skeletal system, an introduction to mineralized tissue

8/12/2019 Skeletal System, An Introduction to Mineralized Tissue

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The skeletal syste !s an organ syste that "ro#!des "hys!cal su""ort !n l!#!ng

organ!ss. The skeletal syste !s generally d!#!ded !nto three ty"es$ e%ternal&

!nternal& and 'ase (lu!d )hydrostat!c order*& although hydrostat!c skeletal syste

can also 'e grou"ed se"arately (ro the other t+o s"ec!es !n the a'sence o(

su""ort!ng structures. The order can not o#e on the!r o+n& 'ut ass!sted 'y the

uscles. ,!th the coo"erat!on 'et+een the skeletal and uscular& l!#!ng creatures

can -u"& run& s+!ng& run and so on. o +!th an!als& es"ec!ally #erte'rates& they

also ha#e a (rae+ork +h!ch !s #ery !"ortant !n the act!#!ty.

All #erte'rate an!als ha#e a d!((erent skeletal structure& rang!ng (ro P!sces&

A"h!'!ans& Re"t!l!an& A#es unt!l to /aals. O( these d!((erences& the order o(

each syste 0 each o( these #erte'rates certa!nly has a d!((erent (unct!on. Then

+!th the !n(luence o( en#!ronental causes o( d!((erences !n ada"tat!on& so there !s

a gro+!ng structures and set'acks. By study!ng a e'er o( th!s grou" +e can

"reser#e the en#!ronent& 'ut !t also can "ro#!de !n(orat!on such as the

!"ortance o( sc!ence educat!on (or the +orld. But !n th!s "a"er +e s"ec!(!cally

d!scuss the d!((erences !n the (rae+ork o( the class syste o( #erte'rate an!als.

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1.2 Research 3uest!on

1. ,hat !s the de(!n!t!on o( skeleton4

2. Ho+ !s the class!(!cat!on o( skeleton4

5. Ho+ !s the co"ar!son o( skeleton syste !n #erte'rate4

1.5 Research Pur"ose

1. To kno+ the de(!n!t!on o( skeleton

2. To kno+ the class!(!cat!on o( skeleton

5. To kno+ the co"ar!son o( skeleton syste !n #erte'rate

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CHAPTER II

DICUION

2.1 De(!n!t!on o( keleton

The skeleton !s the 'ody "art that (ors the su""ort!ng structure o( an

organ!s. There are t+o d!((erent skeletal ty"es$ the e%oskeleton&+h!ch !s the

sta'le outer shell o( an organ!s& and the endoskeleton& +h!ch (ors the

su""ort structure !ns!de the 'ody.

2.2 Class!(!cat!on o( keleton

1. Based on 6ocat!on !n BodyBased on locat!on !n 'ody& skeleton can 'e d!#!ded !nto t+o "arts& they

are endoskeleton and e%oskeleton. Endoskeleton !s skeletal syste that

located !nner the 'ody +h!ch (ors the su""ort structure !ns!de the 'ody

such as skeleton !n #erte'rate )"!sces& a"h!'!an& a#es& re"t!l!an&

aals* +h!le e%oskeleton !s skeletal syste that located outer the 'ody

+h!ch !s the sta'le outer shell o( an organ!s such as skeleton !n

!n#erte'rate )arthro"od and olusca*.

2. Based on Its Conta!ns

Based on !ts conta!ns& skeleton can 'e d!#!ded !nto t+o "arts& they are

'one and cart!lage. Bone !s co"osed o( cells 7 'one 7 (or!ng cells

)osteo'lasts* +h!ch "roduce a atr!% o( osteocytes. Osteocytes atr!%

conta!n!ng calc!u car'onate )CaCO5* and calc!u "hos"hate )Ca)PO8*2*

+h!le cart!lage co"osed 'y cells cart!lage )chondrocytes* that "roduce

kondr!n atr!% (or& and conta!ns a lot o( adhes!#e su'stance and a l!ttle

l!e. The e%a"les o( cart!lage such as cart!lage !n the nose& ear& and

trachea.

2.5 Co"ar!son The keletal yste

An endoskeleton !s an !nternal su""ort structure o( an an!al&

co"osed o( !neral!9ed t!ssue. Endoskeleton de#elo"s +!th!n the sk!n or !n

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the dee"er 'ody t!ssues. The #erte'rate !s 'as!cally an endoskeleton ade u"

o( t+o ty"es o( t!ssues )'one and cart!lage*. Dur!ng early e'ryon!c

de#elo"ent the endoskeleton !s co"osed o( notochord and cart!lage. The

notochord !n ost #erte'rates !s re"laced 'y #erte'ral colun and cart!lage !s

re"laced 'y 'one !n ost adults.

