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MEDITERRANEANSEA
GAZAWEST BANK
LEBANON
EGYPT
AswanHigh Dam
Lake Nasser
SUDAN
ETHIOPIA
SOMALIA
SAUDIARABIA
YEMEN
UNITED ARABEMIRATES
QATAR
BAHRAIN
KUWAIT
JORDAN
OMAN
OMAN
IRANIRAQ
SYRIA
TURKEY ARMENIA
BLACK SEA GEORGIA
AZERBAIJAN TURKMENISTAN
CASPIANSEA
Figure 14-1Page 305
CHAPTER 14: WATER RESOURCES AND
WATER POLLUTION
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Figure 14-2Page 307
All water Fresh water Readily accessible fresh water
Oceans andsaline lakes97.4%
Fresh water2.6%
Groundwater0.592%
Ice capsand glaciers1.984%
Lakes0.007%
Soilmoisture0.005%
Biota0.0001%
Rivers0.0001%
Atmosphericwater vapor0.001%
0.014%
Lakes
Soil Moisture0.005%
Oceans andSaline lakes
97.4%
Ice caps andglaciers 1.984%
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Evaporation and transpiration
Evaporation
Stream
Infiltration
Water tableInfiltration
Unconfined aquifer
Confined aquifer
Lake
Well requiring a pump
Flowingartesian well
Runoff
Precipitation
ConfinedRecharge Area
Aquifer
Less permeable materialsuch as clay
Confining permeable rock layer
Unconfined Aquifer Recharge Area
Figure 14-3Page 308
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5,500
5,000
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Wat
er u
se (
cub
ic k
ilom
eter
s p
er y
ear)
Total use
Agricultural use
Industrial use
Domestic use
YearFigure 14-4Page 309
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United States China
Industry 11% Public 10%
Powercooling
38%
Agriculture41% Agriculture 87%
Public 6% Industry 7%
Figure 14-5Page 309
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1 automobile
1 kilogramcotton
1 kilogramaluminum
1 kilogramgrain-fed beef
1 kilogramrice
1 kilogramcorn
1 kilogrampaper
1 kilogramsteel
400,000 liters(106,000 gallons)
10,500 liters(2,400 gallons)
9,000 liters(2,800 gallons)
7,000 liters(1,900 gallons)
5,000 liters(1,300 gallons)
1,500 liters(400 gallons)
880 liters(230 gallons)
220 liters(60 gallons)
Figure 14-6Page 309
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Figure 14-7 (1)Page 310
Average annual precipitation (centimeters)
Less than 41
41-81
81-22
More than 122
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Figure 14-7 (2)Page 310
Acute shortage
Shortage
Adequate supply
Metropolitan regions with populationgreater than 1 million
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High None
NorthAmerica
SouthAmerica Stress
Africa
Europe
Asia
Australia
Figure 14-8Page 311
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Large lossesof water throughevaporation
Flooded landdestroys forestsor cropland anddisplaces people
Downstreamflooding is reduced
Downstreamcropland andestuaries aredeprived ofnutrient-rich silt
Reservoir isuseful forrecreationand fishing
Can producecheap electricity(hydropower)
Migration andspawning ofsome fish aredisrupted
Provides waterfor year-roundirrigation ofcropland
Figure 14-9Page 312
DAMS ARE A SOLUTION AND CREATE MANY ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
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• Deliver nutrients to the sea sustain coastal fisheries
• Deposit silt that maintains deltas
• Purify water
• Renew and nourish wetlands
• Provide habitats for aquatic life
• Conserve species diversityFigure 14-10
Page 312
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL
SERVICES PROVIDED BY FREE FLOWING
RIVERS
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Figure 14-11Page 313
China’s Three Gorges Dam
Advantages Disadvantages
Generates 10% of China’s electricity
Reduces dependence on coal
Reduces air pollution
Reduces CO2 emissions
Reduces chances of downstream flooding for 15 million people
Reduces river silting below dam by eroded soil
Increases irrigation water for cropland below dam
Floods large areas of cropland and forests
Displaces 1.9 million people
Increases water pollution because of reduced water flow
Reduces deposits of nutrient-rich sediments below dam
Increases saltwater introduced into drinking water near mouth of river because of decreased water flow
Disrupts spawning and migration of some fish below dam
High cost
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KAZAKHSTAN
TURKMENISTAN
UZBEKISTAN
ARALSEA
2000
1989
1960
Figure 14-12Page 313
OVERUSE HAS CAUSED THE
FORMER ARAL SEA (LAKE) TO BECOME
A DRY, SALTY, BARREN LAND
THAT SPREADS AIR POLLUTION TO
NEARBY FARMLAND. THE
REMAINING WATER IS BRINE
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North BayAqueduct
South BayAqueduct
California Aqueduct
CALIFORNIA
NEVADA UTAH
MEXICO
Central ArizonaProject
Colorado RiverAqueduct
Los AngelesAqueduct
