we’ll face more frost in years to come.

Lianna Bonacorsi is a high school student from HunterdonCounty, NJ; devoted to her family, farm (bonacorsi familyfarm), art, and writing. She can be reached at: lian-nalovespopcorn@gmail.com.

Page 8 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY July 4, 2016

YOUTH PAGEA Frosty Night from a Young Farmer’s PerspectiveEvery spring, all farmers struggle with frost and jump through hoops trying to keep their farm safe; and that’s exactlywhat this small, family run produce farm in New Jersey did.

Albright said. “I eat it myself. It’s delicious.”

Grocery stores can add solutions to meat forbetter coloring and flavoring, she said.

“Read the label on pork chops. It’s not allpork,” she said. “There’s no pork chop thatlooks so pink and juicy that you buy in thestore.” Cooking store-bought meat causes itto shrink down, she said.

“Our stuff doesn’t shrink. You get what youpay for,” Albright said. “People who boughtmy meat have come back.”

“Locally grown pigs — farm to table,” saidher husband, Bill. He takes care of the beefside of their farm, while Bitta sells directly tocustomers both from their farm and atfarmer’s markets. She frequents the closestto her, in Coxsackie, each Wednesday.

“If you’re looking to be a homesteader, thisis the best thing to do. Pigs till the land, eatweeds, and forage the woods,” she said.“Once you’re in a routine, they’re very easyto take care of.”

She makes sure her pastured pigs arefriendly, scratching them and talking to themas she gives them grain.

“It’s all how you treat your animals,” shesaid.

Jo E. Prout is an award-winning journalistwho resides in Greene County, New York

For more information, find Albright’s Farmon Facebook at https://www.facebook.com/Albrights-Farm-321728647994894/

Lianna, age 15, and her little sister Nora, age 8, pose for a picture intheir peach orchard at sunset.

Photo by Lianna Bonacorsi

Pig from page 7

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July 4, 2016 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY Page 9

by Jonathan Lambert

As many are certainly aware, the earth’s cli-mate and weather are always in flux.However, the rate of change in climate con-ditions and severe weather events we areseeing today is far beyond what previousgenerations have had to face, and is havinga noticeable impact on farmers in theNortheast. Challenges such as heavy rain-fall, summer heat stress, short term drought,and heightened pest and weed pressuresare becoming more prevalent due to climatechange, putting farmers in the region underincreasing pressure.

Many farmers are already taking the initia-tive to increase their resilience to extremeweather and increasing energy costs, andsome are beginning to capitalize on opportu-nities that climate change may bring. Still,making decisions based on future scenariosis a complex endeavor, and is muddled evenmore by trying to discern between long-termclimate shifts and possibly normal weathervariability. It is a necessary step however, asfarmers will have to make changes to keepahead of the trends predicted for theNortheast over the coming decades. Manyfarmers are already experimenting with newcrops and crop varieties, for example, astemperatures rise and growing seasonslengthen, and some are investing in forms ofrenewable energy such as solar and biogas.

What We Can Expect Now and in theFutureAs a region, we are already experiencingwarming and increases in the amount andseverity of extreme weather. Average tem-peratures across the Northeast have risenby over 2°F since 1970, and average wintertemperatures are 4°F warmer. Extreme rain-fall events (>2 inches in 48 hours) haveincreased by 71%, and yearly rainfall aver-ages in the region have increased by 3.3inches in the past 100 years. Thesechanges are forecast to continue to be exac-erbated by climate change, with yearly aver-age temperatures from 3 to 5.5 degreeswarmer by 2050, precipitation coming inmore intense bursts with longer gaps inbetween, and the threat of up to a foot of sealevel rise in coastal regions in the next 3decades.

