slavery in the civil war era

8/9/2019 Slavery in the Civil War Era

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Slavery InTe Civil War Era

Overte years tere has been a wealtofinformaon wrien aboutte peculiar instuon(asit was caledten) of slavery inte Civil War era. Someof it accura, some of it fantasy. Te folowingaempts give a brief picture of what it was like. It

consists oftree arcles: Anbelum Slavery, SlaveryDuring te Civil War, which discusses te peculiarinstuonbefore and during te war, andfinaly,Slave Life, which discusses te daily lives of slaves, teir

socie and culture. Te source fortis page was:Macmilan Informaon Now Encyclopedia, Te Confederacyandte arcles by Robert Francis Engs intat document.

Tis Page last updad 02/24/02

ANTEBELLUM SLAVERY

Te enslavement of Afican Americans in what


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became te Unid Stas formaly began during te1630s and l64Os. Attatme colonial courts and

legislatures made cleartat Aficans--unlike whiindentured servants--servedteir masrs for life andtatteir slave status would be inherid by teirchildren. Slavery inte Unid Stas ended intemid-1860s. Abraham Lincolns Emancipaon

Proclamaon of January 1863 was a masrlropaganda tacc, but inut, it proclaimedfee onlytose slaves outside te conol ofte Federalovernment--tat is, only tose in areas slconoled

by te Confederacy. Te legal end slavery intenaon came in December 1865 whente TirentAmendment was rafied, it declared: Neiter slaverynor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment forcrime whereofte par shalhave been duly convicd,shalexist witinte Unid Stas, or any place subjectteir jurisdicon.


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Development of American SlaveryTe hisry of Afican American slavery inte

Unid Stas can be divided in two periods: tefirstcoincided witte colonial years, about 1650 1790;te second lasdfom American independence troughte Civil War, 1790 1865. Prior independence,slavery exisd in alte American colonies andtereforewas not an issue of seconal deba. Witte arrival ofindependence, however, te new Nortern stas--tose ofNew England along witNew York, Pennsylvania, andNew Jersey--came see slavery as conadicry te

ideals ofte Revoluon and instud programs ofradual emancipaon. By 1820 tere were only about

3,000 slaves inte Nort, almost aloftem working onlarge farms in New Jersey. Slavery could be abolished

more easily inte Nortbecause tere were far fewerslaves intose stas, andtey were not a vital part ofNortern economies. Tere were plen offee whi men


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do te sort of labor slaves performed. In fact, te maindemand for abolion of slavery came notfomtose who

ound it moraly wrong butfom whi working-classmen who did not want slaves as rivals forteir jobs. Circumstances inte newly formed Soutern staswere qui different. Te Afican American populaon,botslave andfee, was much larger. In Virginia and

SoutCarolina in 1790 nearly half ofte populaonwas of Afican descent. (Hisrians have adionalyassumedtat SoutCarolina had a black majoriopulaontroughout its pre--Civil War hisry. But

censusfigures for 1790 1810 showtatte staossessed a majori of whis.) Oter Soutern stas

also had large black minories. Because ofteir ingrained racial prejudice andignorance aboutte sophiscad cultures in Aficafomwhich many ofteir slaves came, Soutern whis wereconvincedtatfee blacks would be savages--a treatwhi survival. So Souterners believedtat slavery was


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necessary as a means of race conol. Of equal importance inte Soutern stas was te

economic role tat slaves played. Tese stas were muchmore dependent onte agricultural secr ofteireconomies tan were Nortern ones. Much ofte wealtof Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, te Carolinas, andGeorgia camefomte cash crops tat slaves grew.

Indeed, many whi Souterners did not believe whimen could(or should) do te backbreaking laborrequired produce bacco, coon, rice, and indigo,which were te regions chief cash crops.

As a consequence oftese facrs, te Souternstas were dermined retain slavery afrteRevoluon. Tus begante fatal division betweenfeestasandslave stastat led seconalism and,ulmaly, civil war. Some hisrians have proposedtatte evoluon ofslavery in most New World sociees can be divided(roughly, and witsome risk of over generalizaon) in


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tree stages: developmental, high-profit, and decadent. Inte developmental stage, slaves cleared virgin forests for

lanng and builtte dikes, dams, roads, and buildingsnecessary for plantaons. Inte second, high-profitstage, slave owners earned enormous incomefomtecash crop tey grew for export. Intesefirst two phases,slavery was always very brutal.

During te developmental phase, slaves worked inunknown, ofn dangerous rriry, beset by disease ansomemes hosle inhabitants. Clearing land anderforming heavy consucon jobs witout modern

machinery was exemely hard labor, especialy intehot, humid clima ofte Sout. During te high-profit phase, slaves were drivenmercilessly plant, culva, and harvestte crops formarket. A failed crop meantte planr could lose hisinial investment in land and slaves and possibly sufferbankruptcy. A successl crop could earn such highreturns tatte slaves were ofn worked beyond human


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endurance. Plantaon masrs argued calously tat itwas cheaper buy tan breed--it was cheaper

workte slaves deatandten buy new ones tan itwas alowtem live long enough and undersufficiently healty condions tattey could bearchildren increase teir numbers. During tis phase,on some ofte sugar plantaons in Louisiana andte

Caribbean, te life span of a slavefom inial purchase deatwas only seven years.

Tefinal, decadent phase of slavery was reachedwhente land upon whichte cash crops were grown ha

become exhausd--te nuients inte soil neededroduce large harvests were depled. Whentat

happened, te slave regime picaly became morerelaxed and less labor-innsive. Plantaon ownersturned growing grain crops like wheat, barley, corn,and vegetables. Masrs needed fewer slaves, andtoseslaves were not forced work as hard because teculvaon oftese crops required less labor.


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Tis model is usel in analyzing te evoluon ofSoutern slavery between independence andte Civil

War. Te process, however, varied considerablyfomsta sta. Tose ofte upper Sout--Delaware,Maryland, and Virginia--essenaly passedtroughtedevelopmental and high-profit stages before Americanindependence. By 1790, Maryland and Virginia

lanrs could no longer produce te bumper harvests ofbacco tat had made tem rich inte earliereighentcentury, because teir soil was depled. Sotey turned less labor-innsive and less profitable

crops such as grains,fuits, and vegetables. Tis in turnmeanttey had a surplus of slaves. One result was tat Virginia planrs beganfeemany ofteir slaves inte decade afrte Revoluon.Some did so because tey believed inte principles ofhuman liber. (Afr al, Virginian slave owners wrosome ofte chief documents defining Americanfeedomlike te Declaraon of Independence, te Constuon,


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and much ofte Bilof Rights.) Oters, however, did soor a much more cynical reason. Teir surplus slaves

had become a burden house and feed. In response,tey emancipadtose who were o old or feeble be ofmuch use onte plantaon. Ironicaly, one oftefirstlaws in Virginia resicng te rights of masrs feeteir slaves was passed forte procon ofte slaves. It

denied slave owners te rightfee valueless slaves, tustrowing tem on public chari for survival. Manyupper Soutslave owners around 1800 believedtatslavery would gradualy die Out because tere was no

longer enough work forte slaves do, and witoutmasrs care fortem, te ex-slaves would die out aswel. Two inialy unrelad events solvedte upperSouts problem of a surplus slave populaon, causedslavery become enenched inte Soutern Stas, andcread what we know as te anbelum Sout. Teywere te invenon ofte coon gin by Eli Whitney of


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Conneccut in 1793 andte closing ofte inrnaonalslave ade in 1808.