Shasta Lake
Oroville Dam andReservoir
FeatherRiver
Lake Tahoe
Sacramento
Fresno
Hoover Damand Reservoir(Lake Mead)
Salton SeaPhoenix
Tucson
ARIZONA
ColoradoRiver
SacramentoRiver
San Francisco
San Luis Damand Reservoir
Santa Barbara
Los Angeles
San Diego
Figure 14-13Page 314
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TAKES WATER FROM NORTH CA., THE COLORADO RIVER
AND GROUND WATER
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Figure 14-14Page 315
Withdrawing Groundwater
Advantages Disadvantages
Good source of water for drinking and irrigation
Available year- round
Exists almost everywhere
Renewable if not overpumped or contaminated
No evaporation losses
Cheaper to extract than most surface waters
Aquifer depletion from overpumping
Sinking of land (subsidence) when water removed
Polluted aquifers unusable for decades or centuries
Saltwater intrusion into drinking water supplies near coastal areas
Reduced water flows into streams, lakes, estuaries, and wetlands
Increased cost, energy use, and contamination from deeper wells
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Major irrigationwell
Well contaminatedwith saltwater
SaltwaterIntrusion
NormalInterface
Freshgroundwater
aquifer
Interface Interface
Saltwater
Sea LevelWater table
Figure 14-16Page 316
EXAMPLE OF SALT WATER INTRUSION
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Figure 14-17Page 316
Groundwater Depletion
Prevention Control
Waste less water
Subsidize water conservation
Ban new wells in aquifers near surface waters
Buy and retire groundwater withdrawal rights in critical areas
Do not grow water-intensive crops in dry areas
Reduce birth rates
Raise price of water to discourage waste
Tax water pumped from wells near surface waters
Set and enforce minimum stream flow levels
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WYOMING SOUTH DAKOTA
NEBRASKA
COLORADO
KANSAS
OKLAHOMA
NEW MEXICO
TEXAS
0 100Miles
Kilometers
Less than 61 meters (200 ft)
61-183 meters (200-600 ft)
More than 183 meters (600 ft)(as much as 370 meters or 1,200 ft.in places)
0 160
Figure 14-18Page 317
OGALLALA AQUIFER SUPPLIES MUCH OF THE
CENTRAL U.S. WITH WATER FOR AGRICULTURE
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Gravity Flow(efficiency 60% and 80% with surge valves)
Water usually comes from an aqueduct system or a nearby river.
Drip Irrigation(efficiency 90-95%)
Above- or below-ground pipes or tubes deliver water to
individual plant roots.
Center Pivot(efficiency 80% with low-pressure
sprinkler and 90–95% with LEPA sprinkler)
Water usually pumped from underground and sprayed from
mobile boom with sprinklers.
Figure 14-19Page 319
IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY CAN BE IMPROVED TREMENDOUSLY
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• Lining canals bringing water to irrigation ditches
• Leveling fields with lasers
• Irrigating at night to reduce evaporation
• Using soil and satellite sensors and computer systems to monitor soil moisture and add water only when necessary
• Polyculture
• Organic farming
• Growing water-efficient crops using drought-resistant and salt-tolerant crop varieties
• Irrigating with treated urban waste water
• Importing water-intensive crops and meat Figure 14-20Page 319
WAYS TO IMPROVE IRRIGATION. MANY OF THE SUPERIOR WAYS
OF IRRIGATING CROPS REQUIRE A LARGE
INITIAL CAPITAL OUTLAY PREVENTING SMALL FARMERS AND
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES FROM
USING THEM.
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• Redesign manufacturing processes
• Landscape yards with plants that require little water
• Use drip irrigation
• Fix water leaks
• Use water meters and charge for all municipal water use
• Raise water prices
• Require water conservation in water-short cities
• Use water-saving toilets, showerheads, and front- loading clothes washers
• Collect and reuse household water to irrigate lawns and nonedible plants
• Purify and reuse water for houses, apartments, and office buildings
WE SAW XERISCAPING AND RAINFALL CATCHMENTS ON
OUR FIELD TRIP TO CARKEEK PARK
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Floodplain
Levee Floodwall
Dam
Reservoir
Figure 14-23Page 322
NATURAL FLOODPLAINS ARE GOOD FARMLAND DUE TO THE ANNUAL INCREMENT OF SILT PROVIDED BY THE FLOOD WATER. TO PREVENT FLOODS LEVEES ARE BUILT AND
THE RIVERS AND STRAIGHTENED, CHANNELIZED AND DAMMED. THIS ENCOURAGES PEOPLE TO MOVE ONTO FLOODPLAINS BUT THEN FLOODS RETURN IN EVEN LARGER
PROPORTIONS WHEN HEAVY RAINS OVERWHELM THE SYSTEMS AND INCREASES FROM URBAN DEVELOPMENT RUNOFF OCCUR. MANY FLOOD PROBLEMS ARE SIMPLY
TRANSFERRED DOWNSTREAM.