For agriculture, these changes will result inmore flooding, intermittent drought, heatstress, increases in diseases, pests, and

weeds, and even increased freeze risk anddamage. It is important to remember that theseverity of these future projections dependson the amount of heat trapping gases emit-ted throughout the world, including by farmshere in the Northeast. Through mitigationactions, the agricultural industry can con-tribute to lessening climate change byreducing greenhouse gas emissions andsequestering carbon (for example, by incor-porating plant material in soils). Agriculturecan also adapt to some of the inevitableimpacts, and some farmers are alreadydoing so, which can be seen throughout theregion. Winter cover crops are becomingmore popular, the proportion of no-till/low-tillfields is increasing, and more farms are turn-ing to solar, wind, and biogas to supplementtheir energy needs. Many farmers are alsoseizing opportunities that exist in longer andwarmer growing seasons as well by plantinglonger season crops and even experiment-ing with varieties of peaches, melons, andEuropean wine grapes that might not havegrown in our area 30 years ago.

In order to make these changes, however,farmers need more localized information onthe impacts and challenges posed by cli-

mate change to their operations, as well aspossible solutions. If not already being used,farmers may want to consider the followingrecommendations in response to the newchallenges coming with our changing cli-mate, now and in the future.

Key Impacts and What Farmers Can DoFloodingThe trend of increasing heavy rainfall eventsis expected to continue, and will pose chal-lenges such as: interfering with the timing ofplanting and harvesting, soil loss due to ero-sion, root damage, reduced yield, crop loss,and nutrient runoff. Farmers can adapt by:promoting water infiltration by increasing soilorganic matter, reduced tillage, cover crop-ping, planting riparian buffers, investing intiling or other drainage systems, and whenfeasible, shifting planting dates to avoid wetconditions.

Sea level rise is also a worry for farmers nearthe coast, with storm surges becoming moresevere and reaching further inland, and fresh-water wells and aquifers running the risk ofsaltwater contamination. Farmers canrespond by promoting water infiltration, main-taining wetland buffers, and developing emer-

gency response plans for severe flooding thatmay prevent access to fields and roads.Short-term DroughtWhile the Northeast does not face thesevere water shortages predicted for someother regions of the United States, it stillfaces the risk of increasing short-term sum-mer drought. This is due to warmer temper-atures and longer growing seasons, whichwill increase crop water demand while sum-mer time precipitation remains the same orpossibly declines. Drought can causedeclines and variations in yields for rain-fedcrops, and can be especially damaging inhigh-value fruit and vegetable crops.Farmers can adapt by increasing irrigationcapacity, improving irrigation efficiency, andexperimenting with drought-tolerant cropvarieties.

Heat StressThe growing season across the state hasalready increased by an average of 8 days,however the number of summer heat stressdays (exceeding 90°F) is also expected toincrease substantially, with winters continu-ing to grow milder as well. Warmer summertemperatures have been shown to loweryields and quality for certain grains byspeeding the development cycle and short-ening the period during which grain headsmature. Additionally, other heat-sensitivecrops such as potatoes, cabbage, snapbeans, and apples may become more chal-lenging to grow. Farmers can adapt byexploring new varieties of heat-resistantcrops and diversifying crop production toreduce reliance on heat-sensitive crops.Over the longer term, farmers can also cap-italize on the opportunity that longer growingseasons present.

Heat stress is not only a challenge forplants, but can also have detrimental conse-quences for livestock. Keeping cool with theincreased heat projected with climatechange will be critical for maintaining themilk production levels that have made dairythe dominant industry in the Northeast’sagricultural sector. Challenges include dan-gerous and unhealthy conditions that reduceproductivity and reproductive capacity, andfluctuations in the availability and cost offeed such as corn grain and silage. In 2005,an unusually warm year, milk productionwaned by 5 to 15 pounds per cow, per dayat many dairies, leading to losses of 8 to20% of production.

Dairy producers can adapt by preventingover-crowding and improving barn ventilation,

STEWARDSHIP AND NATURE

Climate Smart FarmingHow is the Changing Climate Affecting Your Farm?

Percent increases in the amount of precipitation falling in very heavy events from 1958to 2012 for each region of the U.S.

Courtesy of http://nca2014.global change.gov/report/our-changing-climate/heavy-downpours-increasing

Flooded NY corn field.Photo by George Shinn

Cow Cooling FansPhoto by Allison Chatrchyan

Growing crops indoors to increaseresiliency.

