sivan unit iii tqm

8/11/2019 Sivan Unit III Tqm

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GE2022 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

2 MARKS AND 16 MARKS

UNIT III

TQM TOOLS & TECHNIQUES I

The seven traditional tools of quality - New management tools - Six-sigma:Concepts, methodology, applications to manufacturing, service sector including IT - ench

mar!ing - "eason to #ench mar!, ench mar!ing process - $%&' - Stages, Types(

) %'"*S1. Give the seven tools of quality?

+areto iagram

+rocess $low iagram

Cause-and-&ffect iagram

Chec! Sheets

-istogram

Control Charts

Scatter ,iagrams

2. Define chec !hee".

' chec! sheet is also called as data collection sheet, tally sheet(

' chec! sheet is a form for systematic data gathering and registering to get a clear

view of the facts(

It is used to !eep trac! of how often something occurs(

The form of the chec! sheet is tailored for situation or application(

#. $hen %n chec !hee" i! !e' %n' h() "( c(n!"*c" i".

' chec! sheet is used to indicate the frequency of a certain occurrence(

Construction of chec! sheet:

$ormulate the o#.ective for collecting data(

ecide which data is necessary

etermine who and how data will #e analy/ed

raw a format to record data

Collect and record data pro#lem- wise #y putting tally lines(

Start counting #y tallying on the list: 0,00,000,0000 and 0000 represent the num#ers 1,),2,3

and 4 respectively( %ar! on the list the total num#er of facts, which were noticed(

+. Li!" "he ",-e! (f chec !hee".

+rocess distri#ution chec! sheet

efective item chec! sheet

efect location chec! sheet

efect factor chec! sheet


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. Define Hi!"(/*%.

' histogram is a #ar chart5diagram showing a distri#ution of varia#le quantities orcharacteristics( It is a graphical display of the frequency distri#ution of the numerical data(

The data are displayed as a series of rectangles of equal width and varying heights(

6. $hen %n Hi!"(/*% i! !e' %n' h() "( c(n!"*c" i".

' histogram is used to show clearly where the most frequently occurring values

are located and the data is distri#uted(

It is also a tool for determining the maximum process results(

It ena#les the analyst to quic!ly visuali/e the features of a complete set of data(

Construction of istogram:

'fter the data collection, count the num#er of data values collected(

etermine the range of the data

"ange6 ighest value 7 8owest value

ivide the data values in groups or classes and count the num#er of values in each class(

Now determine the width of the class

9idth of the class6 "ange5 Num#er of classes

raw a frequency ta#le for all values

Construct a histogram #ased on the frequency ta#le( $or that, mar! the class limits on the

hori/ontal axis and the frequency on the vertical axis(

$inally write the title and num#er of values on the diagram(

. Li!" "he ",-e! (f Hi!"(/*%.

ell Shaped istogram

ou#le- pea!ed istogram

+lateau

Com#

Isolated pea!

&dged pea!

S!ewed

Truncated

. Define CE.

The cause and effect C&; diagram is a graphical ta#ular chart to list and analy/e the

potential causes of a given pro#lem(

The cause and effect diagram is also called as fish#one diagram #ecause of its appearance

and the Ishi!awa diagram after the man who developed it in 1


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To standardi/e existing and proposed operation and

To educate and train personnel in decision ma!ing and corrective action activities(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f CE4

efine the effect the pro#lem; clearly and concisely( %ar! the short description of the effect in a #ox( Then draw a line from this #ox towards

left( 8ist down all the possi#le minor and ma.or causes through a #rainstorming session( %ar! the ma.or causes on the #ranches and minor causes on the su# #ranches of the C&

diagrams( 8oo! for possi#le solutions for these causes( Introduce the changes(

10. Define 5%*e"( 'i%/*%.

' +areto diagram is a diagnostic tool commonly used for separating the vital few causes

that account for a dominant share of quality loss(

The +areto diagram is #ased on the +areto principle, which state that a few of the defects

accounts for most of the effects( +areto analysis is also called as =>5)> rule and as 'C analysis( It means only )>? of

pro#lems defects; account for =>? of the effects(

This analysis is a method of classifying items, events or activities according to their

relative importance(

11. $hen %n 5%*e"( 'i%/*% i! !e' %n' h() "( c(n!"*c" i".