Te coon gin is a relavely simple machine. Itshorizontaly crossing combs exactghtly entwinedseedsfomte bols of short-staple coon. Priorteinvenon ofte gin, only long-staple coon, which haslong soft sands, could be grown for profit. Its softfibers

alowed easy removal of its seeds. Buttis sain ofcoon grew in America only along te coast and SeaIslands of SoutCarolina and Georgia. In conast,short-staple coon could grow in almost any non-

mountainous region ofte Soutbelow Virginia. Beforete invenon ofte coon gin, itok a slave manyhours dc-seed a single pound oflint,or short-staplecoon. Witte gin, as many as one hundred pounds ofcoon could be dc-seeded per hour.

Te invenon ofte coon gin permied short-staple coon be grown profitably troughoutte lowerSout. Vast new plantaons were creadfomte virgin


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lands ofte rriries tat became te stas ofKentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, and

Arkansas. (Louisiana experienced similar growtin botcoon and sugar agriculture.) In 1810, te Soutroduced 85,000 pounds of coon; by 1860, it wasroducing welover 2 bilion pounds a year.

Tere was an equaly enormous demand forte

coontese plantaons produced. It was so profitabletat by 1860 n ofte richest men in America lived notust inte Soutbut inte Natchez disict ofMississippi alone. In 1810, te coon crop had been

wort$12,495,000; by 1860, it was valued at$248,757,000. Along wittis expansion in coon growing camea resicon onte supply of slaves needed grow it.Te ansatlanc slave ade was one ofte most savageand inhumane pracces in which people of Europeandescent have ever engaged. Te wrirs ofteConstuon had recognized its evil, but accommoda


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te demands of slave owners inte lower Sout, tey haagreed permitte ansatlanc slave ade connue

or twen years afrte Constuon was rafied.Tus, it was not unl 1808 tat Congress passedlegislaon ending te ansatlancade.

Tese two circumstances--te discovery of a meansof making te culvaon of short-staple coon profitable

troughoutte lower Soutandrriries andteresicon onte supply of slaves needed produce it--creadte unique anbelum slave sysm ofte Sout.It made at least some Souterners very rich and it also

made slaves much more valuable. One consequence wastat some American slaves were perhaps beereadtantose elsewhere inte New World, not becauseAmerican slave owners were kinder, but becauseAmerican slaves were in short supply and expensive replace. Te price of slaves increased sadilyfom 1802 1860. In 1810, te price of a primefield handwas


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$900; by 1860, tat price had doubled $1,800.

Te Slave Sysm inte NineentCentury Slavery inte anbelum Soutwas not amonolitic sysm; its nature varied widely across teregion. At one exeme one whi family intir ownedslaves in Delaware; in conast, half of alwhi families

in SoutCarolina did so. Overal, 26 percent ofSoutern whi families owned slaves. In 1860, families owning more tanfif slavesnumbered less tan 10,000; tose owning more tan a

hundred numbered less tan 3,000 inte whole Sout.Te pical Soutern slave owner possessed one or twoslaves, andte pical whi Soutern male owned none.He was an arsan, mechanic, or morefequently, asmalfarmer. Tis reali is vital in understanding why

whi Souterners went war defend slavery in 1861.Most oftem did not have a directfinancial investmentinte sysm. Teir wilingness fight in its defense


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was more complicad and subtle tan simple fear ofmonetary loss. Tey deeply believed inte Soutern way

of life, of which slavery was an inexicable part. Teyalso were convincedtat Norterntreats undermineslavery would unleashte pent-up hoslies of 4 milionAfican American slaves who had been subjugad forcenturies.

REGULATING SLAVERY. One half of alSouterners in 1860 were eiter slaves temselves ormembers of slaveholding families. Tese eli familiesshapedte mores and polical stance ofte Sout, which

reflecdteir common concerns. Foremost among tesewere conoling slaves and assuring an adequa supplyof slave labor. Te legislatures ofte Soutern stasassed laws designed proctte masrs rightteir

human chael. Cenaltese laws were slave codes,which inteir way were grudging admissions tat slaveswere, in fact, human beings, not simply proper like somany cale or pigs. Tey aempd regulate


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sysm so as minimize te possibili of slaveresistance or rebelion. In alstas te codes made it

ilegal for slaves read and wri, aend churchservices witoutte presence of a whi person, ors in court against a whi person. Slaves wereorbidden leave teir home plantaon witout a

wrien passfomteir masrs. Addional laws ied

secure slavery by resicng te possibili ofmanumission(tefeeing of ones slaves). Between 1810and 1860, alSoutern stas passed laws severelyresicng te right of slave owners fee teir slaves,

even in a wil. Free blacks were dangerous, forteymight inspire slaves rebel. As a consequence, mostSoutern stas requiredtat any slaves who werefeedby teir masrs leave te sta witintir days. To enforce te slave codes, autories establishedslave paols.Tese were usualy localy organizedbands of young whi men, botslave owners andeomen farmers, who rode about at night checking tat


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slaves were securely inteir quarrs. Altough somelanrs felttatte slave paolmen abused slaves who

had been given permissionavel, te slave paolsneverteless reinforcedte sense of whi solidaribetween slave owners andtose who owned none. Teyshared a desire keep te nonwhi populaon in check.(Tese anbelum slave paols are seen by many

hisrians as ancedents ofte Reconsucon era KuKlux Klan, which similarly ied discipline tefeedblacks. Te Klan helped reinforce whi solidari in ame whente class lines between ex--slave owners and

whi yeomen were colapsing because of slaverys end.) SLAVE LABOR IN THE UPPER SOUTH. Iftere was a least badplace be a slave inteanbelum Sout, it was inte wns and onte smalerarms of Virginia and Maryland. Whentose stas

turnedfom growing high-yield crops like bacco culvang crops like grains and vegetables, te changecarried some benefits for slaves. Te new crops required


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less innsive labor and permied some slaves workunderte task sysm.Slaves were assigned chores

individualy or in smalgroups. Tey were permiedwork atteir own pace, ofn witout direct whisupervision. Tey would be assigned anoter task uponcompleon oftefirst.

Te decline inte profitabili of slavery appears

have led a more relaxed and open regime for someslaves inte upper Sout. Since fewer slaves were neededon plantaons, many were alowed by teir masrlive inwn andhire teir ownme--findteir own

work--paying teir masrs a poron ofteir wages,usualy two-tirds tree-quarrs. Tis benefidtemasrs by enabling tem make a profit on anoterwise surplus slave. It was aracve te slavesbecause it gave tem more independence. Many hopedsave enoughfomteir wages buy teirfeedomfomteir owners.

Tis more relaxed sysm exnded oter aspects


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of slave life inte upper Sout. It appears tat mostslaves in Virginia and Maryland were alowed marry

and have families, altoughtese families had no legalstanding. Tey exisd only trough permission oftemasr. In addion, laws against liracy and holdingchurch services witout a whi person present werewidely ignored or unenforced.

Of course, Virginia slaves were slte proper ofwhi masrs, be used as te masrs sawfit. To put itbluntly, te chief cash crop of Virginia slave ownersafr 1807 was te slaves temselves. Hisrians have

been unable find plantaons tat openly bredslavesor sale, buttis does not change te cenal appalingact--te number of slaves born in Virginia between

1807 and 1860 was te same number as tose soldarter Sout. So if condions for slaves were beer in

Virginia, few oftose borntere grew up enjoy temtere. Indeed, te standard and most effecve way discipline a slave was trean selhim or a loved


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one te Deep Sout. SLAVE LABOR IN THE LOWER SOUTH.