An endoskeleton ay (unct!on "urely (or su""ort )as !n the case o(

s"onges*& 'ut o(ten ser#es as an attachent s!te (or uscle and a echan!s

(or trans!tt!ng uscular (orces. A true endoskeleton !s der!#ed (ro

esodert!ssue. uch a skeleton!s "resent !n ech!noders and chordates.

:et they do ha#e cart!lag!nous t!ssue !n the!r 'ody& e#en !( !t !s not

!neral!9ed& es"ec!ally !n the head& +here !t (ors a "r!!t!#e cran!u. Theendoskeleton g!#es sha"e& su""ort and "rotect!on to the 'ody and "ro#!des a

eans o( locoot!on.

In general& all chordates ha#e endoskeleton and e%oskeleton. 6o+er

an!als ha#e endoskeleton that (ors a notochord. In any #erte'rate& there

!s an e%oskeleton +h!ch !s the der!#ed (ro layer o( sk!n called deral

skeleton. Deral skeleton a syste o( 'ony (orat!ons that de#elo"s !n the

connect!#e 7 t!ssue layer o( sk!n& or dera& o( #erte'rates or !n s!"le +ays !s

a der!#ate o( the der!s sk!n& (or e%a"le& scales and (!ns o( (!sh& 'ony "lates

!n Crocod!l!a and Chelon!a& gastral!a !n re"t!les& 'ony aror on the arad!llo.

The deral skeleton "er(ors "rotect!#e and su""ort!#e (unct!ons. It !s

ost h!ghly de#elo"ed !n (!sh and lor!cate Agnatha. The or!g!nal ty"e o(

deral skeleton +as the "laco!d scale )deral dent!cles*& +h!ch co#ered the

head and 'ody o( the an!al e#enly )(oss!l telodonts and Euselach!!*. The

deral dent!cles could (use !nto ore or less large "lates& (or!ng a shell. In

the e#olut!on o( (!sh& the deral skeleton d!((erent!ated !nto a ce"hal!c sect!on&

cons!st!ng o( large oss!(!cat!ons (or!ng a deratocran!u& and a truncal

sect!on& cons!st!ng o( ro+s o( scales )coso!d and gano!d*.

;erte'rate "hylogeny has sho+n a gradual s!nk!ng o( the eleents o(

the deral skeleton 'eneath the sk!n& 'r!ng!ng the deratocran!al oss!(!cat!ons

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!nto closer contact +!th the cran!u and gradually reduc!ng the shell o(

truncal scales )+ell de#elo"ed !n any (oss!l #erte'rates*. In e%tant terrestr!al

#erte'rates the rud!ents o( the "r!!t!#e deral skeleton are "reser#ed !n the

(or o( 'ony scales !n a"odal a"h!'!ans and #entral r!'s !n tuataras and

crocod!les. In certa!n #erte'rate (ors& such as turtles and arad!llos& a hea#y

deral skeleton de#elo"ed secondar!ly. The skeletal (orat!on !n certa!n

!n#erte'rates !s soet!es called a deral skeleton& 'ut such (orat!ons d!((er

(ro the deral skeleton o( #erte'rates !n content )(or e%a"le& calcareous

"lates and the s"!nes o( ech!noders*.

Endoskeleton o( #erte'rates !s generally co"osed o( a%!al skeleton

and a""end!culare skeleton. The a%!al skeleton cons!sts o( the 'ones along thecentral a%!s o( an organ!s. In huans& generally !t cons!sts o(


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A s!!lar arrangeent +as (ound !n the "r!!t!#e 6a'yr!nthodonts& 'ut

!n the e#olut!onary l!ne that led to re"t!les )and hence& also to

aals and '!rds*& the !ntercentru 'ecae "art!ally or +holly

re"laced 'y an enlarged "leurocentru& +h!ch !n turn 'ecae the 'ony

#erte'ral 'ody.

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In ost ray0(!nned (!shes& !nclud!ng all teleosts& these t+o

structures are (used +!th& and e'edded +!th!n& a sol!d "!ece o( 'one

su"er(!c!ally rese'l!ng the #erte'ral 'ody o( aals. In l!#!ng

a"h!'!ans& there !s s!"ly a cyl!ndr!cal "!ece o( 'one 'elo+ the

#erte'ral arch& +!th no trace o( the se"arate eleents "resent !n the

early tetra"ods.