+areto diagram can #e used in a wide range of situations where one needs to prioritise pro#lems

#ased on its relative importance( It can #e used as a ris! assessment technique from activity level

to system level(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f 5%*e"( Di%/*%4

@#tain data, using a chec! sheet or #rainstorm(

'rrange the data in descending order starting from the largest category to smallest(

Calculate the total and percentage of the total that each category represents(

Compute the cumulative percentages(

raw a #ar chart with two vertical axes( 'long the left vertical axis, mar! the measured

values for each cause, starting from /ero till the total num#er of causes( The right vertical

axis should have the same height and should go from > to 1>>?( This axis displays thecumulative percentages( 8ist the different !inds of causes along the hori/ontal axis, from

left to right in descending order of frequency or costs(

raw a #ar a#ove each item whose height represents the num#er for that cause(

+lot a cumulative percentage line(

Now draw a hori/ontal line from =>? on the right vertical axis; to the left till the point

of intersection with the cumulative line, and then draw a vertical line from this

intersection downwards till the hori/ontal axis( 8eft from this intersection point are the

)>? of causes the most essential #ottlenec!s; which causes =>? of the damages(

12. Define S"*%"ific%"i(n %n%,!i!.

Stratification is a method of analysis of data #y grouping it in different ways(


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Stratification means segregating a group of measurements, o#servations or any other data

into several su# groups on the #asis of certain characteristics( These data are used for

identifying the influencing factors(

%achines, suppliers, operators, tools, gauges or time dependent sources li!e shifts ,

prepost lunch, start or end of shifts, etc(, are strata with respect to which the study of

variations is conducted for diagnosis and possi#le control5 prevention of variations(

1#. E7-%in "he !"*%"ific%"i(n %n%,!i! -*(ce'*e.

Collect data a#out any pro#lem in product5 defects

Consider potentially significant way of grouping data stratification; on #asis of factors

experienced

"epeat data through graphic manner reflecting stratification

'nalyse results and try new grouping, if necessary, to get insight into the pro#lem and

ma!e evident the correlation(

1+. $h%" i! % !c%""e* 'i%/*%8

The scatter diagram is a simple graphical device to depict the relationship #etween two

varia#les(

' scatter diagram is composed of a hori/ontal axis containing the measured values of one

varia#le and a vertical axis, representing the measurements of the varia#le(

This diagram displays the paired data as a cloud of points( The density and direction of

the cloud indicate how the two varia#les influence each other(

This diagram cannot prove that one varia#le causes the other, #ut they do indicate the

existence of a relationship as well as the strength of that relationship(

1. Li!" "he 'iffe*en" ",-e! (f !c%""e* 'i%/*% -%""e*n!.

Strong +ositive Correlation: The value of A clearly increases as the value of B

increases(

Strong Negative Correlation: The value of A clearly decreases as the value of Bincreases(

9ea! +ositive Correlation: The value of A increases slightly as the value of B

increases(

9ea! Negative Correlation: The value of A decreases slightly as the value of B

increases(

Complex Correlation: The value of A seems to #e related to the value of B, #ut

the "elationship is not easily determined(

No Correlation: there is any demonstrated connection #etween the two varia#les(

16. Gi9e "he -*-(!e (f !c%""e* 'i%/*%.

The purpose of the scatter diagram is, therefore, to display what happens to one varia#le when

another varia#le is changed(This diagram is used to understand, why particular variations occur and how they can #e

controlled(

1. C(n!"*c" %n !c%""e* 'i%/*%.

Select varia#les which are related to each other

Collect data

Create scatter diagram


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B 'xis cause or independent varia#le

A 'xis &ffect or dependent varia#le

&xamine the shape of cloud of points

etermine the type and strength of the mutual relationship(

1. Define c(n"*( ch%*".

' control chart is a graph that displays data ta!en over time and the variations of thisdata( ' control chart illustrates the dynamic performance of the process( This is #ased on a seriesof random samples ta!en at regular intervals(

