sm 6322 the art market - isaac leung

Week 4The history of the Chinese art

market

SM 6322 The Art MarketCity University of Hong Kong, School of Creative Media

Wednesday, 20 February 2013

Site of Yin Ruins (安阳殷墟) in Henan Anyang The former site of emperorʼs palace of Yin Dynasty

Yin Dynasty - Protective walls

Protective earthen-walls, set in a circle or rectangular shape on both sides of the temple


Vessel (zun)Late Shang dynasty (ca. 1600–1050

B.C.), 13th–11th century B.C.

Anyang, Henan Province, China

Spouted ritual wine vessel (guang)Shang dynasty, early Anyang period (ca.

1300–1050 B.C.), 13th century B.C.

Anyang, Henan Province, ChinaBronze


The Rites of Zhou (周礼)

According to the Rites of Zhou (周礼, Zhouli),

collected items such as sacrificial vessels, weapons, jade and gold were stored in places called Sky

House (天府, Tianfu), Jade House (玉府, Yufu) and

Inner House (内府, Neifu)

New bureaucratic structures such as “book catalogue” (簿录, Bulu) were also invented in order

to inventory the objects collected by the imperial government

Zhou Dynasty (周朝) - House


Calligraphy and painting were not included until the Han Dynasty (汉朝) and

after the construction of Tianlu Court (天禄阁), Shiqu Court (石渠阁) and

Kirin Court (麒麟阁) (Li, 2001, p. 12).

During the time of Han Wudi (汉武帝), Secret Court (秘阁, Bi Court) was

also set up as a specialized agency for purchasing and collecting artworks (Li, 2001, p. 12).

Han Dynasty (汉朝) - Court


In the system of ʻcourtʼ, books, calligraphy, paintings and historical relics were placed within the structure of collected items.

The hierarchy of art forms were also established in the way they were categorized and evaluated, particularly according to their meaning and

material nature.


The ethical framework employed through the domain of Confucius

thought was applied to the system of Imperial Examination (科舉, Ke Ju)

where calligraphy was used as a criterion for assigning posts in the civil

service, which during the Sui (隋)

Dynasty started to emerge and become consolidated.

Sui Dynasty (隋朝) - Imperial Examination


The merits of objects (art) and subjects (individuals) through the national examination system were thus

disseminated from within the imperial court to individuals from the public at

large. On the one hand, new opportunities were created for

individuals to attain positions such as court painter, critic and historian. On the other hand, the systems of Imperial Examination conferred legitimacy on

calligraphy as an art form and the rules on brush strokes and aesthetic ideals were made more definitive and rigid.


The Record of the Orchid Pavilion Gathering (兰亭序), written by Wang XiZhi (王羲之) in 353

Tang Dynasty (唐朝) - the Imperial Household Department, Academy


According to The Record of Book Narration (叙书录, Xushu Lu), Emperor Taizong

was extremely interested in Wangʼs work. He offered large amounts of Jinbo (金帛,

money and cloth goods) drawn from the Imperial Household Department (御府,

Yufu) to trace and purchase the extant works of Wang.


(蕭翼賺蘭亭圖卷)Xiao Yi Trying to Swipe the Lanting ScrollSong (960–1279) copy of a Tang original painting

Monk Biancai(辨才)

This escapade resulted in Xiao Yiʼs promotion to a rank that included five government posts, along with rewards that included gold, silver, mansions and horses from the

Imperial Household Department. Silk and grain were also given to Biancai for the construction of a pagoda (Ebrey, 2010, p. 113, Li, 2001, p. 15,16)


Imitation of the Record of the Orchid Pavilion Gathering (虞摹兰亭序, Renmo Lanting

Xu) was then published by calligrapher Yu Shinan (虞世南) as an artistic ideal that

scholars should learn. Apart from imitation books that were published to promote Wangʼs work, emperor Taizong also commented on Wang and different calligraphers from the past dynasties in the chapter of “Lun” (论, discuss) of the Biography of

Wang XiZhi (王羲之传).


According to The New History of Tang Dynasty - Bibliographical Treatise (新唐书艺文志,

Xin Tangshu Yiwenzhi), besides operating institutions to house and archive works of art and to commission scholars and/or artists to create new pieces, emperor Xuan Zong (李

隆基) also initiated a new system of Jixiandian Shuyuan (集賢殿書院, Academy of

Classical Learning in the Hall of Gathering Talented People, a.k.a. Jixianyuan 集賢

院), which functioned in a way similar to “court” which had encompassed different

dynasties.


One of the notable functions of Jixianyuan was to purchase calligraphy and painting that had been collected by individuals by offering these collectors court

money and goods. Notable families that gained a reputation for their private collection during the Tang Dynasty included Zhang Huaiguan (張怀瓘), Dou Meng

(窦蒙) and Zhang Yanyuan (張彦远), who were somewhat like what we now

understand as the “private collector”.