In cart!lagenous (!sh& such as sharks& the #erte'rae cons!st o(

t+o cart!lagenous tu'es. The u""er tu'e !s (ored (ro the #erte'ral

arches& 'ut also !ncludes add!t!onal cart!lagenous structures (!ll!ng !n

the ga"s 'et+een the #erte'rae& and so enclos!ng the s"!nal cord !n an

essent!ally cont!nuous sheath. The lo+er tu'e surrounds the notochord&and has a co"le% structure& o(ten !nclud!ng ult!"le layers o(

calc!(!cat!on.

6a"reys ha#e #erte'ral arches& 'ut noth!ng rese'l!ng the

#erte'ral 'od!es (ound !n all h!gher #erte'rates. E#en the arches are

d!scont!nuous& cons!st!ng o( se"arate "!eces o( arch0sha"ed cart!lage

around the s"!nal cord !n ost "arts o( the 'ody& chang!ng to long

str!"s o( cart!lage a'o#e and 'elo+ !n the ta!l reg!on. Hag(!sheslack a

true #erte'ral colun& and are there(ore not "ro"erly cons!dered

#erte'rates& 'ut a (e+ t!ny neural arches are "resent !n the ta!l.

2. A"h!'!an

The #erte'ral colun o( (rog !s located !n the !d0dorsal

reg!on 'eh!nd the skull and (ors the endoskeleton along the

long!tud!nal a%!s o( the 'ody. It cons!sts o( s!gnet r!ng l!ke #erte'rae

and a long urostyle. O( the n!ne #erte'rae the 2nd to th #erte'rae are

co"lete and ore or less s!!lar and hence are called ty"!cal

#erte'rae& +h!le the other #erte'rae d!((er (ro the ty"!cal #erte'rae as

+ell as (ro each other.

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5. Re"t!l!a

The #erte'ral colun !n d!nosaurs cons!sts o( the cer#!cal

)neck*& dorsal )'ack*& sacral )h!"s*& and caudal )ta!l* #erte'rae.

D!nosaur #erte'rae "ossess (eatures kno+n as"leurocoels& +h!ch are

hollo+ de"ress!ons on the lateral "ort!ons o( the #erte'rae& +h!ch

ser#ed to decrease the +e!ght o( these 'ones +!thout sacr!(!c!ng

strength. Pleurocoels are (!lled +!th a!r sacs& accord!ng to soe

researchers. The sauro"od d!nosaurs are kno+n (or the!r unusually

long ta!ls& +h!ch +ere anchored !n soe cases 'y o#er @= caudal

#erte'rae. In any hadrosaur and thero"od d!nosaurs& the caudal

#erte'rae +ere re!n(orced 'y tendons. The "resence o( three or oresacral #erte'rae& !n assoc!at!on +!th the h!" 'ones& !s one o( the

de(!n!ng character!st!cs o( d!nosaurs. The occ!"!tal condyle !s a

Page

1* Pectoral g!rdles and l!'s

Cons!sts o( cla#!cle F os e'raneus& coraco!d&

sca"ula& "recoraco!d. In#entory +!th e'ers (ace !n

the cur#e o( the gleno!d (ossa& +here art!culat!on +!th

the huerus& rad!us ulna& car"als& etacar"als&

"halanges +!th @ d!g!t!.

2* Pel#!c g!rdle and l!'s

Cons!st!ng o( !sch!d!u& !!u& "u'!s. Both are usually

on the os "u'!s sy"hys!s sy"h!s!s. Esch!n also o(ten

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un!ted to (or sy"h!s!s Isch!a. Aceta'ulu !s a

e'er o( the -o!nt +!th the 'ack o( the (eur& t!'!a

(!'ula& tarsals& etatarsals& "halanges.

'. G!rdles and l!'s o( a"h!'!ans

Pectoral g!rdle on "r!!t!#e a"h!'!an has !ntercla#!cula.

In the odern A"h!'!a ha#e cla#!cle. Caec!l!ans ha#e no

l!'s and g!rdle l!'s. /e'ers and 'racelets caudate

sall and +eak. Pectoral g!rdle at the 'eh!nd structure

s!"le and (!%ed cart!lage e%ce"t !n the gleno!d (ossa.