Photo by Rachel Erlebacher

See Climate page 15

by Thomas Bjorkman

Cover-crop radishes have become a real hitwith many Northeast growers to helpimprove their soil health. This article willcover some ideas on using radishes andsome related crucifer cover crops to helpgrowers fine-tune their practices so that theyget more value out of this cover crop.

My group has done a great deal of work withcrucifer cover crops sown in the fall. Theyprovide excellent soil protection, producegood organic matter, scavenge nitrogenfrom deeper soil layers, and are mostly gonein the spring.

While radishes tend to survive far into thewinter south of Interstate 80 (roughly thelower 2/3 of the U.S.), they typically die earlynorth of Interstate 80 (the top 1/3). Growersin more northern regions may find that analternative crucifer is the best way to get theradish benefits they’re looking for. Forageturnips, in particular, are more cold tolerantthan radishes and survive more of the winterwhile offering the same benefits.

For vegetable production, I like using turnipson raised beds that I want to plant early inthe spring. The turnips are planted in themiddle of August after a harvest of onions orbeans. They grow vigorously through thefall, producing a lot of lush green leaves.Those leaves are full of organic nitrogen,and they stay green through much of thewinter. Come spring, they decompose assoon as the temperatures warm up and

Page 10 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY July 4, 2016

Fall 2016 October 3, 2016 September 2, 2016

Winter 2017 January 12, 2017 December 2, 2016

Call for introductory

pricing!

SOIL HEALTHCrucifer Cover Crops for Small Farms

Type Varieties Comments(least winter hardy to most)

Forage Radish Tillage Radish Winter kills early in winter. Makes two-Biodrills inch-wide holes in surface soil, but the Ground Hog thinner taproot does a lot of the work. Nitro Similar to oilseed radish, but the thick Sodbuster part of the root goes deeper. The topSoil First of the radish can stick out of the soil

several inches, making the field difficult to walk through. Some growers areusing rows of radish in a grain covercrop to simulate zone tillage.

Yellow Mustard Tilney (Low glucosinolate) Bolts quickly any time. Excellent for Idagold (High glucosinolate) chickweed suppression. Bolted plants hold

hold snow in place. Tilney mustard can alsobe frost seeded in February or March.

Brown Mustard Florida Broadleaf High glucosinolates. Can also be sownCaliente 199 during the summer, when it makes a Pacific Gold rosette for goodground cover. Slower to

bolt than yellow mustard

Rapeseed Rangi Begins as a rosette, but will begin toBonar bolt in the fall. Bolted plants die during

the winter, but after mustards

Forage Turnip Appin (More bulb) Makes a strong rosette and bolts later Pasja (Slow bolting, than rapeseed. Rosette provides good

more leaf) soil cover for minimal winter growth. Can survive until after snow melts, thereby releasing nitrogen that will be available to the following crop. These high-protein varieties have more nitrogen to release than others.

Winter Canola Dwarf Essex (least hardy) Survive winter. Slow growing in fall, soAthena the weed suppression is weaker. Bolts in Wichita spring. Can frost heave if sown late.Sumner (hardiest)

Radishes in December look alive but aredoomed. Even though there many greenleaves, the aboveground part of theradish is already pithy and dry, and thebelow ground part fully waterlogged.

worms go to work on the roots. The result is a bed that isessentially ready to plant. I can use a light cultivation to killany new weed seedlings and to rake off the small amount ofresidue. Not needing to do any field prep in the springtime

contributes a great deal to maintaining soil health. Ratherthan reduce soil health by vigorous tilling, growers can gainsoil health, and save a lot of work, by simply leaving thecover crop to die naturally over the winter.

Success with these cover crops depends on planting at theright time. There’s unfortunately little leniency on timing.Regardless of how cold tolerant a given species is, the plant-ing date is about the same. In central New York it is from the10th to the 25th of August. Planting too early can result in thecover crop going to seed in the fall, while planting too lateresults in undersized plants that fail to suppress weeds, don’tproduce the desired biomass, and don’t make the deep rootsthat alleviate compaction and recover nitrogen.

