sleep cycles and mood alterations from vitamin d intake

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Sleep Cycles and Mood Alterations from Vitamin D Intake

**********

A Thesis

Presented to the Faculty

of

Greenville College

**********

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for Departmental Honors in

Biology

**********

by

Meghan E. Girdner

May 2013


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: ...................................................................................................................... 1

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 2

CHAPTER 2: ...................................................................................................................... 6

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................. 6

RECENT RESEARCH OUTCOMES .................................................................. 15

CHAPTER 3: .................................................................................................................... 17

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... 17

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 18

METHODS AND MATERIALS .......................................................................... 19

RESULTS ............................................................................................................. 26

DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 31

CHAPTER 4: .................................................................................................................... 36

CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 36

WORKS CONSULTED ................................................................................................... 37

APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 39

APPENDIX I .........................................................................................................39

APPENDIX II ........................................................................................................48


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INTRODUCTION

Currently, there are a plethora of articles discussing the benefits of vitamin D.

Countless health pieces tout the virtues of Vitamin D, claiming it can prevent everything

from Alzheimers disease to cancer. In 2008, Dr. James Dowd wrote a book, The Vitamin

D Cure, promoting vitamin D as the miracle supplement. In his book, Dr. Dowd claims

that Vitamin D can decrease the risk of becoming overweight, prevent arthritis, cancer,

diabetes, high blood pressure, and other health problems. Quickly, the vitamin D fad de-

veloped as advertisers began to urge the public to buy supplements and food fortified

with Vitamin D. Yet this quickly developed health craze leaves on to wonder if there are

any substantial evidence behind these claims? Can taking regular amounts of vitamin D

every day actually prevent an individual from becoming obese, having heart disease, or

getting cancer? And, if vitamin D is so effective in improving overall health, what befits

can it have on more minor issues, such as sleep cycles and mood?

Dr. Michael Breus, Clinical Psychologist and Board Certified Sleep Specialist,

claims that the proper use of vitamin D may be just as wondrous as health and fitness gu-

rus advertise it. Dr. Breus worked specifically with individuals suffering from extreme

cases of insomnia. One particular patient of his, a 28-year-old female, suffered for ap-

proximately four months with excessive sleepiness. At the time of her visit with Dr.

Breus, she reported sleeping approximately 14 hours per day. There was no apparent

physical or psychological reason for the onset of her sleepiness as she had not changed

any of her daily routines prior to the onset of her sleepiness, and she gave no indications

of suffering with depression. Her daily fatigue simply began to come on slowly and

over the time of a few months continued to dramatically worsen. The subject kept a

standard bedtime between 10 p.m. and 11 p.m., and she reported falling asleep within


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minutes. After approximately eight to nine hours asleep, the subject reported waking up

promptly at 7:30 a.m., admitting that she felt rested. Yet, after getting her kids ready for

school, she would return to bed by 8:00 a.m. and sleep until noon. She would then nap

again from four pm to seven pm. Her sleep study showed no signs of sleep apnea or other

sleep disorder, and during her clinic visit she showed no signs of narcolepsy, depression,

or anxiety. A nap study was also conducted and seemed unremarkable. The patient did

report of muscle fatigue and pain, as well as headaches, but blood test indicated that her

thyroid was in the low, but normal range levels. She did however have remarkably low

levels of vitamin D in her system. Dr. Breus devised an aggressive approach to her low

vitamin D levels, starting her on a vitamin D supplementation at 50,000 units once per

week (IV). Within two weeks, the patient reported a dramatic decrease in her sleepiness

and fatigue.

Testimonies regarding the positive effect of vitamin D on sleep cycles continue as

one man, Matthew Hogg (the founder and editor of Environmental Illness Resource

Online), claims high dosage vitamin D cured his long-standing bout with Seasonal Affec-

tive Disorder (SAD). SAD, as defined by Mental Health America, is a mood disorder

associated with depression and related to seasonal variations of light. SAD affects half a

million people every winter between September and April, peaking in December, Janu-

ary, and February. (Mental Health America). Seasonal changes in sunlight exposure pro-

foundly affect the amount of UV-B light which will penetrate the epidermis to stimulate

the production of pre-vitamin D and the subsequent levels of vitamin D. Although vita-

min D can be obtained from the diet, more than 90% of it is produced in the body through

the influence of direct sunlight. Organisms will experience varying degrees of sunlight as

related to geographical location and seasonal variations that accounts for the substantial


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variations in the circulating levels of calcidiol (or Vitamin D3). Individuals who suffer

with SAD esxperience additional side effects including anxiety, sleep disorders, overeat-

ing, and loss of libido. Before Mr. Hogg realized that he suffered from this disorder, he

reported feeling suicidal each year from October to March. He recalls, All I felt was to-

tal despair, and I spent most of my time in bed. If I hadn't still been living at home with

my parents, I wouldn't have been able to cope. Who knows what would have happened,

but I stubbornly fought a mental battle against thoughts of ending my life and managed to

pull through. (Hogg). In desperation, Hogg searched for a solution. He first sought the

counsel of a physician who recommended he begin bright light therapy. This form of

therapy, usually one of the first treatments for SAD recommended by doctors (to be used

along side of antidepressant medication), requires the patient to sit before a uniquely

crafted light box for at least half of an hour and up two hours per day during therapy

sessions. The light box is designed to provide an emission bright enough to effectively

mimic the sun. (Gordijn). Unfortunately, Hogg found this form of therapy only somewhat

effective. He reports experiencing a moderate energizing effect but my mood was still

very low. Next, he experimented with vitamin D, starting with a onetime dose 25,000

International Units (IU). Even on the first day, Hogg reported a remarkable and noticea-

ble difference that took effect only hours prior to his first dose. Over the three to four

days following this initial dosage, his mood (even in overcast or cloudy weather) was no-

ticeably brighter. He found that this mood elevation lasted for 3-4 days before starting

to wane. In further experimentation with the dosage, Hogg discovered that taking a dose

of 50,000 IU maintained an improved mood for the whole week. He continued this week-

ly regiment of vitamin D, and successfully overcame the negative and destructive feel-

ings stemming from SAD. He also reported redeveloping neglected friendships,


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experiencing less anxiety, and maintaining a healthy sleep cycle that made him less reli-

ant on excessive amounts of sleep and resting throughout the day.


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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

To understand how intake of vitamin D can help in cases of insomnia or depres-

sion, one must first look at the body in a holistic manner. The body is constructed of the

following four main macromolecules (or building blocks): carbohydrates, lipids, nucleo-

tides, and proteins. First, Carbohydrates, or saccharides, are the most abundant of the four

macromolecules and serve as the main source of energy for nearly all living organisms as

they have several roles in metabolic processes, including energy transportation, fertiliza-

tion, immune responses, the development of disease, and blood clotting. (Voet 379). Car-

bohydrates are called carbohydrates because the carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and are

generally in proportion to form water yielding the general formula Cn(H2O).