Te possibili of being sold soutwas no emptreat.Slaves inte lower Soutwere ofn ilhoused, ilfed,and ilcared for. It was more profitable keep tem atwork on coontan alowtemme build a decentshelr. It was more profitable plant every inch of lan

in coontan alot space for growing foodstuffs. Evente lile garden plots alowed slaves inte upper Soutwere usualy absent in Mississippi. Tat sta, witsomeofte richest soil in American, was actualy a net

imporr of foodstuffs before te Civil War. Life onte Deep Soutplantaons was alsocharacrized by te impersonali of masr-slaverelaonships. Owners were ofn absent, and overseerswere paid by how much coontey produced, not by tecondion ofte slaves tey supervised. On lower Soutplantaons, like tose ofte upperSout, botmen and women slaves were expecdil


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intefieldsfomfirst lightldark.Because menwere songer and able work harder, te plantaons

ofn had a much larger number of male slaves tanemale. Tis made te possibili of marriage problemacorte slave men. Moreover, women were somemes seen

as liabilies because female problemssuch as temensual cycle and pregnancy periodicaly

incapacitadtem for hard labor. Inte coon andsugar Sout, slaves were usualy worked in gangssupervised by black drivers and whi overseers witwhips. Te pace for plowing, hoeing, weeding, or picking

was set by te overseers, and if a worker felbehind, heor she feltte sng ofte lash.

Impact of Slavery onte Soutern Economy As te preceding discussion makes clear, slavery in

te anbelum Soutwas overwhelmingly a ruralhenomenon. Tis was, in part, because most slave

owners believedtat slavery would not work welin an


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urban indusialized environment. Slaves were tought be o stupid understand machinery ando

careless be usd witcomplexols. In fact, however, slaves were used successly inacries such as te Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond.Tey also labored inte salt mines and turpennelants of NortCarolina, te coal mines of wesrn

Virginia, andte sugar mils of Louisiana. Moreover,when, during te Civil War, Souterners confond amanpower shortage andte need for rapidindusializaon, tey quickly overcame teir prejudices

against using slaves in facries. OBJECTIONS TO URBAN SLAVERY. Amajor reason for slavery being confined mostly ruralareas inte Soutconcerned its dual purpose fortewhi populaon. It was bota means of laborexploitaon and a means of race conol. It was tissecond aspecttat made te instuon problemac inurban areas. Simply put, slaves in cies were much more


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difficult supervise. It was te cusm of facry owners hire slaves

om masrs ratertan purchase tem ouight. Inteupper Sout, where urban slaves were more common, tisalowed slave owners profitfomteir excess slaveswitout having seltem Sout. Te problem was tatindusialists preferred avoidte burden of overseeing

teir slave employees outside ofte facry, andteynded give tem spends pay forteir own housingand board. Tis enabled urban slaves live in a variedcommunitat includedfee blacks, slaves who hired

teir ownme, and whi people--some of whom mightoppose slavery. As whi Souterners saw it, te urbanenvironment exposed slaves dangerous ideas about

eedom. Most Soutern cies were ports tat providedaccess te outside world where slavery was generalyoutlawed. Free black sailors and sympatec whi shipcaptains were known help slaves escape aboardteir


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vessels. Cies, terefore, were considered antecal

effecve slave conol. Whi Souterners welrememberedtatte two largest slave conspiracies (toseof Gabriel Prosser in Richmond in 1800 and DenmarkVesey in Charlesn in 1822) were urban phenomena.Moreover, botmen werefee blacks who had persuaded

urban slaves jointem inteir plots. Yet anoter facr militang against urbanslavery was te aitudes of workers in anbelumAmerica. Soutern whi men felt demeaned iftey were

required performte same sort of job as a slave.Moreover, slaves, who received no wages, could do tesame labor more cheaply tanfee whi men. Whiworkers--like te caulkers in Balmore who beat upFrederick Douglass when his masr sent him work inte dockyards--ofn resed labor along side slaves. So, maintain beer supervision of slaves andassure whi solidari andte status of whi laborers,


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urban slavery inte anbelum Soutwas minimal.Te numbers of urban slaves actualy declined between

1830 and 1860. NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF RURALSLAVERY. Te rural nature of anbelum slavery haduninnded negave effects onte Soutern economy.Te investment of so much capital in land and slaves

discouragedte growtof cies and diverdndsfomacries. Tis meanttatte Soutlackedte indusia

base it needed counrte Nortwhente Civil Warbegan. Indeed, in 1860, te Southad approximaly te

same number of indusial workers (110,000), as teNorthad indusial plants. Oter deimental effects arosefomte Soutsdevoon rural slavery. Wealty planrs liked claimtey were living outte Jeffersonian ideal of anagrarian democracy. Inut, te Soutwas agrarianbecause slave owners foundtatte best way maintainteir wealtand containteir slaves.


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Moreover, its democracywas very limid because telanrs had enormous influence over how whi yeomen

castteir vos. Except in remo areas ofte Soutwitew slaves or plantaons, it was te needs and beliefs ofte planr class tat shaped Soutern polics ontelocal, sta, and naonal levels.

Te consequences oftis planr dominance was

seen in many aspects ofte socie. Te Soutfaileddevelop a varied economy even witinte agriculturalrealm. Alte most ferle land inte Soutwas ownedby slaveholders who chose grow high-profit staple

crops--coon, bacco, sugar. Tat left only marginalland forte vast majori of whi farmers. Tis problemwas compounded by te dominance ofte planrs imageas te social ideal. Alrnave means of advancementwere unavailable, so yeomen farmers aspired becomelanrs temselves. Tey used some ofteir land growood forteir familys consumpon and devodte rest cash crops like coon. Teir hope was produce


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enough save, buy a few slaves, produce yet more, and,ulmaly, accumulate wealttat would eleva

tem planr status. For most, tis was ale dream,buttey remained commied it, tereby neglecngoter possible avenues for economic advancement. One reason forte yeomen farmers lack ofaspiraons was ignorance. Te anbelum Sout

neglecd provide forte educaon of its people.Planrs conoledte governmental revenues tat coulhavefinanced public educaon, buttey saw no needdo so. Teir slaves were forbidden learn; teir own

children were educad by priva turs or in exclusiveand expensive priva academies. As a result, most whieomen were left witout access educaon. A few lucky

ones nearwns or cies could somemes sendteirchildren fee schools or chari schools, but many wereo poor oro proud use eiter opon. In a similar vein, te dominang slaveholdingclass saw no need create means produce


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inexpensive consumer goods for ordinary whis orbuild an infasucture by which such goods could be

movedfom producon sis markets intecounyside. Wealty planrs acquired whatteywand by imporng expensive European or Norternoods. Tus poor whis were leftteir own minimal

resources and were deprived of goods tey might have

bought, hadtey been available.Tis lack of consumer producon and markets also

retardedte growtof Souternansportaon.Highways, canals, and railroads were consucd

move crops ports and bring in luxury ims fortelanr class. Te need of yeomen farmers ansportteir crops local markets was ignored. As aconsequence, it was usualy cheaper for plantaonowners import foodfomte Nortor upper Souttan purchase itfom whi farmers inte sameregion. Tis deficiency inte Souternansportaonsysm proved a serious liabili forte Confederacy


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during te Civil War. Slavery inte anbelum Sout, ten, made a

minori of whi Souterners--owners of largeslaveholdings--enormously wealty. Atte same me, itdemeaned and exploid Souterners of Afican descent,leftte majori of whi Souterners impoverished anduneducad, and retardedte overaleconomic, cultural,

and social growtofte region. Slavery was teinstuon by whichte Soutdefined itself when itchose secedefomte Union. But it was te exisnceof slavery, witits negave impact on polics, economics,

and social relaons, tat fataly crippledte Soutin itsbid for independence.