One helpful aspect for the small farmer is that this covercrop seed is relatively inexpensive to use and can be storedfor several growing seasons. The seed cost is generally $3to 5 a pound, and seeding rates are less than 10 pounds per

acre. Indeed, the plants tend to inhibit each other so plant-ing more heavily than recommended can actually cause asubstantially weaker stand.

The Northeast is right on the edge of the region whereBrassicas are winter-hardy, so there are big differences insurvival among the varieties. Varieties that are consistentlywinter hardy in one climate zone may be erratic in the next,and consistently killed one zone colder. The performance ofa variety or species in a particular location is worth knowingwhen choosing what to buy. Most varieties of crucifer covercrop will winter-kill, leaving the field ready for plantingspring-seeded crops early in the season. But be aware thateven the tenderest varieties can have some survivors in thefield after mild winters. Unexpected survivors need to bekilled before they make seed so that they don’t becomeweeds. The flowering time varies by species, but is often inlate April or May. The plants most likely to survive are thosethat are large enough to have strong anchor roots but aresmall enough that they do not start to swell (turnips andradishes) or bolt (mustard and rapeseed).

There are a multitude of properties all Brassica cover cropsoffer to the farm:• They are excellent for disease suppression, winter weedsuppression, and tilth improvement.• They help soil re-aggregate if roots are allowed to decom-pose in undisturbed soil.• Their deep taproots can recover residual nitrogen. Thisnitrogen is available to next crop if the cover crop dies in thespring.• All are inexpensive to use because the seed price is low($1 to $4 per lb) as is the seeding rate (5 to 10 lb/ac). • Small seeds, which require careful sowing, mean less bulkto plant. • Most work best if sown in late August and left all winter.The window closes fast.• Most respond well to nitrogen, just like other cole crops.Plants suppress each other at higher seeding rates.

Detailed information on how to manage each of these, andwhere to buy seed, is at the Cornell website, covercrop.net.

July 4, 2016 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY Page 11

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The target planting date has a fairly narrow window thatvaries across the Northeast. [This map is taken from aresearch publication. For the purposes of this article weneed to make the dates 10 days earlier.]

A turnip cover crop in the fall makes a solid cover witha lot of succulent high-protein leaves.

By spring there are only vestiges of the turnips left inthe ground.

Page 12 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY July 4, 2016

NEW AND BEGINNING FARMERSFarmers Should Know Their Responsibilities, Workers Their Rights

FARM SAFETYNortheast Ag Safety & Health Coalition Meets for their Second Annual Meeting

by Elizabeth Henderson

A farmer who runs a mid-sized vegetablefarm fires a worker. The only reason shegives is that the worker wears purple toooften. Does this farmer have the legal right tofire a worker this way? When I ask this ques-tion of the would-be farmers who take myworkshop on creating a fair farm only abouthalf get the answer right. If you employ work-ers on your farm or you are thinking of hiringworkers, it is a good idea to inform yourselfabout the legal responsibilities of farmersand the rights of farm workers.

At-Will LawThe answer to the question above about theemployer’s right to fire a worker for no partic-ular reason is yes: at-will law (present in 49or the 50 states) allows employers to fireworkers without the need for providing a “justcause” or a warning. However, there aremany limits to this right of the employer. Anemployer cannot discriminate against aworker for a whole list of reasons that includerace, ethnicity, or age. An employer cannotfire a worker for getting sick or injured.

Farmers are advised to develop clear writtenpolicies and contracts and to discuss theirexpectations with employees and even postthe policies for all to see. For a template forlabor policies that farmers can downloadand adapt for their farms, see theAgricultural Justice Project (AJP) tool-kit:(http://agriculturaljusticeproject.org/?page_id=116.) Courts tend to interpret employeehandbooks as promises to follow the writtenprocedures they contain, so if an employer

does not follow his own rules, the court mayside with the worker.

At-will, of course, gives workers the freedomto leave too, but the power in the situation isvery much with the employer. To preventsuccessful lawsuits by disgruntled formeremployees, a smart employer will have writ-ten policies, adhere to them, keep a file witha record of every evaluation and warning,and be able to show a good reason for ter-minations. It’s wise to maintain transparencyand allow employees access to these filesas well as encouraging everyone to discussissues openly.