Another second major class of macromolecules of vital importance in the human

body are lipids. Lipids are molecules which contain hydrocarbons and make up the build-

ing blocks of the structure and function of living cells. Examples of lipids include fats,

oils, waxes, hormones and most of the non-protein membrane of cells. Since lipids are

mainly composed of hydrocarbons, they are non-polar and thus are only soluble in non-

polar substances. Thus, lipids are not soluble in water. Yet, when metabolized, lipids are

oxidized to release significant amounts of energy and thus are useful to living organisms.

(MedHealth). Lipids also act as the main constituents of all cell membranes and intracel-

lular compartments and organelles, as well as intermediates in signaling pathways.

Proteins complement the work of carbohydrates and lipids as another major class

of macromolecules. They also have many functions such as structural support and com-

plexity, storage, signaling, and defense. (Voet 129). Finally, there are nucleic acids, the

key to an organism being able to effectively reproduce and to allow its genome to pass on


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to the next generation. DNA and RNA, two examples of nucleic acids, are the blueprints

and control centers behind an organisms core makeup. DNA and RNA code for an or-

ganisms traits for with carbohydrates and proteins as it provides written instruction for

these other macromolecules main functions.

Vitamins are essential organic nutrients related to two of these four macromole-

cules: carbohydrates and lipids. Vitamins are classified into two categories: water-soluble

and fat-soluble. Water-soluble vitamins (including B1, B2, Niacin, B5, B6, Folacin, B12,

Biotin, and C) are organic compounds that are needed in many biological functions such

as growth, reproduction, and maintenance of good health. Water-soluble vitamins are dis-

solved in water and then travel directly into the bloodstream. According to "Nutrition and

You" by Joan Salge Blake, water-soluble vitamins are most readily absorbed in the small

intestine. The body does not have an ability to store water-soluble vitamins, thus this

class of vitamins must be regularly and consistently consumed in the diet. Excess

amounts of water-soluble vitamins taken in will be excreted in the urine.

Fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins that dissolve into lipids. They dissolve by dif-

fusing into cell membranes and other lipids in the body (including the lipid inclusions in

the liver and adipose tissue). The body will store fat-soluble vitamins on reserve, ena-

bling normal metabolic operations to continue for several months after dietary sources are

cut off. It is vital to note that too large of a reservoir of fat-soluble vitamins can produce

unpleasant effects, such as hypervitaminosis, a condition occurring when the dietary in-

take exceeds the ability to utilize, to store, or to excrete a particular vitamin. Examples of

fat-soluble vitamins are A, E, and K.

Vitamin D is at times inappropriately considered a fat-soluble vitamin when it in

actuality is not a vitamin at all. Bioactive vitamin D is more correctly categorized as a


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steroid hormone (or more specifically a secosteriod, as it resembles a steroid. See Figure

1).

Figure 1: The structural difference between steroids and secosteriod

Vitamin D cannot be considered a true vitamin because individuals with adequate ex-

posure to sunlight do not require dietary supplementation. Even though there are dietary

sources of vitamin D (including egg yolk, fish oil and a number of plants), natural diets

typically do not contain adequate quantities of vitamin D. Adequate exposure to sunlight

and purposeful consumption of food products purposefully supplemented with vitamin D

are necessary to prevent deficiencies. This secosteriod has been long known for its im-

portant role in regulating levels of calcium and phosphorus in the body. Not only is vita-

min D considered a steroid hormone, the term vitamin D imprecisely refers to one or

more members of group of steroid molecules. First, there is cholecalciferol, a substitent

of vitamin D also known as vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol may also be called calcitriol: see

Figure 1). Cholecalciferol (Figure 2)


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Figure 2: Cholecalciferol

is generated in the epidermis of the skin of animals when a precursor molecule within the

skin, 7-dehydrocholesterol, absorbs (figure 3) light energy.

Figure 3: 7-dehyrocholesterol

Cholecalciferol then travels to the liver to be hydroxylated into a pre-hormone called

Calcidiol (a.k.a. 25-hydroxycholecalciferol or 25-hydroxyvitamin D: see Figure 4) by the

enzyme 25-hydroxylase.

Figure 4: Calcidiol

It now can be stored for use by various organs in the body, such as the kidney. In stor-

age, Calcidiol serves as a substrate for 1-alpha-hydroxylase, yielding Calcitriol or 1,25-

dihydroxycholecalciferol.


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This compound is the biologically active form of Vitamin D. (see figure 5).

Figure 5: Calcidiol

Therefore, vitamin D in the inactive state does not have a significant biological

activity. Rather, it must first be metabolized 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, the hormo-

nally active form of vitamin D. This final product will reenter the blood stream. Each of

the forms of vitamin D is hydrophobic, and is transported in blood bound to a carrier pro-

tein, appropriately named vitamin D-binding protein. An understanding in the mechanism

of vitamin D may aid in determining how intake of this vitamin may be beneficial in

treating both sleep and mood disorders.

One such disorder that may respond positively with the treatment of vitamin D is

is Seasonal Affective Disorder. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is understood to be a

combination of biological and mood disturbances with a seasonal pattern which typically

occurs during the very late and very early months of the year and having remission dur-

ing the spring and summer months. In a given year, approximately five percent of indi-

viduals living in areas of the United States experiencing true seasonal patters will suffer

from SAD with symptoms presenting 40% of the year. Although this condition is limited

to a specific season, patients may have significant impairment associated with SADs de-

pressive symptoms. Standard and traditional treatment for this disorder (light therapy) is


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generally well tolerated with most patients experiencing clinical improvement within one

to two weeks following the onset of treatment. To avoid patient relapse into SAD, many

physicians suggest light therapy continue throughout the entire winder season until spon-

taneous remission of symptoms in the spring or summer occurs. Pharmacotherapy may

also work to treat SAD with anti-depressants and cognitive behavior therapy. These

methods that been shown to be as effective as light therapy, but due to the comparable

effectiveness of each treatment strategy, first-line management should be guided by pa-

tient preference.

A range of symptoms are associated with SAD including tiredness, lethargy, food

cravings, weight-gain, low sex drive, muscle aches and pains, depression, guilt, and anxi-

ety. (Gordijn). While the exact cause for SAD is not completely understood, there exists

one theory which states light is essential in stimulating the hypothalamus, the part of the

brain that is regulates the bodys basic biological rhythms. People with winter-induced

depression cannot appropriately adjust to decreasing daylight. This light deficit and the

improper production of hormones from the hypothalamus may be explained specifically

in the absence of one specific neurotransmitter, serotonin. Serotonin has a role in the

management mood, appetite, and sleep. It's thought that people with SAD may have ab-

normally low levels of chemicals such as the neurotransmitter serotonin in winter. Sero-

tonin is generated from the amino acid tryptophan and is converted into the hormone

melatonin, a hormone central in the development of sleep cycles.