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Oxygenreleased byvegetation
Diverseecological
habitat
Evapotranspiration
Trees reduce soilerosion from heavyrain and wind
Agriculturalland
Steadyriver flow
Leaf litterimprovessoil fertility
Tree rootsstabilize soil andaid water flow Vegetation releases
water slowly andreduces flooding
Forested Hillside
Figure 14-24 (1)Page 322
FORESTS PROVIDE NATURAL FLOOD CONTROL AND MODERATE THE
CLIMATE
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Tree plantation
Evapotranspiration decreases
Ranchingacceleratessoil erosion bywater and wind
Winds removefragile topsoil
Gullies andlandslides
Heavy rain leachesnutrients from soiland erodes topsoil Rapid runoff
causes flooding
After Deforestation
Roadsdestabilizehillsides
Agriculture landis flooded andsilted up
Silt from erosion blocksrivers and reservoirs andcauses flooding downstream
Figure 14-24 (2)Page 322
DEFORESTATION RESULTS IN MANY PROBLEMS AND IN THE PNW THESE
INCLUDE THE DESTRUCTION OF SALMON HABITAT
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Figure 14-26Page 325
NONPOINT SOURCES
Urban streets
Suburban development
Wastewater treatment plant
Rural homes
Cropland
Factory
Animal feedlot
POINT SOURCES
POINT AND NONPOINT SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION. IT IS EASIER TO IDENTIFY, CONTROL AND PAY FOR
SOLVING POINT SOURCE PROBLEMS COMPARED TO NONPOINT POLLUTION SOURCES
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Figure 14-27Page 326
Types of
organisms
Dissolved
oxygen
(ppm)
Biological
oxygen
demand
Normal clean water organisms
(Trout, perch, bass,
mayfly, stonefly)
8 ppm
Trash fish
(carp, gar,
leeches)
Fish absent,
fungi, sludge
worms,
bacteria
(anaerobic)
Trash fish
(carp, gar,
leeches)
Normal clean water organisms
(Trout, perch, bass,
mayfly, stonefly)
8 ppm
Clean ZoneDecomposition
Zone
Septic
Zone
Recovery
Zone
Clean
Zone
POLLUTION OF FRESHWATER STREAMS, LAKES AND GROUNDWATER. POINT SOURCE STREAM POLLUTION OFTEN CAUSES AN OXYGEN SAG IN STREAMS. DUE TO STRATIFICATION AND LESS FLOW LAKES ARE
MORE EASILY POLLUTED THAN STREAMS AND RIVERS
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Water0.000002 ppm
Stepped Art
Figure 14-28Page 328
Phytoplankton0.0025 ppm
Zooplankton0.123 ppm
Rainbow smelt1.04 ppm
Lake trout4.83 ppm
Herring gull124 ppm
Herring gull eggs124 ppm
ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF BIOMAGNIFICATION AND
BIOACCUMULATION
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Figure 14-29Page 329
Discharge of untreated municipal sewage
(nitrates and phosphates)
Discharge of treatedmunicipal sewage
(primary and secondary treatment: nitrates and phosphates)
Dissolving ofnitrogen oxides
(from internal combustion engines and furnaces)
Lake ecosystemnutrient overload
and breakdown of chemical cycling
Discharge of detergents
(phosphates)
Natural runoff(nitrates and phosphates) Inorganic fertilizer runoff
(nitrates and phosphates)
Manure runoff from feedlots
(nitrates, phosphates, ammonia)
Runoff from streets, lawns, and construction
lots (nitrates and phosphates)
Runoff and erosion(from cultivation,
mining, construction, and poor land use
CAUSES OF CULTURAL EUTROPHICATION
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Great Lakes drainage basin
Most polluted areas, according to the Great Lakes Water Quality Board
“Hot spots” of toxic concentrations in water and sediments
Eutrophic areas
CANADA
WISCONSIN
MINNESOTA
IOWA
ILLINOISINDIANA OHIO
PENNSYLVANIA
NEW YORK
MICHIGAN
MICHIGAN
Nipigon Bay
Thunder Bay
Silver Bay
St. Louis R.
Jackfish Bay
St. Mary’s R.
Spanish R.
Penetary Bay
Sturgeon Bay
SaginawBaySaginaw R.
SystemSt. Clair R.
Detroit R.Rouge R.Raisin R.
Maumee R.
Black R.Rocky R.