13. Li!" "he ",-e! (f c(n"*( ch%*".

Control chart for varia#les 6 for measura#le data eg: time

Control chart for characteristics 6 for quantifia#le data such as num#er of defects

20. $h%" i! "he -*-(!e (f C(n"*( ch%*"8

The purpose of control chart is to identify when the process has gone out of

statistical control, thus signaling the need for some corrective action to #e ta!en(

21. What are the new seven management tools?

i( 'ffinity iagramii( Interrelationship igraphiii( Tree iagramiv( %atrix iagramv( +rioriti/ation %atricesvi( +rocess ecision +rogram Chart

vii( 'ctivity Networ! diagram

22. Define Affini", 'i%/*%.

'n affinity diagram is a tool to collect a large amount of ver#al expressions and organi/e

then in according to natural relationship #etween individual items(

This diagram is also referred to as a * diagram after its inventor iro *awa!ita( This is a special !ind of #rainstorming tool(

2#. $h%" i! "he -*-(!e (f %ffini", 'i%/*%8

To provide a visual representation of large amount of ideas(

To determine logical priorities(

To extract the large amount of useful information from few or scattered data, or from

unrelated ideas(

To understand and organi/e pro#lems that are not clear(

To create new concepts(

2+. Gi9e "he -*(ce'*e "( c(n!"*c" Affini", 'i%/*%.

Identify the pro#lem and phrase it without #iases

rainstorm ideas and opinions, individually and record on the cards

Sort cards into groups and discard those with no affinity

8a#el the groups and organi/e the cards under then to form chart

'nalyse the results and plan action-points

2. Define *e%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%.

"elationship diagram is a tool fro finding causes to a pro#lem( The #asic logic #ehind the

tool is the same as those of the cause and effect diagram( This diagram not only clarifies the


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relationship #etween cause and effect #ut also #etween the various causes( It is a graphical

representation of all factors in a complicated pro#lem, system or situation(

26. $h%" i! "he -*-(!e (f *e%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%8

To generate a visual representation of the relations #etween an affect and its cause as well as

the inter relationship #etween the different causes of the pro#lem(

This tool can #e used to Identify !ey pro#lem from a list of important pro#lemsD

Identify the root cause of existing pro#lemsD

Identify !ey factors needed to ma!e a decision(

2. H() "( '*%f" *e%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%.

Identify and decide the effect of the pro#lem( 9rite it in the centre of a #oard and enclose

it in a dar! #ordered rectangle(

Conduct #rainstorming to identify the immediate causes of effect( Note down these

causes in rectangle around the centre dar! rectangle(

Connect these immediate causes to the effect #y connecting the rectangles of the causes

to that of the effect with a line( This line has an arrow pointing towards the effect(

The elements of the rectangle with the most outgoing arrows will indicate the root causes(

Those one with the most incoming arrows will #e !ey outcomes or results(

2. Define "*ee 'i%/*%.

' tree diagram systematically #rea!s down a topic into its components elements and shows thelogical and sequential lin!s #etween these elements( The tree diagram systematically outlines the

complete spectrum of paths and tas!s that must #e carried out to achieve a goal(

23. Li!" "he !e! (f "*ee 'i%/*%.

The purpose of tree diagram is to explore the ways and means to achieve the o#.ective,

develop a list of alternative means and to present them in visual understanda#le form( It helps to develop a systematic, step #y step, strategy to achieve an o#.ective(

#0. H() "( c(n!"*c" "*ee 'i%/*%.

State the pro#lem to #e studied

rainstorm all possi#le causes or methods of addressing the pro#lem(

Identify and list the primary, secondary and tertiary means from #rainstorm

'rrange and rearrange the elements in proper order in #oxes(

#1. Define M%"*i7 'i%/*%.

' matrix diagram is a tool that is used to systematically organi/e information that must #e

compared on a variety of characteristics in order to ma!e a comparison, selection or choice(

It is a tool which the relations #etween two sets of factors in the form of a ta#le or a matrix(

%atrix diagram, sometimes referred as a Equality ta#leF, is the starting point in #uilding a Ehouseof qualityF

#2. H() "( '*%f" %"*i7 'i%/*%.