Tryptophan is one of the 22 standard amino acids and is an essential amino acid in

the human diet. The codon UGG encodes tryptophan in the standard genetic code. Only

the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is at

times located in naturally produced peptides. Tryptophan contains an indole functional


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group, a structure of conjoined circles consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused

to a five-membered nitrogen-containing pyrrole ring. This group is the distinguishing

characteristic of tryptophan. As an amino acid, tryptophan is responsible for the synthesis

of serotonin, an essential neurotransmitter. The conversion of tryptophan into serotonin is

completed through the process of tryptophan hydrolysis. It is in this conversion that some

hypothesize that vitamin D plays a role in sleep and mood. In this reaction, tryptophan is

first converted into 5-hydroxy L-tryptophan (5-HTP). Next, 5-HTP will be converted into

serotonin, a neurotransmitter (properly named 5-hydroxytryptamine) which is popularly

thought to be a contributor to feelings of well-being and happiness. Serotonin, in turn, is

converted into Melatonin, a hormone that has been shown in several authenticated and

reputable experiments to assist in initiating and maintaining the sleep state.

Figure 6: Conversion of Tryptophan to 5-HTP to Serotonin

The conversion of serotonin to melatonin occurs in the pineal gland of the brain.

Here, serotonin is first acetylated and subsequently methylated to produce melatonin, a

hormone to be secreted by the pineal gland. Melatonin is then released from the pineal

gland according to ones biological or internal clock. When this secretion is disrupted or

when there is not enough melatonin synthesized, there can be great disturbances in ones

sleep.


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Figure 7: Conversion of Serotonin into Melatonin

Sleeping disturbances that persist over the period of a couple of nights may be due

to an environmental stress leading to metabolic excitement. This onset of environmental

stress will lead to the excretion of excess adrenaline and cortisol, two hormones which

interfere directly with the production of serotonin. When dealing with sleep disturbances

(lasting as long as weeks or months), it is more likely that these stress hormones are pro-

duced internally due to a metabolic disorder requiring the investigation of any underlying

biochemical factors that may contribute to the illness. One such disturbance is chronic

insomnia, a sleep disorder characteristic by the inability to fall asleep or to stay asleep as

long as desired. Many would report insomnia to be a psychologically uprooting experi-

ence. (Altun 835). According to a study conducted by the Mayo clinic, it has been esti-

mated that one third of people suffer from a form or degree of chronic insomnia. (836).

As mentioned above, the primary cause of insomnia is linked to the failure of the

body to effectively produce sufficient amounts of melatonin, the neurotransmitter that

induces sleep and tiredness as linked to the circadian rhythm (the bodys natural sleep

cycle). In humans there exists a central pacemaker that entrains internal circadian

rhythms to synchronize with external time cues (or zeitgebers). This central pacemaker is

located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (or SCN) of the hypothalamus. Light is the most

powerful zeitgeber and is conveyed to the SCN through the eyes via the retinohypotha-

lamic tract. Next, a complex neural pathway links the SNC to the pineal gland, where


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melatonin is secreted under the influence of both the SCN (a circadian or sleep cycle

mechanism) and external light exposure (a direct suppression effect). In many animals,

melatonin is a mediating hormone between light and seasonal behavior; it creates a robust

circadian rhythm by secreting high levels at high and low levels during the day. The cir-

cadian rhythm phase of melatonin is the usual time at which melatonin levels begin to

rise at night (for most individuals, this occurs approximately at 8:00 p.m.). When this

surge of hormone release occurs under dim light conditions (which prevents any direct

suppressant effect of light exposure), it is known as the dim light melatonin onset

(DLMO). Light can predictably shift circadian rhythms, with the direction and magnitude

of phase shift dependent on when light exposure occurs in the circadian cycle. For exam-

ple, bright light exposure last in the evening can delay the onset of melatonin (here

DLMO occurs at a later time, such as 10:00 p.m.), while morning light exposure results

in a phase advance of the melatonin rhythm (i.e. the DLMO occurs earlier than usual).

The phase shift of one circadian rhythm (the increase or decrease of melatonin) can

change the time interval to another circadian rhythm (such as the sleep-awake cycle al

known as the so-called phase angle.

Decreases in the production of melatonin can be associated with stress, age, and

psychological disorders (for example, Seasonal Affective Disorder). If there exists a link

between vitamin D and tryptophan metabolism (the conversion of tryptophan to serotonin

which is then processed into melatonin) it would be reasonable to associate vitamin D

with the improvement of sleep and mood. Many researchers are currently investigating to

find this link. One such way researchers are examining this phenomenon is through clini-

cal trials.


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RECENT RESEARCH OUTCOMES

Dr. David E. McCarty of the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center in

Shreveport and colleagues at the Louisiana State University said there is a significant cor-

relation between excessive daytime sleepiness and lack of vitamin D. In a study of 81

consecutive series on sleep clinic patients complaining of sleep problems and non-

specific pain, it was found that patients with abnormally low levels of vitamin D had pro-

gressively higher levels of daytime sleepiness (showing an inverse correlation). (Note:

The vitamin D levels in each patient were measured through blood tests, and sleepiness

was determined using the Epworth Sleepiness Scale). Although this correlation was ap-

parent for the most part, McCarty reported saying that suboptimal levels of vitamin D

might cause or contribute to excessive sleepiness, but the relationship between the de-

pendent and independent variable appears much more complex than originally assumed.

(Gordijn).

In 2006, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, Missouri

(WUSTL) conducted a study in association with the Division of Geriatrics and Nutrition-

al Science and Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, regarding the relationships among

vitamin D status, cognitive performance, mood, and physical performance in older

adults. (Wilkins). Vitamin D deficiency is common in older adults and has been impli-

cated in psychiatric and neurologic disorders. This study by WUSTL examined a cross-

sectional group of 80 participants, 40 with mild Alzheimer disease (AD) and 40 non-

demented persons selected, in a longitudinal study of memory and aging. Cognitive per-

formance was measured through a series of surveys and tests, including the Short Blessed

Test (SBT), Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE), Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR; a higher

Sum of Boxes score indicates greater dementia severity), and a factor score from a


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neuropsychometric battery. Mood alterations were observed through clinical diagnosis

and depression symptoms inventories. Finally, the Physical Performance Test (PPT) was

used to measure functional status. In this study, it was determined that vitamin D defi-

ciencies can be associated with low mood and worse performance on two measures of

cognitive function. Participants in this study with diagnosed and active mood disorders

did present with significantly lower vitamin D concentrations as compared to those with-

out mood disorders. (Wilkins).

These two experiments attest to the supposed effectiveness of vitamin D on sleep

and mood, but the following experiment is a small scale test attempting to provide similar

results.


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CHAPTER THREE

ABSTRACT

Hypothesis: Habitual daily intake of vitamin D as through oral transmission of an

over-the-counter vitamin D3 supplement or through an individuals exposure to direct

sunlight for fifteen or more minutes per day will result in a decrease in ones feelings of

sleepiness or fatigue and an increase in overall happiness as measured through an indi-

viduals sense of well-being and positive attitude.