SLAVERY DURING THE CIVIL WAR

Altough slavery was atte heart ofte seconalimpasse between Nortand Soutin 1860, it was notte singular cause ofte Civil War. Rater, it was te


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multude of differences arisingfomte slavery issuetat impeledte Soutern stas secede.

Te presidenal elecon of 1860 had resuld inteselecon of a Republican, Abraham Lincoln of Ilinois,as president ofte Unid Stas. Lincoln won because oan overwhelming elecral colege vofomte Norternstas. Not a single Soutern slave sta vod for him.

Lincoln and his Republican par were pledged only sp te expansion of slavery. Altoughtey promisedroct slavery where it exisd, whi Souterners were

not persuaded. Te elecon results demonsadtatte

Soutwas increasingly a minori region witintenaon. Soon Norterners and slaverys opponents mightaccumulate vong power overturnte instuon,no maer what whi Souterners might desire. Indeed, many Soutern radicals, orfire-ears,openly hoped for a Republican vicry as te only way force Soutern independence. SoutCarolina haddeclared it would secedefomte Union if Lincoln was


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elecd, and it did so in December 1861. It was folowedshortly by te oter lower Soutstas of Alabama,

Mississippi, Louisiana, Georgia, Florida, and Texas. inFebruary 1861, a montbefore Lincoln wasinaugurad, tese stas formed a new naon, teConfedera Stas of America. Afrtefiring on FortSumr and Lincolns calfor voluners suppress te

rebelion, te oter slave stas of Virginia, NortCarolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas joinedteConfederacy. Te border slave stas of Delaware,Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri remained--not

enrely voluntarily--inte Union.Te new republic claimed its jusficaon be te

rocon of sta rights. Inut, close reading oftestas secession proclamaons and ofte newConfedera Constuon reveals tat it was primarilyone sta righttat impeledteir separaon: te rightreserve Afican American slavery witinteir borders.

Butte whi Souts decision secede proved be te


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worst possible choice it could have made in orderreserve tat right.

Tere was enormous anslavery senment inteNort, hut such senment was also songly an-Negro.Whi Norterners did not wish slavery expand innew areas ofte naon, whichtey believed should bereserved for whi nonslaveholding selers. Tis was, in

art, why Republicans pledged proct slavery whereit exisd. Tey andteir constuencies did not want aninflux of ex-slaves inteir exclusively whirriries,should slavery end abruptly.

Some hisrians argue tat, hadte Soutremained witinte Union, its representaves couldhave prevend any radical Nortern plan foremancipaon. By leaving te Union, whi Souternersave up teir voice in naonal councils. Moreover, by

seceding, te Soutcompeledte Nort realize teexnt of its alegiance a unid American naon.Tus, te Nortwent war preserve te Union, and


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te whi Soutwent war for independence so tat itmight proct slavery. Most parcipants on botsides

did not inialy realize tatte Afican Americanslaves might viewte conflict as an occasiontatteycould turnteir own advantage. SLAVES EFFORTS TO UNDERMINE THESOUTH. In 1861, as te Civil War began, tere were

our open quesons among Norterners and Souternerswitregardte slaves: First, wouldtey rebel? Second,didtey wantteirfeedom?Tird, wouldteyfight forteirfeedom? And,finaly, wouldtey know what do

witteirfeedom iftey got it?Te answer eachqueson was yes, but in a mannertat reflecdteeculiar experience of blacks in whi America.

First was te queson of wheter bondsmen wouldrebel or remain passive. Te fear of slave rebelionreoccupied botte Soutern slaveholder andte

Nortern invader. Sikingly, Norterners were asuneasy aboutte possibili as were Souterners.


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Inialy te Nortern goal inte war was te speedyresraon ofte Union underte Constuon andte

laws of 1861, alof which recognizedte legimacy ofslavery. Inrfering witslavery would make reunionmore difficult. Tus, Union generals like George B.McClelan in Virginia and Henry W. Haleck inteWest were ordered not only defeatte Soutern armies

but also prevent slave insurrecons. Intefirstmonts ofte war, slaves who escaped Union lineswere returnedteir masrs in conformi witteFugive Slave Act of 1850.

Concern about ouight slave insurrecons provedunfounded, however. Slaves were not fools, nor were teysuicidal. Mary Boykin Chesnut, te famed Souterndiarist and one ofte Souts most percepve observersof slavery, undersodte slaves sagy. She wrofomher plantaon: Dick, te butler here, reminds me tatwhen we were children, I taught him read as soon as Icould read myself. . . . But he wont look at me now. He


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looks over my head. He scentsfeedom inte air. Slaves like Dick knewte war was aboutteir

eedom, buttey were botshrewd and cauous. Torebel onteir own was hopeless; te whis were oowerl. But nowte Soutern whis had an equalyowerl outside enemy, andte odds had changed. Te

slaves, like successl rebels everywhere, bidedteirme

unl a revolt could succeed. Meanwhile, trough deseron and noncooperaon,tey did much undermine te Soutlong beforeUnion armies iumphed. Whente war began, some

Confederas claimedtatte dispari in whimanpower between Nortand Sout(6 milion ponasoldiers forte Nortversus only 2 milion forteSout) was irrelevant. Te Sout, Confederas claimed,could put a far higher proporon ofteir men inteeld because tey had slaves do te labor at home.

Te Sout, however, quickly learnedtat it hadwhat would now be caled a fiftcolumnin its midst,


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roviding aid and comfortte enemy. Attebeginning ofte war, Soutern officers okteir body

servants wittemtefont do teir cooking andlaundry. A unit of two tousand whi soldiers wouldsomemes depart witas many as a tousand slaves inw. Te cusm did not last beyondtefirst summer ofte conflict. Te servants deserd attefirst

opportuni and provided excelent inligence Unionorces about Souternoop deployments. In one incident during te early monts ofte war,Union soldiers onte Virginia Peninsula, staoned at

Fort Monroe, repeadly set out capture te nearbyci of Newport News, but witout success. Teirinaccura maps showedte wn be soutwest of FortMonroe. Each would-be aack concluded witte oopsmired inte swampy land bordering Hampn Roads(te bay betweente Virginia Peninsula and Norfolk onte Soutside). In fact, Newport News was slightlynortwest of Fort Monroe, and Union forces were


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unable find it unl an escaped body servant ledtemtere.