Pei Xiaoyuanʼs (裴孝源) Zhenguan Public and Private History of Art (贞观公私画

史, Zhenguan Gongsi Huashi) which categorizes 293 scrolls of painting and 47

wall paintings according to the name of the author and the painting, the number of paintings, styles of imprint and acquired sources (Li, 2001, p. 17)


Calligrapher and scholar Zhang Yanyuanʼs (张彦远) “On Price and Quality” and (论

名价品第, Lun Ming Jia Pin Di) of the Records of Famous Paintings of

Dynasties (历代名画记) categorizes works of art according to their price and

quality.


Since works of art were becoming better known among the greater public, counterfeit works produced by artisan painters were often found.

Narration of Imprint System of the Private and Public (叙自古公私印记, Xu Zigu

Gongsi Yinji) includes a chapter that talks about the method “Signature System to Verify the Authenticity” (跋尾押署, Bawei Yashu), which was commonly used

by important collectors and imperial officials of the time (Henansheng Bowuguan, 2004, p. 78).


Thus, new subject positions such as Appraiser and new sets of techniques to verify authenticity were invented. Private collection not only denotes the interactive exchange of works of art between the Imperial Court and the domestic space, but the flow of works of art in different locations also opens up a new ground for

different subject positions such as artisan painters who makes counterfeit works and the Examiners who evaluates the authenticity of works.


Use of the term Huayuan can be traced back in Later Shu (后蜀, Houshu),

when China established the system of the Imperial Painting House. Similar to the Huayuan we see today, the Imperial Painting House provided jobs for painters who produced specific kinds of work that were desired by

the governing bodies.

Houshu (后蜀) - Imperial Painting House


周恩来总理在北京中国画院成立大会

Huayuan (画院) (a term well known to students of Chinese art history) was a

government body that had many branches across the nation under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture (文化部). The modern concept of Huayuan is often associated

with the year 1956, when Prime Minister Zhou Enlai (周恩来) proposed a system for

an Academy of Painting in the Second Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (中国人民政治协商会议).

Zhou Enlai at the inaugural meeting of the Beijing Academy of Painting


Named after the Tang Dynasty Imperial Academy (翰林院, Hanlinyuan), Hanlin

Imperial Painting Academy (翰林图画院, Hanlin Tuhuayuan) was set up in Song

Dynasty (宋朝), as an alternate reference to the Painter Service (图画处, Tuhua Chu)

within the system of the Palace Domestic Service (內使省, Neishih Sheng).

Song Dynasty (宋朝) - Imperial Painting Academy


Along with the inauguration of Imperial Painting Academy, proper positions such as Court Painter/Noble Painter (画师, Huashi) and Artisan Painters (画工,

Huakung) were established to serve the imperial government within the agency of Imperial Painting Academy. Groups of Court Painter and Artisan Painters were

considered to be part of the regular civil service officials who were tasked with upholding artistic talent.


During Song Dynasty, Court and Artisan Painters were categorized as Academy Court Painters (宫廷画院画家). Other than that, Private Job

Painter (民间职业画家) and Literati Painter (士夫文人画家) were also key

players in the field of calligraphy and painting. Other types of painters who were not categorized within the imperial system can be seen in private

collections, within the circles of elites, literati and merchantʼs families.


According to Song veteran Mengʼs (孟

元老) a Reminiscence of the Glory of

Bianjin (东京梦华录, Dong Jing Meng

Hua Lu), Xiangguo Temple (相国寺),

the largest trading center of Bianjin (汴

京) was opened five times a month for

the general public to trade.


The Agora beyond the temple and in front of Xisheng Court (资圣阁) is where books,

calligraphy and paintings were traded. Buyers of the products were not only confined to the

monks, but the opening up of space for economic transactions at Xiangguo Temple also allowed believers of Buddhism and the

general public to become consumers of artworks.


Besides the shops that were opened by merchants, Painting Stall (画摊, Huatan)

became a flexible space for Private Job Painters to sell still-life painting. The opening up of space for commercial activities provided a new ground for positions such as merchants, producers and customers to play an active role around the

objects of art.


Painters acquired their skills by imitating works that were produced by Court Painters, in which ʻmaster piecesʼ were often reproduced,

functioning in the same way we now consider work at Dafen Oil Painting Village (大芬油画村) in Shenzhen (深圳).


During the time of Chongning (崇

宁) (Song Dynasty), Xu Xiʼs 徐熙

Picture of Peony (牡丹图, Mudan

Tu), which was produced during the Five Dynasties (五代十国),

was sold to the elite collectors Zhao Mingcheng (赵明诚) and Li

Qingzhao (李清照), for 20 million

(Bai, 2003, p. 9).


Painter and calligrapher Mi Fu (米芾) purchased

Wang Weiʼs (王维) (Tang Dynasty) Drawing of Snow

(雪图, Xue Tu) for seven hundred Gold (金, Jin) and

Xu Xiʼs 徐熙) and Two Branches of Peach Blossom

(桃两枝, Tao Liangzhi) for eight Gold (Yang, 2001, p.

220).