Background: Popular health articles suggest that vitamin D supplements can as-

sist in the treatment of insomnia or depression.Therefore, one experiment was the inves-

tigation of the relationship between supplemental vitamin D intake and sleep quality as

well as the relationship between supplemental vitamin D intake and feelings of positivity

and overall sense of welfare.

Methods: Measurements of sleep quality through basic instrumentation and anal-

ysis of mood of each test subjects using psychological inventories while attempting to

control each individuals daily intake of vitamin D.

Results: There was a very slight difference between sleep cycles during period 1

and period 2, but each subject did report qualitative feelings of being more rested and

happier.

Conclusion: The results of this study demonstrates that varying amounts of vita-

min D intake may not influence quality of sleep, but it could cause a decrease in fatigue

as well as an increase in overall happiness.


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INTRODUCTION

This experiment is based on the hypothesis that habitual daily intake of vitamin

D3 supplement will result in a decrease in ones feelings of sleepiness or fatigue and an

increase in overall happiness as measured through an individuals sense of well-being and

positive attitude. The idea behind this experiment stems from several pieces of literature

which suggest the benefits of vitamin D as based on the overall lack our current society

has in sun exposure and proper diet from which this vital vitamin is generally obtained.

Dr. Andrew Weil is a medical physician and director of the Arizona Center of In-

tegrative medicine at the University of Arizona. As a physician of holistic medicine, Dr.

Weil aims to combine alternative and conventional medicine stating that patients should

take the Western medicine prescribed by doctors and incorporate them with alternative

holistic therapies such as vitamin D. Although Dr. Weil has been criticized for rejective

aspects of evidence-based medicine and promoting unverified beliefs, he is still consid-

ered an expert in the field of holistic and homeopathic treatments of vitamin and hormo-

nal deficiencies. Dr. Weil recommends 2,000 IU of vitamin D taken per day by individu-

als who are post-prepubescent but pre-menopausal. Dr. Weil also suggests that individu-

als seeking vitamin D treatment should find supplements that provide D3 or cholecalcif-

erol rather than D2 or ergocalciferol. (A detailed description of these two supplements is

provided in the second chapter of this thesis). Before beginning an aggressive vitamin D

regiment (specifically more than 5,000 IU per day), one should consult their physician.

While dosage should be monitored, no adverse effects have been seen with supplemental

vitamin D intakes below 10,000 IU per day. (Findlay).


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METHODS AND MATERIALS

Three females were used in the experiment. Each case operated as an N of 1 trial

(also called single subject clinical trials) that considered the subject as the sole unit of

observation in a study investigating the efficacy or side-effect profile of different inter-

ventions. Here each subject was compared only to him/her self.

Subject 1 is a 19 year old female attending Greenville College. Subject 1 self re-

ports to be conscientious of personal health as is she is active a member of Greenville

Colleges dance team and is currently training for a 5K. She reports running three times a

week and also reports attempting to eating a fairly balanced diet while on the meal plan at

Greenville. In the winter months leading up to the experiment, Subject 1 did not spend

much time outdoors, and only recently began to consistently run outside starting in late

March. At the beginning of the study, the subject described her sleep as pretty irregu-

lar. She attempted to keep a fairly regular sleep schedule, but acknowledged that be-

cause of her hectic class schedule she was not always able go to sleep at the same time

every night. This subject accounted getting six to seven hours of sleep per night, although

she complained of consistently waking up throughout the night. In addition, this subject

reports not feeling fully rested after a full nights sleep. She stated that upon waking up in

the morning she would still feel tired, and although she was for the most part even

tempered, after a bad nights sleep, she says she would feel grumpy throughout most of

the day.

Subject 2 is a 20 year old female attending Greenville College. She reported hav-

ing a mostly sedentary lifestyle, but also said that she occasionally participates in light to

moderate workouts one to two times a week. These workouts primarily consist of speed

walking or light jogging. Just as Subject 1 stated, Subject 2 attempts to eat a somewhat


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healthy and balanced diet at the colleges dinning commons, but admittedly finds this dif-

ficult. Prior to this vitamin D study, Subject 2 reported having an ongoing difficulty

sleeping. She accounts consistently waking up throughout the night and also reports hav-

ing a very troublesome time waking up in the mornings when starting her day. She also

verbalized feeling groggy throughout day and often felt the need to take a nap in the af-

ternoon or early evening. Before this study, Subject 2 did not spend much time outdoors

or in direct sunlight. She also felt her mood at times was not as upbeat as it could have

been, mostly more apathetic than positive.

The third female subject also attends Greenville College and is 21 years of age.

This subject reports attempting to eat a balanced diet and working out occasionally, but

admits that health and fitness are not two of her major priorities. As a full-time student,

this subject also spends much of her time indoors and not in direct sunlight for more than

5 to 10 minutes per day. Out of the three, this subject reports the greatest issues with

sleep and the feelings of being fully rested. On a regular basis, Subject 3 sleeps approxi-

mately 7.5 to 8 hours per night and attempts to keep a schedule of falling asleep and

awaking at the same times per day. Even so, Subject 3 reports feeling very lethargic in

the mornings and also reports difficult falling asleep at night. The subject also reports dif-

ficult staying asleep through out the night. She has never taken any medication regarding

this sleep problem that she reports as a slight predilection to insomnia. She also self-

reports having a mostly upbeat attitude on days she feels rested.

Test subjects did not report taking any regular medications or daily prescriptions

and were asked to not begin any new medications or major dietary changes throughout

the course of this experiment. In addition, all three subjects reported spending very small

amounts of time in direct sunlight.. At the beginning of the experiment, each subject per-


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formed psychological inventories to assess mood and positivity. During the Phase I of the

experiment (20 days in length), subjects recorded their sleep cycles using a cellular de-

vice. Through these first few weeks, subjects were encouraged to continue their daily

routines while not considering their diet or sun exposure. During the second phase (anther

20 days in length), each subject introduced a daily dosage of 2,000 international units of

vitamin D3 into their diet through a laboratory manufactured dietary supplement pur-

chased through the online vitamin company, Puritan's Pride. Each continued monitoring

their sleep using the cellular device. It was preferred that subjects take this supplement

during the morning hours (more specifically, before 12:00 p.m. every day). At the end of

Phase II, all subjects were asked to retake the four happiness inventories, and their re-

sponses to each set of tests were compared and analyzed. Each test subjective were also

asked to provide their opinions on how vitamin D affected the way they slept and felt

overall at the beginning and at the end of the experiment.

At the beginning of the study, each subject was required to take four happiness

inventories through the Authentic Happiness testing center established by Dr. Martin

Seligman, Director of the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania.