SLAVE LABOR WITH THECONFEDERATE MILITARY. Despi suchsubversion by te slaves, te Confederacy nevertelesssuccessly usedtem advance its war effort. WhiSouterners, tough convinced ofte Afican Americans

inherent inferiori, were far less reluctant aboutuing te slaves work militarily tan were whi

Norterners. Te Confedera government never usedtem as soldiers, but it did press tem in labor

brigades build forficaons, dig laines, and haulsupplies. Tens oftousands of slaves iled forteConfederacy in a service botte bondsmen andteirowners disliked. Forte slave impressed in labor onte

ont-line, te workfequently was not only hardertantat onte plantaon but also dangerous. Because ofteossibili of escape trough Union lines, slaves atteont were much more closely supervisedtan onteir


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home farms. Moreover, tose sent work witteConfedera army were usualy men inteir prime,

between eighen and for. Service witte army denietemteir accusmedme witteir wife and family.Te slave owners, forteir part, were reluctant

sendteir bondsmentefont for two reasons. First,tey riskedte loss ofteir most valuable proper, and,

second, because te men were usualy overworked andmisead, teyfequently returnedteir homes invery poor physical condion. Tus, te owners ofnconived send only teir most unmanageable and

terefore least marketable slaves te army. During tewar, treaning send a slave tefont became tedisciplinary equivalent oftreaning sela slavearter Soutin anbelum days. Ironicaly, as te

Souts cause became more despera, masrs wereincreasingly reluctant sendteir slaves temilitary. Slavery was dying, yettose witte mostlose hung onnaciously teir human proper,


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tereby witholding te one remaining resource tatmight have savedteir naon--andtem.

Te exigencies of war alsofinaly seledtedecades-old deba as wheter slaves could be usedsafely and efficiently in indusy. Te shortage of whimanpower leftte Soutwitno oter choice tan putslaves work in its facries and mines. Inte Tredegar

Iron Works of Richmond alone, tousands of slaves wereemployed. Te Augusta munions plants of Georgialikewise were primarily staffed by bondsmen. Tousandsof oters labored inte ulmalyle effort keep

Soutern rail lines operang. As witservice ontefonlines, tis labor--especialy in exacve indusies likete coal mines and salt facries--was harshertan lifeonte plantaon, and slaves resisd it iftey could.Many made te long-delayed decision run away whenaced witsuch dire prospects. Altoughteir service was exacd involuntarily,slaves in indusy and onte balefield enabledte


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Soutfight on longertan would have been possibleoterwise. Intefinal despera days ofte war, te

Confederacy even considered using blacks as soldiers,offering emancipaon as a reward. Te Union hadsucktat bargain two years earlier. Te Souternroposal was made in February 1865 and approved, inart, on March 13 oftat year. By ten Souterners of

botraces knewte Confederacy was doomed. Richmondelless tantir days lar. Te provision was never

implemend and no slaves officialy served as soldiers inte Confedera Military.

SLAVE RESISTANCE ON THEPLANTATIONS. When givente opon, slaves madeit very cleartattey wandfeedom. Te vastmajori of slaves, however, remained onteirlantaons inte counyside. Neverteless, eventese

slaves inte Soutern inrior found ways demonsateir desire forfeedom. Teir behaviorcould be described as tefirst massive labor slowdown in


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American hisry. Tey did not cease work, butteyconived do considerably less tantey had before te

war. Part ofte reason forte drop inteirindusiousness was te Souts il-advised self-imposedcoon embargo. Altoughtis was never official policy,many Souterners believedtey could provoke European

inrvenon inte war by resing grow or exportcoon. Tis decision changedte nature of Souternagriculture. Te region began emphasize foodroducon, a less innsive form of agricultural labor.

Buttis change did not necessarily reduce te burden onslave laborers. Te war cut offmany ofte Soutsanbelum sources of food and oter goods inte Nortand abroad. Tese shortages had be replaced by whatte slaves could produce at home. Teir inabili makeup te shortfalmeanttattey, teir masrs, tesoldiers intefield, andte general populaon alsufferedfom increasing deprivaon as te war went on.


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Especialy problemac were shortages of wool, leater,and salt forte curing of meat, since most oftese were

diverd for military use. One consequence was te rapidescalaon of prices for such necessies. Frugal planrscut back ontese supplies forteir slaves. Bondsmen didnot receive teir prewar raons of clotes and shoes, andtey had less meat and vegetables inteir diet. Even

tose slaves welremovedfomtefont lines troughoutte war recaled it lar as a me of great privaon. In addionte change inte kinds of cropsrown andte increasing scarci of necessies, te

quali of management onte plantaons changed.Once te war innsified in 1862, tere were not enoughwhi men left onte farms and plantaons provideadequa supervision of slave laborers. Te Confederacyhad aempd dese tis ponal problemtroughte Ten-Slave Law(lar, te Twen-Slave Law),whereby a percentage of whi men were exempdfommilitary service in proporonte number of slaves in


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a coun or on a plantaon. Te law clearly favoredslaveholders and drew a srm of prostfom whi

eomen who owned no slaves yet were caled upondefendte Soutern cause. As te war progressed, Soutern manpowershortages became acu. In some parts of Georgia, it wasrepordtattere was only one able-bodied whi man

in a n-square-mile area. As a result, management ofagriculture increasingly fel whi women andteiroungest children, elderly faters, and black slave

drivers. Alproved less effecve taskmasrs tante

earlier overseers, andte efficiency of Soutern farmroducon declined markedly. Slaves quickly ok advantage ofte situaon,reducing te pace ofteir labor, disobeying orders,leaving teir farms visit witfiends and relaves.Teir perceivedimpudenceandlazinesscausedenormousfusaon forte whi women left overseetem. Altoughtese women had ofn been most


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resourcel managers of household economies interewar Sout, tey had never beenained or given

experience in day--day supervision of farmingoperaons. Many were unequalte burden andresentltattey were being forced shoulder it. One important consequence oftis managementcrisis was te disappearance of evente veneer of

arnalism inte masr-slave relaonship. Whiwomen andte few whi men left inte counysideviewedte increasingly recalciant slaves as a treat,especialy te young males. Slave paols composed ofte

remaining whi men became more energec and violentindiscipliningslaves. Tose accused or suspecd ofmisconductwere brutaly punished and somemesmurdered. Despitese draconian efforts, slaves inteSouts inrior spped up teir resistance andincreasingly worked at a much slower pace. Moredisturbing yette whis aroundtem was teir


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ouight resal obey orders whentey could get awaywitit. Slaves ran offwitgrearfequency; tey sle

ood and violad curfew witimpuni. Tey beganhold religious services more openly and even creadschools forteir children in violaon of sta laws. ESCAPING FROM SLAVERY. Te second ofte four quesons preoccupying European Americans,

Nortand Sout, was: Didte slaves wantfeedom. Ofcourse tey did, as long as tey could aain it witoutlosing teir lives inte process. Te unrest ontelantaons clearly indicadteir longing forfeedom.

Even more demonsable evidence was offered by slavesliving onte borders ofte Confederacy. Beginning in1861, and connuing troughoutte war, wheneverteroximi of Unionoops made successl escape likely,

slaves abandonedteir plantaons by te hundreds,evente tousands.

Te process of successl slave escapes began inVirginia, in Union--heldrriry across te Pomac


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om Washingn and around Fort Monroe atte p ofte Virginia Peninsula in Hampn Roads. In May

1861, tree slavesfledte fort and claimed sanctuarybecause teir masrs were about take tem Soutwork on Confedera forficaons. Te Unioncommandertere was Gen. Benjamin Butler, a WarDemocratfom Massachuses and a perennialtorn in

Lincolns side. Tinking more aboutte policaladvantage be gained among Nortern anslaveryadvocas tan aboutte needs oftegives, Butlerdeclaredte blacks be conaband of war--enemy

ropertat could he used againstte Union. Tisdesignaon neatly avoidedte queson of wheter or notte escapees werefee and turnedte Souternersargumenttat slaves were proper againsttem.Lincoln reluctantly approvedte ruling, and as aconsequence, escaped slaves troughoutte war werereferred by Norterners as conabands.