SafetyWorkers have the right to a safe work place.If an employee is hurt on the job, theemployer is liable for damages. That is whymost farm employers invest in WorkersCompensation, insurance that covers on thejob injuries and disease. Workers Comp forfarm labor is a legal requirement in most

Northeast states. NY and VT exempt farmswith very small payrolls - $1200 a year in NY,$10,000 in VT. Part-time employees, bor-rowed employees, leased employees, fami-ly members and volunteers are includedunder the workers’ compensation law. Alsoincluded are unpaid student interns. For onlya few dollars more, employers can add dis-ability insurance that covers off-farm illnessand injuries to employees. NY workers’ com-pensation law excludes farm laborers fromthe requirement that employers provide dis-ability insurance to employees. Workers’Compensation is a “no fault” system – whois to blame for an injury is not an issue.Ultimately, the Workers’ CompensationBoard decides whether an injury or illness iscovered.

Abundant information on farm safety is eas-ily available. The New York Center forAgricultural Medicine and Health(www.nycamh.org) has a remarkably thor-ough collection of guidelines in both Englishand Spanish for preventing accidents onfarms covering tractors, PTOs, hearing pro-tection, manure pits, livestock handling, etc.,etc. In NY and a couple of other NE states,NYCAMH will provide farms with FREE onfarm safety assessments and safety train-ing. They are also offering small grants toimprove farm safety from the John MayFarm Safety Fund. In its tool kit for farmers,the Agricultural Justice Project (AJP) pro-vides a guide to creating a farm safety planand model farm safety policies TheOccupational Safety and Health Act of 1970gives employees the right to file complaintsabout workplace safety and health hazards,

and, if you fear retaliation, you can requestthat your name not be revealed to youremployer. Employees can make complaintsonline at www.osha.gov, or download acomplaint form and submit it to the regionalOSHA office.

The recently updated Worker ProtectionStandards (WPS) require that employersprovide annual training in pesticide hazardsto workers who may be exposed. The train-ing must take place before exposure and tellworkers how to protect themselves.Employers give farm workers access tochemical information sheets (MaterialSafety Data Sheets). The full regulations areavailable on the EPA website:http://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safe-ty/revisions-worker-protection-standard

By James Carrabba, The New York Center for AgriculturalMedicine & Health - NYCAMH

On May 3-4, 2016, the Northeast Agricultural Safety andHealth Coalition held their second annual meeting at theNYCAMH office in Cooperstown, NY. The very first meeting ofthe Coalition was held here at NYCAMH in May 2015. At thisyear’s meeting there were eighteen individuals from six differ-ent Northeast states present, which included; Maine,Maryland, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, andPennsylvania. The purpose of the Coalition is to bring togeth-er individuals from the Northeast region who have a passionfor promoting agricultural safety in their home states and tostart a coordinated network that can aid in facilitating this work.Formation of the Coalition was initially spearheaded by Dr.Doug Schaufler and Dr. Dennis Murphy, both from Penn StateUniversity. Most of the Coalition members are CooperativeExtension Educators who are passionate about delivering agri-cultural safety and health education in their communities, inaddition to their regular extension responsibilities.

The goals of the Coalition include:• Building capacity for agricultural safety and health educa-tion in the region• Provide professional development opportunities for coali-tion members• Establish a network of ag safety educators for theNortheast, which will be accomplished with periodic meet-ings, conference calls and a Northeast Ag Safety and HealthCoalition listserv• Develop low cost, easy to replicate hands-on educationaldemonstrations (with supporting lesson plans) that can bedelivered by members• Search for funding sources that will support the work of thecoalition members• Identify educators from the other Northeast states whowould like to join the coalition such as Massachusetts,Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, and West Virginia