Dr. Seligerman is credited as the founder of positive psychology, a branch of scholarship

that focuses on the empirical study of such things as positive emotion, strengths-based

character, and healthy institutions.

The following are the questionnaires used in this study: Authentic Happiness In-

ventory Questionnaire, Fordyce Emotions Questionnaire, General Happiness Question-

naire, and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) Questionnaire. These ques-

tionnaires attempt to quantitatively measure character strengths and aspects of happiness.


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The Authentic Happiness Inventory was designed to measure overall happiness

based on feelings over a relatively short time period, such as the previous week. This in-

ventory uses 24 items where participants are asked to select 1 of 5 statements about the

items. The 24 items scores from A to E are assigned ordinal values from 1 to 5,

aggregated, and divided by the total number of items, resulting in the participants overall

score. The reliability analysis for the Authentic Happiness Inventory calculated an ac-

ceptable alpha of .92 at T1.

An example of an item from this scale is:

A. I have felt like a failure.

B. I have not felt like a winner.

C. I have felt like I have succeeded more than most people.

D. As I look back on my life, all I see are victories.

E. I have felt I am extraordinarily successful.

The full questionnaire can be seen in Appendix I.

The next inventory is the Fordyce Emotions Questionnaire. This inventory is a

self-report measure of a persons current level of happiness. It consists of two questions:

the first is a Method 26 question of general happiness on a 10-point Likert scale. The

second question requires a percentage calculation for the amount of time feeling happy,

unhappy, and neutral, with the three percentages represented 33.33% apiece, equaling a

total of 100%. Completion of this questionnaire results in four scores, the first between 1

and 10, and the other three being part percentages of 100. Reliability analysis was not

performed on the Fordyce Emotions Questionnaire scale due to the scales construct. This

study was done on a sample of 3,50 American adults, and the average score was 6.92.


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The percentage of individuals found to be happy was 54.13% with 20.44% unhappy and

24.43% neutral.

Examples of questions from this scale are:

How happy or unhappy do you usually feel?

10 Extremely happy

9 Very happy

8 Pretty happy

7 Mildly happy

6 Slightly happy

5 Neutral

4 Slightly unhappy

3 Mildly unhappy

2 Pretty unhappy

1 Very unhappy

On the average, what percent of the time do you feel happy? ____%


The third inventory used in this experiment was the General Happiness Scale

which is questionnaire which attempts to assess enduring happiness. In this survey, test

subjects rate the four statements on a scale of 1 to 7. The first statement asks whether or

not the individual considers him/herself a happy person. The last three questions ask the

survey-taker to compare their happiness to how they perceive their peers happiness.

These four scores are totaled and then divided by 8. The mean for adult Americans is 4.8

(two-thirds of people score between 3.8 to 5.8).


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The fourth and final inventory each subject filed was the Positive and Negative

Affect Schedule (PANAS), which is designed to measure positive and negative affect in

order to appraise emotional state. The scale consists of 20 words that describe different

feelings and emotions that may have been experienced in the previous 24 hours. 10 of the

words make up a subscale for positive affect, and 10 make up a sub-scale for negative

affect. Participants select on a 5-point scale from Very slightly or not at all to Extreme-

ly. Each participant has two overall scores for this measure, one for negative affect and

one for positive, which are aggregated from the relevant 10 item scores for each. The 10

items in the positive and negative affect are represented through the scale shown below.


Very slightly

or not at allA little Moderately Quite a bit Extremely

Interested 1 2 3 4 5

Distressed 1 2 3 4 5

Table 1: PANAS Questionnaire Example.

The sleep cycles of each subject were also recorded. One requirement of all test

subjects was that they owned a functioning iPhone and could download the app Sleep

Cycles, created by Maciek Drejak Labs, an app software company. Upon downloading

the app, subjects were asked a variety of questions regarding their age, sex, and typical

sleep habits. At bedtime, the iPhone was placed at the head of the subjects bed, and the

app used the accelerometer in the iPhone in order to detect movement made throughout

the night. The accelerometer is theoretically able to detect the extent of movement char-

acteristic of different phases of sleep. The app is then able to interpret these movements

into a statistical readout, mapping out the two specific stages of sleep (NREM and REM).


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It then produces a graph seen on the iPhone screen. Sleep quality, a percentage quantity,

is also recorded each night. The Sleep Quality percentage is affected by two factors: total

time asleep and amount of movement.

In this N of 1 study of three individuals tracked their sleep cycles using the iPh-

one App Sleep Cycle and their mood using the psychological inventories from Authenti-

cHappiness.com. The results from each study are in the following section.


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RESULTS

Phase 1 Test results:

Test Score Range Date of Test

Authentic Happiness Inventory 3.33 1.00 to 5.00 25 March 2013

Fordyce Emotions Questionnaire 8

75

10

15

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

25 March 2013

General Happiness Scale 6.00 1.00 to 7.00 25 March 2013

PANAS Questionnaire 29

11

10 to 50

10 to 50

25 March 2013

Table 2: Authentic Happiness Results for Subject 1


Authentic Happiness Inventory 2.96 1.00 to 5.00 25 October 2012


30

45

25

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

25 October 2012

General Happiness Scale 3.25 1.00 to 7.00 25 October 2012


10 to 5010 to 50

25 October 2012





40

45

0 to 1000 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

26 March 2013

General Happiness Scale 3 1.00 to 7.00 26 March 2013


40

10 to 50

10 to 50

26 March 2013

Table 4: Authentic Happiness results for Subject 3


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Phase 2 Test Results:


Authentic Happiness Inventory 4.29 1.00 to 5.00 30 April 2013


87

6

7

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

30 April 2013

General Happiness Scale 6.25 1.00 to 7.00 30 April 2013


19

10 to 50

10 to 50

30 April 2013





3045

25

0 to 100

0 to 1000 to 100

0 to 100

30 April 2013


PANAS Questionnaire 3419 10 to 5010 to 50 30 April 2013





25

25

50

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

25 April 2013

General Happiness Scale 4.25 1.00 to 7.00 25 April 2013PANAS Questionnaire 50

18

10 to 50

10 to 50

25 April 2013



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Graph 1: Linear Correlation between date and time in bed for Subject 1

Graph 2: Linear graph giving relationship between the date of study and sleep quality for

Subject 1

Graph 3: Mood throughout the vitamin D study as based on happy (1), neutral (0), andunhappy (-1) for Subject 1

y=0.0184x - 725.9602

y=0.0007x - 26.1884


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Graph 8: Linear graph giving relationship between the date of study and sleep quality forSubject 3

Graph 9: Mood throughout the vitamin D study as based on happy (1), neutral (0), and

unhappy (-1) for Subject 3

y=0.0117x - 458.8314

y= 0.0016x - 65.4726


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DISCUSSION

In conclusion, there was no significant difference in sleep cycle verses the intake

of the vitamin D supplement. While a positive correlation could be observed on the

graphs associated with each test subjects' sleep quality, this perceived relationship is very

minor as the slopes of the linear associations were only slightly positive (0.0184 for Sub-

ject 1, 0.047 for Subject 2, and 0.0117x for Subject 3). This suggests that the positive cor-

relation between four factors (vitamin D intake v. sleep quality; vitamin D v. time in bed)

is so minor that it is nearly irrelevant, thus making an conclusions from this experiment

impossible. In addition, each of the Coefficients of Determination (or R^2 values) were

rather undesirable as they were each very close to zero (desired R^2 values are close to

1). This simply reflects that the data collected was rather sporadic and did not fit closely

to the best fit line found on each of the graphs.