$irst decide on the two sets of factors to #e compared(

+lace the main factors vertically on the left hand side of the matrix and the dependent

factors hori/ontally on top of the matrix(


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In the main #ody of the matrix, place appropriate sym#ols at the intersecting square

#oxes denoting the relationship #etween the two factors(

Now score relationships and select most important relationship for analysis(

##. Define 'eci!i(n "*ee.

' +rocess ecision +rogramme Chart ++C;, also !nown as decision tree, is a planning

tool to outline every conceiva#le and li!ely occurrence in any planning( The ++C forces proactive thin!ing on what can go wrong with oneGs plan and what

would one do to overcome the effect of such adverse occurrences(

This tool helps to anticipate undesira#le occurrences and ena#les one to prepare with

plans to neutralise their effect(

#+. Li!" "he !e! (f 'eci!i(n 'i%/*%.

The ++C is useful when one wants to plan all possi#le chains of events that might occur

during a pro.ect(

This tool is particularly used in new product development, #uilding and equipment and

data processing programs(

This tool is widely used in decision ma!ing when the tas! is new, complex and unique(#. H() "( c(n!"*c" 'eci!i(n "*ee.

$irst, prepare a EnormalF flow chart of the process with all expected events as steps in the

chart(

Identify the various possi#ilities of the process not going as per the plan due to any

a#normal occurrences(

9rite these occurrences on the flow chart through #ranching at appropriate locations(

Now identify the ways and means to counter the effect due to a#normal occurrences(

9rite these counter-measures in rectangles connecting the corresponding a#normal

occurrence on one side and the process o#.ective on the other(

#6. Define A**() 'i%/*%.

'n arrow diagram is a graphic description of the sequential steps that must #e completed #eforea pro.ect can #e completed( The +&"T +rogram &valuation and "eview Technique; and C+%Critical +ath %ethod; charts are the #est !nown arrow diagram( It is a planning tool that

determines the critical path of a process or a pro.ect(

#. Gi9e !(e (f "he !e! (f A**() 'i%/*%.

To show the paths to complete a pro.ect(

To find the shortest time possi#le for the pro.ect(

To display graphically simultaneous activities(

This diagram is indispensa#le for long term pro.ects(

#. H() "( c(n!"*c" A**() 'i%/*%.

Identify and list each activity to #e done in the pro.ect(

etermine the sequence of activities

Construct a networ! reflecting the precedence relationships

9rite the activity time under arrow leading from it(

#3. Define M%"*i7 '%"% An%,!i! 'i%/*%.

' matrix data analysis diagram is very much similar to a matrix diagram with a difference

that numerical data is used instead of sym#ols indicating the existence and strength of


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relationship( It is the only tool among the ENew Seven %anagement ToolsF which uses

numerical data and produces numerical results(

+0. Gi9e !(e (f "he !e! (f M%"*i7 '%"% An%,!i! 'i%/*%.

To present numerical data a#out two sets of factors in a matrix form and analyses it to get

numerical output(

This tool is used in E+rincipal Component 'nalysisF where only two characteristics can#e studied at a time(

This tool is advantageous in studying the parameters of production processes, in

analy/ing mar!et information, in finding lin!s #etween numerical and non-numerical

varia#les and so on(

+1. H() "( c(n!"*c" M%"*i7 '%"% An%,!i! 'i%/*%.

ecide the two factors whose relations are to #e analysed

Chec! the num#er of individual items in the two factors

+repare a matrix to accommodate all items of the two factors

&nter numerical data in the matrix

'nalyse the final results

42. Dene Six Sigma?Six-Sigma is a #usiness process that allows organi/ations to drastically improve their

#ottom line #y designing and monitoring every day #usiness activities in ways that minimi/ewaste and resources while increasing customer satisfaction( It is achieved through continuousprocess measurement, analysis H improvement(

+#. $*i"e '()n "he !"e-! "( %chie9e !i7 !i/% !"%"e.

Step1: Identify the process you create or service you provide( Step): Identify the customers for your product or service and determine what they considerimportant(

Step2: Identify your needs to provide the product or service that satisfies the customer(

Step3: efine the process for doing the wor!( Step4: %ista!e-+roof the process and eliminate waste effort(

Step: &nsure continuous improvement #y measuring, analy/ing and controlling the improved

process(

++. Define :ench%*in/ %n' /i9e "he (;


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It aims at identifying a technological #rea!through(

It aims at searching for industry #est practices(

+. Li!" "he ",-e! (f :ench%*in/.