At this year’s meeting, the participants were able to beinvolved in several different learning activities that were pre-sented as examples of things that they could conduct backin their home states. Some of the highlights of the Coalitionmeeting included:• A mock PTO entanglement demonstration which used a fullsize tractor and a Tyvek suit stuffed with newspaper to repre-sent a person becoming wrapped on an unguarded PTO shaft. • Safety demonstration lesson plan overview. The partici-pants divided into small groups, reviewed current lessonplan drafts, and provided edits and feedback for improve-ment. The completed lesson plans will not be printed in abook but will be available online for print out.• Davis Hill from Penn State gave an overview of the FarmFamily Emergency Response training and provided copiesof these training materials to interested participants.• Farm Safety Audit Training. The group spent approximate-ly 2 ½ hours at a local dairy farm conducting farm safetyaudits using FARM-HAT (Farm/Agricultural/Rural/Management-Hazard Analysis Tool). Dr. Dennis Murphy

from Penn State provided training on three items for trac-tors, agricultural machinery, and ag buildings. Based on thetraining, the group was asked to complete audits individual-ly on fencing, SMV emblems, PTO mastershields, electricalpanel boxes, utility vehicles, and several other topics. Aftereveryone completed their audits, Dr. Murphy reviewed thescores, discussed any score variations and gave generalfeedback about the audit format.

The group discussed expanding to additional states in theNortheast that have not had representation at last year’smeeting and this year’s meeting. The states not yet repre-sented in the Coalition include; Delaware, Massachusetts,West Virginia, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. While mostCoalition members are Cooperative Extension personnel,individuals interested in agricultural safety and health fromother ag organizations, such as state departments of agri-culture could also be included.

Feedback from a post-meeting evaluation was very positive.Several members felt that the meeting should be expandedto three days next year to allow for more in-depth training.Next year’s Coalition meeting may be held in a different loca-tion. The group discussed other training topics and severalattendees supported the idea of farm visits and audits butwith different types of agriculture such as fruits, vegetables,or direct marketing operations. Another suggestion was toinclude hands-on activities concerning grain-handling safety.

NYCAMH was once again honored to be the host site for thesecond annual meeting of the Northeast Ag Safety andHealth Coalition. If there are any other CooperativeExtension personnel, or others who are interested in learn-ing more, or in joining the coalition, please contact me at800-343-7527, ext 2216 or e-mail me at jcarrabba@nycamh.com. A program of Bassett Healthcare, NYCAMH isenhancing agricultural and rural health by preventing andtreating occupational injury and illness.

Participants conducting a safety audit with the FARM-HAT audit tool

Jonathan transplants tomatoes, spring2016, at Peacework Farm.

Photo by Elizabeth Henderson

Brigitte Derel and Katie Lavin work inPeacework packing shed.

Photo courtesy of Craig Dilger See Farmers page 13

Wages and other benefitsFederal and State wage and hours laws protect workers’rights to be paid for all of the hours they work. The FairLabor Standards Act (FLSA), a federal law, requires thatmost employers pay a minimum hourly wage and pay timeand a half for overtime over 8 hours a day and 40 hours aweek. However, FLSA exempts farm labor from the time anda half overtime requirement.

Additionally, if a farm does not have more than 500 days ofagricultural labor in a year (roughly equivalent to sevenemployees employed full-time in a calendar quarter) thefarmer is exempt from paying federal minimum wage. Butthat is not the end of the story. Farmers must still complywith state minimum wage laws which vary by state. NewYork, Rhode Island and Connecticut require agriculturallabor to be paid at the general state minimum wage which is$9 in NY and $9.60 in CT and RI. In Vermont, NewHampshire and Maine, agricultural work is exempt from thestate minimum wage so is paid at the federal rate unlessexempt under FSLA.

Currently the federal minimum wage is $7.25 an hour.Massachusetts has an agricultural minimum wage of $8 anhour. Meals and lodging may be credited against the mini-mum wage, but only with a written agreement between theemployer and the employee, and the limits are different fromstate to state.

For picking berries and tree fruit, some farmers pay “piecerate” which encourages workers to pick faster. They pay acertain amount per pound or other unit. State and federallaws require that the “piece rate” be set so that the slowestworker still makes minimum wage. Therefore, the farmermust have a good system for keeping track of each worker’spickings, or else be at risk of being accused of wage theft.Knowing this clause, some farmers decide it’s easier to com-ply with an hourly wage approach.