At the end of the experiment, Subject 1 reports that prior to taking vitamin D, she

was always in a good mood, but since taking it, shes felt happier more consistently.

According to the scoring from AuthenticHappiness.com, Subject 1 experienced a 0.96

point increase in the area of overall happiness as based on feelings over a relatively

short time period. In addition, Subject 1 also scored higher on the General Happiness

Scale (by 0.25 points--a 4.2% increase). For the PANAS Questionnaire which gives two

scores, there were very interesting results. The PANAS Questionnaire provides two

scores: one for positive affect (Subject 1s score increased from 29 to 40) and negative

affect (increase from 11 to 19). In the scores for positive affect (PA), higher numbers rep-

resent higher levels pleasurable engagement with the environment. Emotions such as en-

thusiasm and alertness are indicative of high PA, whilst lethargy and sadness characterize

low PA. (Watson & Clark, 1984).The second scores represent levels of negative affect


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(NA), which is the preferably a low number. High negative affect is epitomized by sub-

jective distress and displeasure engagement, and low NA by the absence of these feel-

ings. (John R. Crawford and Julie D. Henry). For this subject, her positive Affectivity

increased while on vitamin D, which was a desired result showing how the drug may

have increased her overall happiness, but her negative affectivity also increased, repre-

senting an increase of distress and displeasure. These two scores combined produces in-

conclusive results from the authentic happiness inventories. Subject 1 subjectively ac-

counted feeling more rested during the second period of the experiment, but according to

the sleep cycle app, she only experience a slight increase in sleep quality (with the posi-

tive correlation of 0.0007). This number is unfortunately is so minuscule that it is difficult

to confidently state that there exists a truly positive correlation between the intake of vit-

amin D and sleep quality.

Subject 2 expressed similar subjective feelings as Subject 1. In reference to emo-

tions she simply stated she was feeling happier, although she was not exactly positive this

mood alteration resulted from vitamin D intake or the natural season change into spring

from winter. According to the Authentic Happiness Inventory, Subject 2 experienced a

negative change in overall happiness.going from 2.96 points to 2.58 points. Interesting-

ly, her score for General Happiness increased from 3.25 to 4.00. The Authentic Happi-

ness Inventory specifically focuses on the individuals feelings of success and happiness

as based on the current week and recent events, but the General Happiness Scale attempts

to have the test taker consider their mood over the past few months. Thus, even though

her current state of happiness may have been lower, the General Happiness test did show

that while on vitamin D, this subject may have experienced a slight increase in her overall

outlook and feelings of happiness. It is important to note that this test subject is still be-


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low the national average of general happiness (which is 4.8 points). On this subjects

the original PANAS test, she scored equally in positive and negative affect (23:23), but

by the second testing round, her PA increased to 34, and her NA decreased to 19. This is

a desired outcome because it confers with the test results from the General Happiness

Scale which means that while on vitamin D, this test subject may felt a higher sense of

enthusiasm and alertness and also experienced lower levels of distress and displeasure.

These two test results attest to the fact that while taking vitamin D, Subject 2 experienced

an increase in overall happiness. Unfortunately, these tests simply prove correlation, not

causation, meaning that although Subject 2 did feel happier during this time period, it

cannot be completely determined that the root of this mood alteration can be solely traced

to her vitamin D intake. In relation to the affect of vitamin D on Subject 2s sleep quality,

she states, It has been easier for me to get up in the morning. The graphical representa-

tion of vitamin D intake and sleep quality attests to this positive correlation, but just as

Subject 1, the relationship between this independent and dependent variable is vary small

(the slope relating the two is 0.0032, a number very close to zero). Although Subject 2

accounted feeling more rested, the empirical data cannot conclusively relate these two

variables (vitamin D and sleep quality), just as was the case with the first subject.

In similarity to Subjects 1 and 2, Subject 3 reported feelings of happiness and bet-

ter sleep. When recalling how vitamin D may have affected her mood, she states, I

sometimes feel depressed in the winter months, but I feel like Ive been slightly more up-

beat while taking vitamin D this past winter season than I may have been otherwise.

This opinion is reflected in the results of her Authentic Happiness inventories. For the

first test, the Authentic Happiness Scale, she increased from 3.00 points to 3.50, which

means that during the week leading up to this test, Subject 3 had higher feelings of posi-


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tion, such as electroencephalogram (EEG), would have given more reliable data in moni-

toring sleep cycles of each test subject. An EEG is a device that records the electrical ac-

tivity along the scape in order to measure the voltage fluctuations resulting from current

flows within the neurons of the brain and is often used in studies of sleep disorders. (Wil-

kins). In addition, full psychological profiling of each subject would have been more in-

formative to truly gage the levels of positivity and happiness each subject may be experi-

encing in relation to their intake of vitamin D. Finally, the availability of blood testing

would have provided an accurate and precise method in monitoring the vitamin D levels

in each subject. Based on the subjective mood analyses performed and time of the year

(late winter and early spring with limited daylight hours), I hypothesized that each test

subject would be experiencing low levels of vitamin D, but without a measurement of

serum levels, there was no actual approach to verify this assumption was true. Even so, I

knew that with the dosages involved, none of the test subjects should experience hyper-

vitaminosis or any other dangerous condition associated with excess vitamin D intake.

Although I could not take blood tests and effectively monitor the amounts of vitamin D in

the blood of each test subject, I was positive each of the test subjects would be safe

throughout the course of the study.

Subjectively each test subject believes that during the course of this experiment

with vitamin D they slept better and felt happier more often, but unfortunately, we are

unable to completely and objectively state that there exists a direct correlation between

vitamin D, sleep quality, and mood.


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CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION

Through research and experimentation, it is presumptive to state that there is a

clearly defined and direct correlation between vitamin D intake, sleep cycles, and mood

alterations. Each subject subjectively felt that the supplement did aid in their sleep and

may have improved their overall moods, but several additional and unmeasured factors

may have contributed to this subjective test result.

There is a positive correlation between the increase of vitamin D, sleep quality,

and mood, but this correlation may be measurable insignificant. Further research of vita-

min Ds structure and functions in the body along with more expertise experimentation

through human clinical trials would hopefully reveal this connection more conclusively.