C%!!ific%"i(n ;%!e' (n "he O;


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Improve +roduct5 +rocess relia#ility and quality(

Increase customer satisfaction

&arly identification and elimination of potential product5process failure modes(

+rioriti/e +roduct5+rocess deficiencies(

Capture engineering5organi/ation !nowledge

ocument and trac! the actions ta!en to reduce ris!(

+rovide focus for improved testing and development(

%inimi/e late changes and associated cost(

'ct as catalyst for teamwor! and idea exchange #etween functions(

0. $h%" %*e "he !"%/e! (f ?MEA e"h('((/,8

S"%/e14Specifying +ossi#ilitiesa( $unctions #( +ossi#le failure modes c( "oot causes d( &ffectse( etection5+revention

S"%/e24Juantifying "is!a( +ro#a#ility of cause #( Severity of effect c( &ffectiveness of control to prevent cause

d( "is! priority num#er S"%/e#4Correcting igh "is! Causesa( +rioriti/ing wor! #( etailed action c( 'ssigning action responsi#ilityd( Chec! points on completion

S"%/e+4"e-evaluation of "is!a( "ecalculation of ris! priority num#er

16 MARKS41. Explain the Q or S! tools?

Seven tools of quality"

+areto iagram

+rocess $low iagram

Cause-and-&ffect iagram

Chec! Sheets

-istogram

Control Charts

Scatter ,iagrams

Chec !hee"4

' chec! sheet is also called as data collection sheet, tally sheet(

' chec! sheet is a form for systematic data gathering and registering to get a clear

view of the facts(

It is used to !eep trac! of how often something occurs(

The form of the chec! sheet is tailored for situation or application(

' chec! sheet is used to indicate the frequency of a certain occurrence(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f chec !hee"4

$ormulate the o#.ective for collecting data(

ecide which data is necessary

etermine who and how data will #e analy/ed

raw a format to record data


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Collect and record data pro#lem- wise #y putting tally lines(

Start counting #y tallying on the list: 0,00,000,0000 and 0000 represent the num#ers 1,),2,3

and 4 respectively(

%ar! on the list the total num#er of facts, which were noticed(

T,-e! (f chec !hee".

+rocess distri#ution chec! sheet: Ksed to collect on process varia#ility(

efective item chec! sheet: Intended to specify the variety of defects occurring,

together with their frequency of occurrence(

efect location chec! sheet: Intended to identify where defects occur on the

product(

efect factor chec! sheet: used to monitor the input parameters in a process that

might affect the incidence of defects(

Chec Shee" E7%-e

The figure #elow shows a chec! sheet used to collect data on

telephone interruptions( The tic! mar!s were added as data was

collected over several wee!s.

Hi!"(/*%4

' histogram is a #ar chart5diagram showing a distri#ution of varia#le quantities orcharacteristics( It is a graphical display of the frequency distri#ution of the numerical data(

The data are displayed as a series of rectangles of equal width and varying heights(

' histogram is used to show clearly where the most frequently occurring values

are located and the data is distri#uted(

It is also a tool for determining the maximum process results(

It ena#les the analyst to quic!ly visuali/e the features of a complete set of data(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f Hi!"(/*%4

'fter the data collection, count the num#er of data values collected( etermine the range of the data

"ange6 ighest value 7 8owest value

ivide the data values in groups or classes and count the num#er of values in each class(