Tis legal hairspliing was of no concern


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Virginia slaves. Altey knew was tatgives hadone Fort Monroe and found sanctuary. Witin a

mont, over 900 had joinedtosefirsttree. By warsend, tere were over 25,000 escaped slaves in and arounFort Monroe. Many oftem served inte Union army. A more massive instance of slaves defecngoccurredte folowing spring inte Sea Islands off

SoutCarolina. Te Union navy landedoops onteislands andte whisfled. Despi efforts by masrs--some ldte slaves tatte Yankees were cannibals--teslaves resed jointeir owners andfledte woods

unlte Soutern whis had left. As a consequence, teUnion army suddenly had severaltousandconabands care for. Inresngly, tefirst task ofteUnion commanders onte Sea Islands was sp teex-slavesfom loong and burning teir masrsmansions. Witte falof New Orleans, also inte spring of1862, te informal emancipaon process expanded in


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te lower Mississippi valey. It never reached much ofte Trans-Mississippi Soutunl wars end because

Union forces did not penea deeply tere.Troughoutte Sout, tefirst slaves escape werepicaly house servants and skiled craftsmen. Teywere te people who hadte most access informaonabout Unionoop movements (acquired primarily by

overhearing teir masrs indiscreet conversaonsaroundtem) andtose who hadte greast knowledgeofte outside world. Usualy tefirst ones escape weremen. Once tey foundtey would he procd behind

Union lines, tey returned forteirfiends and relaves.Te Northad not ancipad massive slave

escapes. It had no plans about how care fortese blackregees. As a consequence, many escapees foundtemselves in worse physical condions tantey hadknown onte plantaons. Tey were herded in campsand givennts and raons in exchange for work. Teblacks were put work in muchte way Souternoops


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were using tem, building forficaons, digging laines,and cleaning te camps. Blacksfequently complained

tatteir Union supervisors eadtem worse tanteir former masrs and overseers. Inut. manyUnion soldiers resend having serve inte war,especialy tose who were drafes, andtey blamedteblacks forteir predicament.

Te black regees inte Union camps usualyreceived no actual income. Most ofte money teyearned was witheld pay forteir food and cloting,and any remainder was reserved pay for indigent or

crippled escapees who could not work. Tis wasadminisred by te Quarrmasrs Department, anoriously unreliable branch of any army troughouthisry. Blacks were defauded at every turn. Ofnteirraons and cloting were sold onte black market--somemes te Souterners--by greedy supply officers. Hearing ofte plight ofte conabands intecamps, Nortern benevolent organizaons, such as te


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Freedmens Aid Sociees, and religious groups, such aste American Missionary Associaon, sent hundreds of

missionaries andachers te Sout aidte blacks.Tey provided much ofte food and cloting tatenabledte regees survive. Tey also creadtefirstschools and churches most blacks had ever aended. It was te blacks temselves, however, who were

rimarily responsible forteir survival intese harshcircumstances. Te more enrprising oftem earnedcashtrough priva work witofficers ofte camps.Tose who fared best suck outfomte encampments

and squaed on lands abandoned byfleeingConfederas. Frequently tey were able make teland far more producve tan it had ever been duringslavery. LINCOLN AND THE EMANCIPATIONPROCLAMATION. Te exnt of slave escapes inteSoutandte burden it placed uponte Unionresend a major dilemma for President Lincoln. From


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te momentte conflict began at Fort Sumr, Lincolnsoremost goals had been preserve te Union, bring

te war an end wita minimum of bloodshed, andavoid lingering animosi between Nortern andSoutern whis. Iftat could best be achieved byreserving slavery, he said, he would do so; if it could be

achieved byfeeing every slave, he would do tat insad.

Lincoln despised slavery, but he, like Tomas Jeffersonand many oters before him, doubdtat blacks andwhis could ever live in America in a condion ofequali.

Te spring and summer of 1862 aggravadLincolns problem. Te slaves, by running away inmassive numbers, werefeeing temselves. Te borderslave stas of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, andMissouri were resisng alof Lincolns proposals forradual compensad emancipaon. His own schemes nd somewhere outside ofte Unid Stas where teeed black populaon could be colonized failed


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complely. Atte same me, Lincoln was confond at home

by abolionists who insisdtatte war should be oneor emancipaon. Abroad, he was faced witgrowingskepcism about Nortern war aims. Ifte Union goalwas simply reunite couny and preserve slavery,tente Nortwas undertaking a war of aggression.

Te Souts claimtat it wasfighng for itsindependence, just as te Unid Stas had done duringte Revoluon, was terefore valid, and foreign powershadte right inrvene as te French had done in

1778. Altese pressures forced Lincoln conclude tatemancipaon would have become a Union war goal.

Te crics of Lincoln andte EmancipaonProclamaon are chnicaly correct in observing tatte proclamaon in January 1863 did not legalyfee asingle slave. Slaverys end required a constuonalamendment, which Lincoln advocad and which wasrafied as te TirentAmendment in 1865. Te


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symbolic importance ofte Emancipaon Proclamaonshould not, however, be underesmad. Lincolntereby

silenced his abolionist crics inte Nort, desedinrvenonist senment abroad, and energized blackslave resisrs connue teir efforts inte Sout. Lincoln advised his cabinet of his plan inte earlysummer of 1862. Because te Union cause was not

aring welonte balefield, he delayed its issuanceunl a Union vicry could be aained. He claimedtebloody Bale of Sharpsburg (Anetam), during whichRobert E. Leesfirst invasion ofte Nortwas repulsed,

as an appropria occasion. Slaves in stas orrririesslin rebelion againstte Unid Stas on January 1,1863, would befeed. He hoped, probably onlyhalfheardly, tattis treat would energize Souternmoderas and influence tem persuade teir leaders lay downteir arms. Tat was not be te case. On January 1, 1863, troughoutte Union-occupied areas ofte Sout, conabands, teir Nortern


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whi alies, and some Union soldiers gatered pray, sing hymns, and celebra slaverys demise. (Te

acttat none oftose conabands had been legalyeed was irrelevant.) Moreover, te proclamaonwelcomed alescaping slaves in Union lines and heldoutte prospecttat ex-slaves could voluner for serviceinte Union military. Afican American slaves had

ied make te Civil War one of black liberaon. Inte Emancipaon Proclamaon, Abraham Lincoln andte Union appeared have embracedteir cause. Certainly tis was te belief of Soutern slave

owners. Tey wrotat botmisbehaviorontelantaons and escape aempts increased significantly

afrte issuance ofte proclamaon. Only inteTransMississippi regions of Arkansas, Louisiana, andTexas was te impact ofte proclamaon minimal. Onereminder oftat difference is tat blacks intat areaandteir descendants inte Midwest celebraemancipaon not on January 1 but onJuneent,


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tat period in mid-June afrte surrender ofte lastConfedera armies inte West under E. Kirby Smit.

Union officers, many now also superinndents oftenewly formed Freedmens Bureau, rode aroundtosewesrn stas announcing Lincolns EmancipaonProclamaon slaves andteir masrs. Inte easrn half ofte Confederacy, slavery had

colapsed long before tosefinal wesrn Union vicries,in part because ofte efforts of former slaves as Unionsoldiers. EX-SLAVES IN THE UNION ARMY. Te

tird ofte four quesons preoccupying whiAmericans during te Civil War was wheter blackswould be wiling fight forteirfeedom. Once againte answer was yes. Tery ofte whi SoutwhenteNortdecided make escaped slaves in soldiers is notsurprising. What may be more so is te horror witwhich much ofte whi Nortregardedte idea. Some Norterners, including te edirial board of


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te New York Times, claimedtat using blackoopswould suly te puri ofte Norts cause. Beer lose

te War,it cried, tan use te Negro win it.A morerepresentave stament was made by a Norternsoldier who reflecd, I reckon if I have fight and dieorte niggersfeedom, he canfight and die for it along

witme.Tat was realy te point. Te Union needed

more men, and its efforts enlisttem wereencounring increasing resistance among Norternwhi men. Why not lette black manfight for his own

eedom?