There are several experimental factors that if they changed, the results may have been

much clearer and accurate (such as availability and access to 1.) more sophisticated in-

strumentation, 2.) serum analysis of vitamin D levels, and, 3.) full psychological profiling

of each test subject, and 4.) placebo vitamin D supplements). Also, while each test sub-

ject did not intentionally skew the data, the information collected from the Authentic

Happiness inventories may be slightly inaccurate as each subject was aware that the vit-

amin D supplements could make them feel happier.

Although the results are for this experiment are inconclusive and non-

determinant, and the hypothesis behind this theory could not be proven (that vitamin D

somehow acts in tryptophan hydrolysis and creates more serotonin and melatonin, thus

making individuals happier and more rested), the entire process of identifying an issue,

developing a thesis and a mode of experimentation, and interpreting both data and re-

search pertaining to said thesis has enriched my study as a scientist at Greenville College,

and I appreciate this opportunity.


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WORKS CONSULTED

Altun A, Ugur-Altun B. Melatonin: Therapeutic and Clinical Utilization.Int J ClinPract. 2007;61(5):835-45.

Anderson, Monica L., M.Sci., Ph.D, and Sergio Tufik, M.D., Ph.D. "Sitemap."Journal ofClinical Sleep Medicine. N.p., 15 Dec. 2012. Web. 17 May 2013.

Benrashid, M., Moyers, K., Mohty, M., & Savani, B. N. (2012). Vitamin D deficiency,

Autoimmunity, and Graft-Versus-Host-Disease Risk: Implication for Preventive

Therapy.Experimental Hematology, 40(4), 263-267.

Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A. (2012). Vitamin D - why does it matter?' Defining Vitamin D

deficiency and its Prevalence. Scandinavian Journal Of Clinical & Laboratory In-vestigation. 723-6.

Bikle, Daniel, M.D., Ph. D. "Vitamin D: Production, Metabolism, and Mechanisms of

Action - Chapter 3 | Endocrinology | EndoText.org." Vitamin D: Production, Metabo-

lism, and Mechanisms of Action - Chapter 3 | Endocrinology | EndoText.org. N.p., 30

July 2009. Web. 17 Apr. 2013.

Bracha, H. S. "Diminished Stress Resilience in Institutionalized Elderly Patients: Is

Hypovitaminosis D a Factor?"American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 12.5

(2004): 544-45. Print.

Breus, Dr. Michael J. "Vitamin D for Sleep?" The Huffington Post. TheHuff-

ingtoPost.com, 22 Jan. 2011. Web. 08 May 2012.

Dowd, James. MD. The Vitamin D Cure. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jer-sey. 2008.

Findlay, M., Anderson, J., Roberts, S., Almond, A., & Isles, C. (2012). Treatment of

Vitamin D Deficiency: Divergence Between Clinical Practice and Expert Advice.

Postgraduate Medical Journal, 88(1039), 255-260.

Gordijn MC, et al. The Effects of Blue-Enriched Light Treatment Compared to Stand-ardLight Treatment in Seasonal Affective Disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders.2012;136:72.

Haines, S. T., & Park, S. K. Vitamin D Supplementation: What's Known, What to Do,

and What's Needed. Pharmacotherapy. (2012).

Hoagg, Matthew. "High Dose Vitamin D Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder

(S.A.D.)." Web log post.High Dose Vitamin D Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disor-

der (S.A.D.). N.p., 11 Feb. 2009. Web. 15 Apr. 2013.


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McCarty, David E., M.D. "Resolution of Hypersomnia Following Identification and

Treatment of Vitamin D Deficiency."JCSM. American Academy of Sleep Medicinea, 15 Dec. 2012. Web. 15 Apr. 2013.

"Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)."Mental Health America:. N.p., Feb. 1993. Web. 17Apr. 2013.

Voet, Donald, and Judith G. Voet.Biochemistry. New York: J. Wiley & Sons, 1995.

Print.

Wilkins, Consuelo H., M.D., Yvette I. Sheline, M.D., and Catherine M. Roe, Ph. D. "Vit-

amin D Deficiency Is Associated With Low Mood and Worse Cognitive Performance

in Older Adults." American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry:, Dec. 2006. Web. May2013.


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Appendix I: Authentic Happiness Inventories and Questionnaires

Section A:

I. Authentic Happiness Inventory:

Please read each group of statements carefully. Then pick the ONE statement in each

group that best describes the way you have been feeling for the past week, including to-

day. Be sure to read all of the statements in each group before making your choice by cir-

cling the letter next to it.

1. A. I have felt like a failure.

B. I have not felt like a winner.

C. I have felt like I have succeeded more than most people.

D. As I look back on my life, all I see are victories.

E. I have felt I am extraordinarily successful.

2. A. I have usually been in a bad mood

B. I have usually been in a neutral mood

C. I have usually been in a good mood

D. I have usually been in a great mood

E. I have usually been in an unbelievably great mood

3. A. When I was working, I paid more attention to what was going on around me

than to what I was doing

B. When I was working, I paid as much attention to what was going on around

me as to what I was doing


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C. When I was working, I paid more attention to what I was doing than to what

was going on around me

D. When I was working, I rarely noticed what was going on around me

E. When I was working, I paid so much attention to what I was doing that the

outside world practically ceased to exist

4. A. My life did not have any purpose or meaning

B. I did not know the purpose or meaning of my life 96

C. I had a hint about my purpose in life

D. I had a pretty good idea about the purpose or meaning of my life

E. I had a very clear idea about the purpose or meaning of my life

5. A. I rarely got what I wanted

B. Sometimes, I got what I wanted, and sometimes not

C. Somewhat more often than not, I got what I wanted

D. I usually got what I wanted

E. I always got what I wanted

6. A. I had sorrow in my life

B. I had neither sorrow nor joy in my life

C. I had more joy than sorrow in my life

D. I had much more joy than sorrow in my life

E. My life was filled with joy


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7. A. Most of the time I felt bored

B. Most of the time I felt neither bored nor interested in what I was doing

C. Most of the time I felt interested in what I was doing

D. Most of the time I felt quite interested in what I was doing

E. Most of the time I felt fascinated by what I was doing

8. A. I felt cut off from other people

B. I felt neither close to nor cut off from other people

C. I felt close to friends and family members

D. I felt close to most people, even if I did not know them well

E. I felt close to everyone in the world

9. A. By objective standards, I did poorly

B. By objective standards, I did neither well nor poorly

C. By objective standards, I did rather well

D. By objective standards, I did quite well

E. By objective standards, I did amazingly well

10. A. I was ashamed of myself

B. I was not ashamed of myself

C. I was proud of myself

D. I was very proud of myself

E. I was extraordinarily proud of myself


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11. A. Time passed slowly during most of the things that I did