Whether workers are entitled to time and a half for overtimedepends on both the federal and state definitions of farmwork. In some states, if a worker is driving a delivery truck,packing vegetables from some other farm, or selling at afarmers’ market, the worker is not doing farm work. Anemployer may have to pay workers differently if they aredoing both farm and non-farm work. In “A Legal Guide to theBusiness of Farming in Vermont,” attorney Annette Higbyhelps us understand federal law:

“The FLSA uses a two-pronged definition of agriculture thatincludes both primary agricultural activities as well as thoseactivities that are secondary or incidental to carrying out thefarming operation. The primary definition includes “farmingin all of its branches” – cultivation and tillage, dairying, grow-ing and harvesting horticultural crops, raising livestock,bees, fur-bearing animals, and poultry. Anyone performingthese activities is engaged in agriculture regardless ofwhether he or she is employed by a farmer or on a farm.

“Agriculture — and thus the exemption — also includesactivities that are secondary to the farming operation. Thoseactivities must be performed by a farmer on a farm “as anincident to or in conjunction with such farming operations” tobe considered “agriculture.” For example, employees whobuild a silo or a terrace, or those who dig a stock well, areexempt when those activities are performed in conjunctionwith a farming operation. Logging activities, for example, arealso exempt when they are part of a farming operation. Butwhen these employees work for an employer engagedexclusively in forestry or lumbering, they are not consideredagricultural employees. These secondary activities must besubordinate to the farming operation. If they amount to aseparate business, they lose the agricultural exemption.”From: http://www.uvm.edu/farmtransfer/LegalGuideV.pdf

Conflict Resolution and GrievancesWorkplaces with perfect harmony all the time are as rare ashen’s teeth. So farm owners are well advised to be clearabout their approach to conflict resolution. Workers have thelegal right to talk with their employer about workplace prob-lems. When everyone on a farm knows who to talk to andwhat the process is for resolving conflicts it makes for amuch happier workplace. There are examples of conflict res-olution policies in the AJP farmer tool-kit, at http://agricultur-aljusticeproject.org/?page_id=116.

Interns/Apprentices/TraineesWhatever name you give it, federal law regards on farminterns and apprentices as employees and to avoid fines,the employer must pay at least minimum wage for all hoursworked. For a farm, taking on interns is not cheap labor. It isa commitment to providing a real learning experience andmeans that the farmer will be acting as teacher as well asemployer. The California Guide to Labor for Small Farmsoffers several models for on-farm training that meet legalrequirements. The standards for whether or not someone isconsidered an employee are clearly articulated in the U.S.Dept. of Labor’s Factsheet #71 (https://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/whdfs71.htm) which offers a six-part

test for whether a person is an intern or part of a permitted“training program”:

1. The training, even though it includes actual operation ofthe facilities of the employer, is similar to that which wouldbe given in a vocational school.2. The training is for the benefit of the trainees or students.3. The trainees or students do not displace regular employ-ees, but work under their close supervision.4. The employer that provides the training derives no imme-diate advantage from the activities of the trainees or stu-dents, and on occasion his/her operations may actually beimpeded.5. The trainees or students are not necessarily entitled to ajob at the conclusion of the training period.6. The employer and the trainees or students understandthat the trainees or student are not entitled to wages for thetime spent in training.

The New England Small Farm Institute (NESFI) has excel-lent materials on mentoring and on-farm training which youcan order from their website: www.smallfarm.org

Some people take up farm work as a way to learn the skillsfor owning and running their own farm someday. Others dofarm work for many years and may even choose to makethat their life’s work. Our movement for a local, sustainableagriculture needs both more farmers and more professionalfarm workers. Knowing the responsibilities of an employer orthe rights of a worker provides the basis for a positive rela-tionship so that small farms function as integrated teams.

In her keynote speech at the NOFA-NY WinterConference, Rosalinda Guillen, Director of Community toCommunity, spoke eloquently about “good hard work,” andabout how her father, a long time farm employee, taughther and her siblings to work with pride and with apprecia-tion for the beauty of working close to nature. If we wantour network of small farms to be a way of life that is worthsustaining, farm work must be a respected vocation that iscompensated appropriately for the values farm workersprovide for society.