Cuyahoga R.Ashtabula R.
Thames R.
Grand R. Niagara Falls
Niagara R.Buffalo R.
St. Lawrence R.
Figure 14-30Page 330
THE GREAT LAKES HAVE A SORDID HISTORY OF POLLUTION AND A POSITIVE RECORD OF THE POLITICAL PROCESS WORKING TO CLEAN
THEM. WHY IS SUPERIOR THE CLEANEST AND ERIE THE MOST POLLUTED?
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Coal strip mine runoff
Pumping well
Waste lagoon
Accidental spills
Groundwater flow
Confined aquifer
Discharge
Leakage from faulty casing
Hazardous waste injection well
Pesticides
Gasoline station
Buried gasoline and solvent tank
Sewer
Cesspool septic tank
De-icing road salt
Unconfined freshwater aquifer
Confined freshwater aquifer
Water pumping well
Landfill
Figure 14-31Page 331
CAUSES OF GROUNDWATER POLLUTION
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IndustryNitrogen oxides from autosand smokestacks; toxicchemicals, and heavymetals in effluents flowinto bays and estuaries.
CitiesToxic metals andoil from streets andparking lots pollutewaters; sewageadds nitrogen andphosphorus.
Urban sprawlBacteria andviruses from sewersand septic tankscontaminate shellfishbeds and closebeaches; runoffof fertilization fromlawns adds nitrogenand phosphorus.
Construction sitesSediments are washed into waterways,choking fish and plants, cloudingwaters, and blocking sunlight.
FarmsRun off of pesticides, manure, andfertilizers adds toxins and excessnitrogen and phosphorus.
Red tidesExcess nitrogen causes explosivegrowth of toxic microscopic algae,poisoning fish and marine mammals.
Healthy zoneClear, oxygen-rich waterspromote growth of planktonand sea grasses, and support fish.
Oxygen-depleted zoneSedimentation and algaeovergrowth reduce sunlight,kill beneficial sea grasses,use up oxygen, and degrade habitat.
Toxic sedimentsChemicals and toxic metalscontaminate shellfish beds,kill spawning fish, andaccumulate in the tissuesof bottom feeders.
Closed shellfish bedsClosed
beach Oxygen-depletedzone
Figure 14-33Page 334
CAUSES OF POLLUTION OF COASTAL WATERS AND BAYS FROM
DEVELOPMENT (RESIDENTIAL AREAS, FACTORIES AND FARMS
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MississippiRiver Basin
MissouriRiver
OhioRiver
MississippiRiver
LOUISIANAMississippi
River
Depleted
Oxygen
Gulf of Mexico
Figure 14-34Page 335
DEPLETED OXYGEN (2 PPM) DUE TO NITRATE AND
PHOSPHATEINPUT
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Drainagebasin
No oxygen Low concentrationsof oxygen
PENNSYLVANIA
NEW YORK
WESTVIRGINIA
MARYLAND
DELAWARE
NEWJERSEY
ATLANTICOCEAN
VIRGINIA
Cooperstown
Harrisburg
Baltimore
Washington
Richmond
Norfolk Chesapeake Bay
Figure 14-35Page 335
CHESAPEAKE BAY IS A
DEGRADED ECOSYSTEM
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Figure 14-36Page 337
Prevention
Reduce input of toxic pollutants
Separate sewage and storm lines
Ban ocean dumping of sludge and hazardous dredged material
Protect sensitive areas from development, oil drilling, and oil shipping
Regulate coastal development
Recycle used oil
Require double hulls for oil tankers
Cleanup
Improve oil-spill cleanup capabilities
Require at least secondary treatment of coastal sewage or use wetlands, solar-aquatic, or other sewage treatment methods
Require improved air pollution cleanup to reduce input from the atmosphere
WAYS TO DEAL WITH COASTAL WATER POLLUTION
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Householdwastewater
Perforatedpipe
Distributionbox
(optional)
Septic tank
Manhole (forcleanout)
Drainfield
Vent pipe
Nonperforatedpipe
Gravel orcrushedstone
Figure 14-37Page 339SEPTIC TANKS TO BE INSTALLED PROPERLY IN SOILS WITH ADEQUATE
DRAINAGE, NOT TOO CLOSE TOGETHER OR TOO NEAR WELL SITES AND PUMPED OUT WHEN THE SETTLING TANK BECOMES FULL
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Raw sewagefrom sewers
Bar screenGritchamber Settling tank Aeration tank Settling tank
Chlorinedisinfection tank
Sludge
Sludge digester
Activated sludge
Air pump
(kills bacteria)
To river, lake,or ocean
Sludge drying bed
Disposed of in landfill orocean or applied to cropland,pasture, or rangeland
Primary Secondary
Figure 14-38Page 340TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL SEWAGE