Inte falof 1862, witUnion vicry sldoubtl andte Preliminary EmancipaonProclamaon already announced, Lincoln yieldedressure and autorizedte formaon oftefirst black

army units. Afican Americans were offered a spwardfeedom not because te whi Nortespecialywandtem but because te Nortneededtem somuch.


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Te fashion in which blackoops were ead wasilusave of Nortern whi aitudes wardte whole

enrprise. Atfirst, black soldiers were confined serviceunits and not alowedfight--unl whi Unioncasuales became so hightat blacks, tough ofnunained for combat, were simply trown intebale. Moreover, unl just before te wars end, Afican

American soldiers received unequal pay forte samedu and were deniedte enlistment bonuses givenwhioops.

Te record of one ofte most famous black Union

regiments ilusas te conibuons of ex-slave soldiersinte Confederacys defeat. Te First SoutCarolinaVoluners was te darling of Nortern imaginaon. Itwas tefirst regiment composed enrely ofgiveslaves, organized, as Norterners loved say, intebirtplace ofeason. It was atfirst uncleartatte Nortwas enrelyserious abouttis regiment. Te unit was supposed be


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made up of voluners, buttefirst soldiers wereacquired by sending whioops on raiding pares in

te regee camps and hauling back any able-bodiedblack mentey couldfind. Teir uniforms were made upof a bright blue jacket, brighr red pantaloons, and ared fez, making tem ideal targets for sharpshoors.Neverteless, te First SoutCarolina ran up a credible

record in Union service. Tey were, for example, tefirstknown military unit consisntly returnfom balewitmore soldiers tantose which wittey enred.Slaves on outlying plantaons, seeing tem in uniform,

simply laid downteir hoes, picked up discarded guns,and folowedte oops backteir camp.

Te soldiers ofte First SoutCarolina were onlytefirst ofns oftousands of former slaves who foughtorte Union cause. Despi discriminaontroughoutte war, Afican Americanoops disnguishedtemselves and were insumental inte Norts vicry.Overal, about 180,000 blacks served inte Union army,


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and anoter 20,000 inte Union navy. Togeter, teymade up about 15 percent of alNortern forces inte

war. Of alte Unionoops, te Afican Americansoldier wasfighng forte most tangible of causes--eedom for himself and his people.

THE FINAL QUESTION. Te derminaonwitwhich blacks seizedfeedom shocked whis, bot

Nortand Sout. In an unancipad and unplannedwar, te Afican Americans behavior may have beenteelement for which botsides were least prepared. Inteend, black slaves played a major role in bringing down

te Confederacy. Tey had demonsadtatteywandfeedom and were preparedfight for itsrealizaon.

Te fourtquesontat whis had posed aboutte slaves--Wouldtey know what do witteir

eedom iftey got it?--would be more candidlyhrased--Would whi America let blacks uly exerciseteirfeedom?Tat queson remains unresolved atte


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end ofte twenetcentury. Butte limitaons tatcrippled blackfeedom afr Reconsucon did not

discourage many Afican Americans who had beenslaves. As one black Union veran said afrte war,In slavery, I had no worriment Infeedom lie got aamily and a lile farm. Altat causes me

worriment........But I takes te FREEDOM!

SLAVE LIFE

Te Afican American slave socie inteanbelum Sout(1807--1860) was unique among New

World slave sysms. Inte Unid Stas, te slaveopulaon not only sustained itself; it expanded

exponenaly. In oter New World naons, slaveopulaons were maintained by connuous importaon

om Afica. Inte American Sout, however, te slaveopulaon grewtrough natural increase--tat is, slavemoters had children who also became slaves. As a


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result, te vast majori of Afican Americans in slaveryinte Unid Stas afr 1810 were not Afican capves

but nave-born Americans, some of whose ancesrs hadbeen intis couny nearly as long as te oldest whiamilies.

Tis longevi of residence in America did notmeantat slaves lost alteir rich heritagefomteir

Afican origins. Whi slave owners, however, wereighned by Afican cusms and behaviors tey could

not understand. Tey forcedteir slaves give upAfican means of communicaon such as teir own

languages andteir drums (a widely used means oftalkingacross great distances in West Afica). Indeed,slaves were denied eventeir original Afican names anmade accept whaver names teir masr imposedupontem. Intese circumstances, Soutern slaves were forcedin syncresm--te process of mixing divergent culturaelements geter crea an enrely new culture. Tey


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had combine whattey could retain ofteir Aficanculture witte new European and Nave American

cultures imposed upontem by teir masrs. Te resultwas tefirst genuinely Unid Stas culture. It wasart Afican, part European, and part Nave

American, but refined and developed in a land new abut one oftese groups.

American slaves were able carve out a uniqueculture ofteir own because ofte way in whichSoutern slavery was suctured. Most whiSouterners did not own slaves. In 1860 only n

tousand Soutern whi families owned more tantwen slaves, and only tree tousand owned more tanf slaves. Neverteless, most slaves lived in units oftwen or more. Tis meanttat, on most plantaons,blacks far outnumbered whis. Tey could not albekept under constant whi supervision. Masrs had evolve a sysm of rewards andunishments maintain conol overteir more


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numerous slaves. As in any brutal sysm of unpaidlabor, punishment was used more ofntan reward. As

hisrian KennetStampp has wrien, te slave ownerssagy in handling teir slaves was make temstand in fear!A plantaon, however, was not anexrminaon camp; it was a profit-making enrprise,and blacks had be given certain rights and privileges

maximize teir producvi. Tey were also valuableieces ofproper.To abuse temo harshly would

diminishteir value. Slaves seized upontis necessicrea a culture ofteir own possessing te values tat

shaped family life, religion, educaon, and aitudesward work. RELIGION. Religion was one ofte mainburesses tat suppordte slave family. AficanAmerican slaves were deniedte right pracce tereligion ofteir ancesrs. Some Afican slaves wereMuslims; most believed in a varie of forms of ancesrworship tat was more similar Chrisanitan


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Europeans undersod. Slave owners viewed Aficanreligion as a combinaon of witchcraft and superson,

andtey banned its pracce, in part, for feartat slavesmight use it put spels or curses ontem. Most slave owners believedtat Chrisanizingteir slaves would make tem more passive. Tey alsooind Chrisanizaon as a jusficaon for slavery;

tey claimed be uplifng te slavesfomteirbarbarous past. Altoughte slave owner exacdunpaid laborfom his slaves intis life, he ensuredteirsalvaon inte next by making tem Chrisans.

Of course, te Chrisani taught slaves by teirmasrs was very differentfomtat whichte masrsraccedtemselves. Omied were te implicit and

explicit messages inte New Testament aboutindividualfeedom and responsibili. Insad, slaveowners usedte Bible selecvely. Tey arguedtatAficans were te descendants of Ham, who, inte OldTestament, were cursed by Noah be servants of


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servants.Fromte New Testament, slave owners cidChrists admonionrender un Caesartat which is

Caesars justeir right demand obediencefomteir slaves. In part ensure tat slaves could not learnalofte oter, conary messages aboutfeedom beound inte Bible, slavemasrs outlawedte aching of

reading and wring slaves.