July 4, 2016 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY Page 13

Farmers from page 12

Source for more information:• “A Legal Guide to the Business of Farming inVermont,” -http://www.uvm.edu/farmtransfer/?Page=legalguide.html

• A Legal Guide to Farming in New Hampshire andaccompanying videos - http://www.nesare.org/State-Programs/New-Hampshire/Farm-labor

• California Guide to Labor for Small Farms, Aug. 2013NCAT and CA FarmLink. – Much of the information inCA specific, but some applies country wide. Main goalof publication – to boost on-farm learning opportunitiesand help farms that train interns do it legally. Appendixhas template for intern contract and a sample time cardfor employees.

• Farmer Legal Action Group FLAG (Minnesota) -http://www.flaginc.org/- Farmers Guide to Farm Employees: Federal andMinnesota Labor and Employment Law for Small-Scale Family Farmers, August 2012, Farmers’ LegalAction Group, Inc.- Farmers’ Guide to Farm Internships: Federal andMinnesota Labor and Employment Law, February2013, Farmers’ Legal Action Group, Inc.

• From the New England Small Farm Institute:www.smallfarm.org- Cultivating a New Crop of Farmers – Is On-FarmMentoring Right for You and Your Farm? ADecision-Making Workbook ($20)- The On-Farm Mentor’s Guide – practical approachesto teaching on the farm ($35)- DACUM Occupational Profile for On-Farm Mentor,2001.

Order these online athttp://www.smallfarm.org/main/bookstore/publications/

Page 14 SMALL FARM QUARTERLY July 4, 2016

BUSINESS MANAGEMENTSuccessful Farm SuccessionRecent estate tax trends can help northeast farmers with succession planning.By John H. Lavelle, CPA, LL.M., Attorney at Law

Congress and some state governments in the Northeast havebeen handing family farmers a series of presents in the last fewyears. Specifically, estate and death taxes, one of the majorobstacles in transitioning family ownership in smaller farms,have almost become a thing of the past. With one less thing toworry about, farmers can concentrate on the other issues thatmust be handled to keep the farm in the family.

BackgroundAt the federal level, the transition was not as fast as it was stun-ning. Starting with the 2001 Tax Act, estate tax exemptionswere raised to $1 million (doubled for a properly planned mar-ried couple), with added increases scheduled every year ortwo. This culminated with a $3.5 million exemption in 2009, fol-lowed by a year of no estate taxes. After that, Congress pan-icked with a series of generous temporary laws, with exemp-tions at $5 million and adjusted for inflation.

Out of nowhere, Congress made these new temporary regimespermanent in the 2012 Tax Act. Effective January 1, 2013, final-ly some certainty was achieved for federal estate taxes afterover a decade of temporary and expiring changes. Taxpayerscan now plan with this new law. Currently, these provisions pro-vide an estate tax exemption of $5.45 million, which again isdoubled for a married couple, or $10.9 million in total.

There is even some good news starting to happen at the statelevel. New York is most informative. Two years ago, New Yorkstill had a $1 million exemption at the time the federal exemp-tion was $5 million plus, making estate planning more compli-cated for taxpayers domiciled in New York or nonresidents withNew York farmland. Two years ago, out of nowhere, New Yorkenacted a five-year phase in to eventually equal the federalestate tax exemption. Currently, the New York exemption is$4,187,500, and by January 1, 2019, it will link up with the fed-eral exemption. Properly planned, this means a married couplehas $8,375,000 to work with before a dollar of state estate taxis due.

So what does this mean to Northeast family farmers? For all butthe largest farms in the most valuable areas, these exemptionlevels will exclude the entire value of many farm operations,land and all, from estate taxes. Compared to family successionplanning done as little as seven years ago, this changes every-thing. In addition, successful farmers’ estate plans that are aslittle as three years old may be woefully out of date because ofthis major change in the tax environment.

The New Planning ParadigmAs estate taxes recede as an obstacle to successful farm tran-sitions, income taxes become much more i