According to Overview of Painting (图画见闻志, Tuhua Jian Wen Zhi) written

by Guo Ruoxu (郭若虚), apart from noble painters or collectors, Ya Kuai (牙

侩), which literally means dental occlusion, was a new position that served as a broker for buyers and sellers and art appraiser of the time (Fang,

2004, p. 272).


One of the major ways works of art were exchanged was door to door trading (上門求

购, Shangmen Qiugou) where interested individual could buy or sell art by going to a collectorʼs or calligrapherʼs home directly.


Hui traders (徽商, native of old Huizhou merchants or merchant groups)

that were also known as Xinan Merchants (新安商人) or Hui Group (徽帮)

were one of the dominant groups of merchants in the Ming economy. Their trading activities were especially frequent in the southern regions of Jiangnan

(江南, literally south of the River—a region in the lower Yangtze Valley)

Ming Dynasty (明朝) - Pavilion


Among the accounts of Hui traders, Wang Keyuʼs (汪砢玉) private pavilion well

exemplifies the new spatial activities supported by the networks of commodity exchange among the regions of Jiangnan.

Wang was a private collector who inherited his famous familyʼs collection from his father and grandfather. The massive collection that he acquired demanded new

spaces for storage during his residence in Jiaxing (嘉兴). It was then that he built

Ningxia Pavilion (凝霞阁) and Mohua Pavilion (墨花阁), which functioned

similarly to the Secret Court in the past centuries, except it had not been established by the imperial family.


In Picture of Ningxia Pavilion (凝霞阁图),

Wang describes his pavilion as beautiful as the Secret Court of Qing (清秘阁).

Famous collector-connoisseurs of Jiangnan, Dong Qichang (董其昌) and Li Ruhua (李日

华) were once invited to the pavilions (Zhang, 2010).


According to Historical Timeline of Wang Keyuʼs Connoisseurship (汪砢玉鉴藏大

事记), apart from inheriting an extensive family collection, Wang also constantly

bought, sold and exchanged his collection with famous Jiaxing (嘉兴) collectors

such as Gao Mingshui (高明水), Xiang Dexin (项德新) and Huizhou (徽州) dealer

Wang Yueshi (王越石).

Trading between different administrative regions of Zhou (州) was also common.

Collections from the Huizhou region were constantly exported to Yangzhou (扬州), Hangzhou (杭州) and Suzhou (苏州), where well-established merchants and

collectors were located. Since the region of Huizhou was a center of art-related activities that included financial resources, shops, art experts and merchant-

connoisseurs. Its preeminence in the art market caused painters, literati and collectors from the southern regions of Jiangnan to relocate or travel there for

commercial activities (Zhang, 2010).


Permanent shops, Buddhist and Taoist temples, imperial institutions (官署), hearing

offices (公室), private residences, bookstores (书铺), framing studios (裱室), street

stalls, cabins and street shops (市肆) have all been documented as locations where

art commodities could be exchanged (Li, 2010).


“In the old house next to Yue Temple and West Lake (西湖), the front part is Liesi (列肆,

shops in row) where vintage vases, pine tree cypress, reed-mace and thorn branches are displayed. People who buy these miniature trees grown in containers were known as

Bonsai Appreciator (盆玩者). The other type of

people who come to this market place were interested in calligraphy and painting, they

would not hesitate to use their savings to trade with artworks”.


“There are a hundred and more shops located on both lanes of Zhaoqing Temple, which are set up by imperial official Sun Long (孙隆) (Lu, 2011).

On August 6, Li in his dairy says, “On the lane, I saw Tang Bo Huʼs bamboo thicket”. Two years later on April 7, he writes, “Walk along the lane, look at the Liesi (列肆, shops in row), I bought Guo

Xiʼs (郭熙) Picture of Mulberry and

Sunrise (Fusang Xiaori Tu)”.


During the Qing Dynasty (清朝), events such as poetry receptions initiated by

local officials attracted scholars and nobles to Yangzhou. One of the major patrons and collectors in Yangzhou were those who primarily traded in salt,

known as Salter (盐商, Yanshang).

Qing Dynasty (清朝) - Domestic spaces


At the time, what is idiomatically known as Fuyong Fengya (附庸风雅)

designated merchants who attached themselves to intellectuals and

fastidiously presumed to be someone of cultural taste. This designation was used to comment on the extravagant lifestyle of Salters. Besides trading salt, Salters of Yangzhou were also key collectors

who acquired and traded exquisite handicrafts, precious gems, clothes, food,

calligraphy and painting. Works of art became a way for these business

tycoons to distinguish their identities in regards to the other classes of that time.


ʻA house without calligraphy and painting, must be a home of vulgarʼ

was commonly used to denote painting as a symbol of a cultured and elegant life

style.家中无字画，必是俗人家


Who are the key players in the history of Chinese art market?

What are the key institutions?

What are the values of art?

How are works of art being produced?

How are works of art being transacted?

How is the art market in the past different from the present time?


sm 6322 the art market - isaac leung

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