B. Time passed quickly during some of the things that I did and slowly for other

things

C. Time passed quickly during most of the things that I did 97

D. Time passed quickly during all of the things that I did

E. Time passed so quickly during all of the things that I did that I did not even

notice it

12. A. I felt that in the grand scheme of things, my existence may hurt the world

B. I felt that my existence neither helps nor hurts the world

C. I felt that my existence has a small but positive effect on the world

D. I felt that my existence makes the world a better place

E. I felt that my existence has a lasting, large, and positive impact on the world

13. A. I did not do most things very well

B. I did okay at most things I was doing

C. I did well at some things I was doing

D. I did well at most things I was doing

E. I did really well at whatever I was doing

14. A. I had little or no enthusiasm

B. My enthusiasm level was neither high nor low

C. I had a good amount of enthusiasm

D. I felt enthusiastic doing almost everything

E. I had so much enthusiasm that I felt I could do most anything


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15. A. I did not like my work (paid or unpaid)

B. I felt neutral about my work

C. For the most part, I liked my work

D. I really liked my work

E. I truly loved my work

16. A. I was pessimistic about the future

B. I was neither optimistic nor pessimistic about the future

C. I felt somewhat optimistic about the future

D. I felt quite optimistic about the future

E. I felt extraordinarily optimistic about the future

17. A. I felt that I have accomplished little in life

B. I felt that I have accomplished no more in life than most people

C. I felt that I have accomplished somewhat more in life than most people

D. I felt that I have accomplished more in life than most people

E. I felt that I have accomplished a great deal more in my life than most people

18. A. I was unhappy with myself

B. I was neither happy nor unhappy with myself - I was neutral

C. I was happy with myself

D. I was very happy with myself

E. I could not have been any happier with myself


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19. A. My skills were never challenged by the situations I encountered

B. My skills were occasionally challenged by the situations I encountered

C. My skills were sometimes challenged by the situations I encountered

D. My skills were often challenged by the situations I encountered

E. My skills were always challenged by the situations I encountered

20. A. I spent all of my time doing things that were unimportant

B. I spent a lot of time doing things that were neither important nor unimportant

C. I spent some of my time every day doing things that were important

D. I spent most of my time every day doing things that were important

E. I spent practically every moment every day doing things that were important

21. A. I felt that if I were keeping score in life, I would be behind

B. I felt that if I were keeping score in life, I would be about even

C. I felt that if I were keeping score in life, I would be somewhat ahead

D. I felt that if I were keeping score in life, I would be ahead

E. I felt that if I were keeping score in life, I would be far ahead

22. A. I experienced more pain than pleasure

B. I experienced pain and pleasure in equal measure

C. I experienced more pleasure than pain

D. I experienced much more pleasure than pain

E. My life was filled with pleasure


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23. A. I did not enjoy my daily routine

B. I felt neutral about my daily routine

C. I liked my daily routine, but I was happy to get away from it

D. I liked my daily routine so much that I rarely took breaks from it

E. I liked my daily routine so much that I almost never took breaks from it

24. A. I felt that my life is a bad one

B. I felt that my life is an OK one

C. I felt that my life is a good one

D. I felt that my life is a very good one

E. I felt that my life is a wonderful one

Section B

II.Fordyce Emotions Questionnaire1. In general, how happy or unhappy do you usually feel? Circle the number next to

the ONE statement that best describes your average happiness.

10. Extremely happy (feeling ecstatic, joyous, fantastic!)

9. Very happy (feeling really good, elated!)

8. Pretty happy (spirits high, feeling good)

7. Mildly happy (feeling fairly good and somewhat cheerful

6. Slightly happy (just a bit above neutral)

5. Neutral (not particularly happy or unhappy)

4. Slightly unhappy (just a bit below neutral)

3. Mildly unhappy (just a bit low)


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2. Pretty unhappy (somewhat blue, spirits down)

1. Very unhappy (depressed, spirits very low)

2. Consider your emotions a moment further and answer the following:

On the average, what percent of the time do you feel happy? _____%

What percent of the time do you feel unhappy? _____%

What percent of the time do you feel neutral (neither happy nor unhappy)? _____%

(Make sure that the three numbers add up to 100%) Total: 100 %

Section C

III.General Happiness ScaleFor each of the following statements and/or questions, please circle the point

on the scale that you feel is most appropriate in describing you.

1. In general, I consider myself:

not a very happy person 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a very happy person

2. Compared to most of my peers, I consider myself:

less happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 more happy

3. Some people are generally very happy. They enjoy life regardless of what is going

on, getting the most out of everything. To what extent does this characterization de-

scribe you?

not at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a great deal


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4. Some people are generally not very happy. Although they are not depressed, they

never seem as happy as they might be. To what extend does this characterization de-

scribe you?

not at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a great deal

IV. PANAS

This list consists of a number of words that describe different feelings and emotions.

Read each item and then circle the appropriate number next to that word, using the scale

from 1 to 5. Indicate to what extent you have felt this way during the past 24 hours very

slightly or not at all a little moderately quite a bit extremely

Very Slightly

or Not at allA Little Moderately Quite a bit Extremely

Interested 1 2 3 4 5

Distressed 1 2 3 4 5

Excited 1 2 3 4 5

Upset 1 2 3 4 5Strong 1 2 3 4 5

Guilty 1 2 3 4 5

Scared 1 2 3 4 5

Hostile 1 2 3 4 5

Enthusiastic 1 2 3 4 5

Proud 1 2 3 4 5

Irritable 1 2 3 4 5

Alert 1 2 3 4 5

Ashamed 1 2 3 4 5

Inspired 1 2 3 4 5

Nervous 1 2 3 4 5

Determined 1 2 3 4 5

Attentive 1 2 3 4 5

Jittery 1 2 3 4 5

Active 1 2 3 4 5

Afraid 1 2 3 4 5


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Appendix II: Graphs and Tables

Phase 1 Test results:




75

10

15

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

25 March 2013

General Happiness Scale 6.00 1.00 to 7.00 25 March 2013


11

10 to 50

10 to 50

25 March 2013



Authentic Happiness Inventory 2.96 1.00 to 5.00 25 October 2012


30

45

25

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

25 October 2012

General Happiness Scale 3.25 1.00 to 7.00 25 October 2012


10 to 5010 to 50

25 October 2012





15

4045

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 1000 to 100

26 March 2013

General Happiness Scale 3 1.00 to 7.00 26 March 2013


10 to 5010 to 50

26 March 2013



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Phase 2 Test Results:




87

6

7

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

30 April 2013



10 to 5010 to 50

30 April 2013





30

45

25

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

30 April 2013



19

10 to 50

10 to 50

30 April 2013





25

25

50

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

0 to 100

25 April 2013



18

10 to 50

10 to 50

25 April 2013



53/55


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Graph 5: Linear graph giving relationship between the date of study and sleep quality for

Subject 2



y=0.047x-1616.1

y=0.0032x -127.93


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Graph 8: Linear graph giving relationship between the date of study and sleep quality forSubject 3



y=0.0117x - 458.8314

y= 0.0016x - 65.4726

sleep cycles and mood alterations from vitamin d intake

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