Un!ted +!th the sca"ula coraco!d& cart!lage "recoraco!d

"ro-ect!ons& anter!os o( each coraco!d. Cal#!cula no. Eachsca"ula assoc!ated +!th cart!lage !n dosrsal su"ra +!de

sca"ular!s. Caudata "u'o!sch!a !rregular un!ted on the

ed!an sy"hysus& !l!ac "rocess on each s!de o( the

trans#erse "rocesses # un!ted. sacral!s. At caudata e'ers

(ace to the huerus& rad!us and ulna& os car"al!a reduce the

nu'er 1 un!on 8 d!g!t! Polle%. On the h!nd l!'s (eur&

t!'!a& (!'ula rea!n se"arate& d!g!t! reduct!on. Pectoral

g!rdle on sal!ent!a sho+ed soe od!(!cat!ons. At large

(rogs are coraco!d& "rocoraco!d cla#!cle& sca"ula and

su"rasca"ula& the Rana cla#!cle un!ted or cart co#er.

"recoraco!d& +here the great (rog coraco!ds "recoraco!d

and un!ted !n the !ddle. Pel#!c g!rdle on al!ent!an

cons!sts o( long !l!u !sch!u and "u'!s sall. c!ence

!nherent !n the anter!or to the "rocessus trans#ersus. #.

sacral!s.

c. G!rdles and l!'s o( re"t!les

G!rdles and l!'s !n re"t!les thr!#e e%ce"t on O"h!d!a and

lacert!a legless. O"h!d!a not ha#e "ectoral g!rdles or

(orel!'& 'ut the "el#!s and h!ndl!' shr!nk!ng !n soe

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(a!l!a. Pectoral g!rdle cons!sts o( os re"t!les cart !s

coraco!ds& "recoraco!d& sca"ula& os e'raneus& cla#!cle&

and !ntercal#!cula. ,h!le "el#!c g!rdle cons!sts o( 5

eleents o( 'one& +h!ch un!ted +!th the !l!u 2

costaesacral!s& sy"hys!s "u'!s and !sch!al (or!ng the

ed!an& and the os "u'!s reduct!on Crocod!l!a.

d. G!rdles and l!'s o( a#es

Coraco!ds "ectoral g!rdle cons!sts o( +!de& th!n& narro+

sca"ula& cla#!cle round. Both ed!al cla#!cle un!ted to (or

the (urcula F +!sh'one Paleognathae relat!#ely sall g!rdle&

cla#!cle sall or non0e%!stent. ,h!le the on Archaeo"tery%there are 5 "el#!c 'ones together to (or a #ery large

!nno!nate os.

e. G!rdles and l!'s o( aals

At onotreata os cart!lag!nous "ectoral g!rdle cons!sts o(

the sca"ula& coraco!d& and "aracoraco!d )e"!coraco!d*. In

ost aals coraco!ds coraco!ds reduc!ng the to

"rocess the sca"ula near the gleno!d (ossa. Pel#!c g!rdle

'ones cons!sts o( 5 eleents& the adults coe together to

(or !nno!nate os. /onotreata and /arsu"!al on a "a!r

o( cart!lag!nous os that e%tends to the (ront o( the "u'!s

#entral a'do!nal +all& and they are e"!"u'!s os F

arsu"!als. Pel#!c s"ec!al o( a""endas!s on the lo+er leg&

(!'ul reduce and o(ten un!ted +!th the t!'!a. Pro-ect!on o(

the t!'!a to (or the calcaneu. D!g!t! reduce the h!nd

l!'s.

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There !s a 5 (oot "osture

1* Plant!grade on Homo sapiens )huan*& 'ear& "anda&

!nsect!#ore.

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Picture 18


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Bas!cally& each endoskeleton o( (!#e classes o( #erte'rates ha#e 'een

changes a""ro"r!ate +!th gene and !ts ada"tat!on !n en#!ronent. Th!s case

sho+!ng there !s an e#olut!on !n skeletal syste o( #erte'rate agree +!th the (act

+h!ch clar!(y that "henoty"e !s a resultant 'et+een genoty"e and en#!ronent.

5.2 Ad#!ce

oe ad#!ces that can 'e su'!tted 'ased on th!s "a"er are as (ollo+s$

a. or student& th!s "a"er !s e%"ected to 'e a'le to study the skeleton syste

!n the #erte'rate& and the co"ar!son o( skeleton syste !n the #erte'rate

start (ro the "!sces& a"h!'!an& re"t!l!an& a#es& and aals.

'. or "u'l!c& th!s "a"er !s e%"ected to 'e a'le to g!#e ore attent!on a'outthe health o( skeleton syste !n the!r l!(e& so that not eas!ly attack the

skeleton d!seases.

c. or go#ernent& th!s "a"er !s e%"ected to 'e a'le to !ncrease the health

soc!ety through the "re"ared health (ac!l!t!es.

skeletal system, an introduction to mineralized tissue

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