Slaves, however, once again combined whatteycould rememberfomteir old religions witwhatteirmasrs ldtem about Chrisani and whatteylearned about Chrisanifom lira blacks and

anslavery whis. Fromtis informaontey evolvedteir own form of Chrisani, which was a religion ofhope and liberaon. Inte slaves version of Chrisani, Christ andMoses played almost equal roles as heroes who had ledteir people feedom. Black religion was very muchanchored inte real world ratertan in life afrdeat. Slaves learned phrase te words ofteir prayers


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and spirituals speak of salvaon andfeedom inheaven, but, inut, tey were praying and singing

about deliverancefom slavery intis world, nottenext. Tus, a black woman like Harriet Tubman wholed dozens of slaves feedom, used spirituals like SalAway Jesus signal plans for escape. She becameknown, as a result, as Te Moses of Her People.

Te burdens of slavery led Afican Americans different definions of God, sin, and evente devil.Slaves did not conceive of God as te srn taskmasrenvisioned by teir whi owners. Rater, tey tought

of God as an al-forgiving Fater who undersodteibulaons tat his people were suffering and who waslanning a beer world fortem. Tis vision ofte

Almigh led, among otertings, a very differentsle of worship among slaves. As one ex-bondsmanied explain: Whi folks pray powerl sad. Black folksray powerl glad! Slave religion even resuld in a different


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understanding of sin. It was, for example, a sin salom a felow slave who, like yourself, had noting. But

it was not necessarily a sin sal food or clotingfomte masr. He hadaplen,as te slaves would say,while teir children were hungry and naked. God wouldunderstand your necessi and forgive you your smalansgression.

It was inteir concepon ofte deviltatteslaves remembrance ofteir Afican religion was mostevident. To whi Prostant slave owners, te devil waste Anchrist, te embodiment of evil. To te slaves,

however, te devil was just anoter powerl spirit, albeita malevolent one. Afican religions ofn contained suchenes. Tey were spirits one ied avoid, but if onewas apped by a devil, Afican faits taughttattrough wit and guile, te spirit could be overcome.Tus, whi slave owners were beddled when a slave,treaned wita whipping or worse, would joke and lie.Inte slaves eyes, te man about punish him was


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simply possessed by a devil witwhom he might be able negoa. Somemes tis sagy actualy worked. A

masr would become so exasperad, yet amused, by hisslaves excuses and self-deprecaontat he wouldwitdraw his treat of punishment. Tis is only oneexample of how slaves Afican heritage prevendtem

om making te European disncon between secular

and religious behavior. Tey usedteir religious visionofte world help tem cope witeveryday crisesbetweentemselves andteir masrs. EDUCATION. A scholar once defined educaon

as alte ways a culture ies perpetua itselffomone generaon anoter.Slave owners, inteir defenseofteir peculiar instuon, ofn claimedtat slaverywas a schooltat helpedcivilizete savage Afican.Whi Souterners proved be right about slaverybeing a school, but, muchteir surprise and dismay,notte sorttey had innded. When emancipaoncame, tey discoveredtat slavery had taught blacks


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how be Americans and demand alte aribus ofeedom enjoyed by oter Americans.

Slaves were legaly deniedte foundaon ofEuropean educaon--te knowledge read and wri.Noneteless, tousands of slaves acquiredtose skils,usualy trough voluntary or uninnonal helpfomteir young masrs and misesses as tey were learning

teir lessons. (Urban slaves like Frederick Douglasssomemes bribedteir whi playmas or coworkers achtem.) Lira slaves tenied pass onteirknowledge oters. It was a special goal of older slaves

learn enough readte Bible before tey died. Because ofte peculiar nature of slavery, forms ofeducaon witin it werefequently unortodox. Onemetod of educaon witinte slave communi clearlyhad Afican roots. Tis was te aching of survivalsagies trough folktales, usualy ones involvinganimals. Many oftese sries have come down us asBrer Rabbittales. Too ofn, tese have been dismisse


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as merely charming sries enrtain children. Teywere tat, but--inte complex socie of slavery--tey

served oter purposes as wel. Wesrn Afican folklore isilof tales aboutte hare, who is usualy a icksr. Inte Afican American sries, Brer Rabbit is te hero; heis a weak animal in a forestlof larger, more powerlanimals tat could not be overcome trough direct

confontaon. Te big animals, however, nded beclumsy and stupid because tey never had work hard get whattey wand; tey also nded be veryreedy. As a result, te smaler animals could somemes

iumph overte larger ones trough wit and guile,troughicking te big animals in using teir grearsengtagainsttemselves. Slave owners nded see tese tales as harmless.In fact, slave elders were using temachteir youngte al-important skils ofhandling masr. Teyshould never confont whis directly. But whis werenot very bright, as was best proven by teir belieftat


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blacks were stupid. It was important never disabusete masr oftat belief. You wouldtereby be able get

away wittings tat were oterwise forbidden. Forexample, if you could convince te masrtat you wereso rrified ofte darktat he did noty make youwork la at night, youten hadte opportunisneak away for a secret prayer meeng or visit a love

one on anoter plantaon. ATTITUDES TOWARD WORK. Nowhere werete consequences oftis secret educaon more apparenttan in slave work habits onte plantaons. Tere is no

doubttat slavery was enormously profitable for largelantaon owners. Tis did not mean, however, tat

slave labor was efficient. Slaves workedfom sunup sundown in awl condions. Tey were usualy il-housed, il-cloted, and il-fed. For most slaves teirrimary movaon for labor was fear of physicalunishment. So, witout real incenves be producve, take pride inteir work, slaves did everyting tey


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could minimize teir labor and do it as poorly astey could witout being punished.

Slaves were shrewd inteir avoidance of work. Teyeigned ignorance so tatte masr could notusttem witlivesck or complex machinery. Tey wouldclaimtat ilness prevendtemfom working. Teyrended be supersous avoid unpleasant tasks.

For example, tey might claim a swamp tat neededdraining was inhabid by hauntstat would aacktem. Aloftese taccs were known slaveowners. Tey

knewtat slaves ofn deliberaly lost livesck andsabotaged machinery, buttey could seldom prove it.Moreover, tey temselves claimedtatte slaves werestupid. To acknowledge tatte slaves were outwiingtem would undermine teir autori. Slave ownersied dismiss te slaves supersons, but secretly teyshared some oftem. Tey risked even more inefficiencyiftey ied force slaves work whente majori


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claimedtattey were o rrified do so. Finaly,slave owners were complely confounded by slaves

claims of ilness. Tey knewteir bondsmen were skiledat faking alkinds of sympms. Tey also knewtat anunchecked epidemic could sweep troughte usualyovercrowded and unsanitary slave quarrs,incapacitang te enre work force. Tis could result not

only inte loss ofte precious cash crop but also intedeats of equaly valuable proper: enslaved humanbeings. Afican American slaves, troughteir

commitment family, teir devoonteir religion,teir acquision of educaon, andteir raoning ofteir labor, forced compromisesfomteir owners. Temasr unquesonably remainedte more powerl forceinte relaonship. Neverteless, witinte smalspacetat compromises cread inte brutal sysm ofbondage, slaves were able carve out lives tat alowedmany oftem retainteir humani and courage.


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Whenfeedom came, tey were ready. It was teirormer masrs who were not.

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slavery in the civil war era

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