Now determine the width of the class

9idth of the class6 "ange5 Num#er of classes

raw a frequency ta#le for all values


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Construct a histogram #ased on the frequency ta#le( $or that, mar! the class limits on the

hori/ontal axis and the frequency on the vertical axis(

$inally write the title and num#er of values on the diagram(

T,-e! (f Hi!"(/*%4

ell Shaped istogram: ' common pattern is the #ell7shaped curve !nown as the

Enormal distri#ution(F In a normal distri#ution, points are as li!ely to occur onone side of the average as on the other( e aware, however, that otherdistri#utions loo! similar to the normal distri#ution( Statistical calculations

must #e used to prove a normal distri#ution(

ou#le- pea!ed istogram: The #imodal distri#ution loo!s li!e the #ac! of a two-

humped camel( The outcomes of two processes with different distri#utions arecom#ined in one set of data( $or example, a distri#ution of production data

from a two-shift operation might #e #imodal, if each shift produces a different

distri#ution of results( Stratification often reveals this pro#lem(

+lateau: The plateau might #e called a Emultimodal distri#ution(F Several processes with

normal distri#utions are com#ined( ecause there are many pea!s closetogether, the top of the distri#ution resem#les a plateau(

Com#: In a com# distri#ution, the #ars are alternately tall and short( This distri#ution

often results from rounded-off data and5or an incorrectly constructed

histogram( $or example, temperature data rounded off to the nearest >()

degree would show a com# shape if the #ar width for the histogram were >(1

degree(

Isolated pea!: if there is a small, essentially disconnected pea! along with a normal,

symmetrical pea! this is an isolated pea! histogram


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&dged pea!: The edge pea! distri#ution loo!s li!e the normal distri#ution except that it

has a large pea! at one tail( Ksually this is caused #y faulty construction of the

histogram, with data lumped together into a group la#eled Egreater thanLF

S!ewed: The s!ewed distri#ution is asymmetrical #ecause a natural limit prevents

outcomes on one side( The distri#utionGs pea! is off center toward the limit

and a tail stretches away from it( $or example, a distri#ution of analyses of avery pure product would #e s!ewed, #ecause the product cannot #e more than

1>> percent pure( @ther examples of natural limits are holes that cannot #e

smaller than the diameter of the drill #it or call-handling times that cannot #eless than /ero( These distri#utions are called right 7 or left7s!ewed according

to the direction of the tail(

Truncated: The truncated distri#ution loo!s li!e a normal distri#ution with the tails cut

off( The supplier might #e producing a normal distri#ution of material and

then relying on inspection to separate what is within specification limits from

what is out of spec( The resulting shipments to the customer from inside thespecifications are the heart cut(

C%!e %n' Effec"4

The cause and effect C&; diagram is a graphical ta#ular chart to list and analy/e the

potential causes of a given pro#lem(

The cause and effect diagram is also called as fish#one diagram #ecause of its appearance

and the Ishi!awa diagram after the man who developed it in 1


14/25

To standardi/e existing and proposed operation and

To educate and train personnel in decision ma!ing and corrective action activities(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f CE4

efine the effect the pro#lem; clearly and concisely(

%ar! the short description of the effect in a #ox( Then draw a line from this #ox

towards left( 8ist down all the possi#le minor and ma.or causes through a #rainstorming session(

%ar! the ma.or causes on the #ranches and minor causes on the su# #ranches of the

C& diagrams(

8oo! for possi#le solutions for these causes(

Introduce the changes(

E7%-e The managing director of a weighing machine company received a num#er of irate

letters, complaining of slow service and a constantly engaged telephone( "ather

surprised, he as!ed his support and mar!eting managers to loo! into it( 9ith two other

people, they first defined the !ey symptom as Mlac! of responsiveness to customersM andthen met to #rainstorm possi#le causes, using a Cause-&ffect iagram, as illustrated(

They used the M$our %sM %anpower, %ethods, %achines and %aterials; as primary cause

areas, and then added secondary cause areas #efore adding actual causes, thus helping toensure that all possi#le causes were considered( Causes common to several areas were

flagged with capital letters, and !ey causes to verify and address were circled( @n further investigation, they found that service visits were not well organi/edD engineers

.ust pic!ed up a pile of calls and did them in order( They consequently set up regions #y

engineer and sorted callsD this significantly reduced traveling time and increased service

turnaround time( They also improved the telephone system and recommended a review ofsuppliersM quality procedures(


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5%*e"( 'i%/*%4

' +areto diagram is a diagnostic tool commonly used for separating the vital few causes

that account for a dominant share of quality loss(

The +areto diagram is #ased on the +areto principle, which state that a few of the defects

accounts for most of the effects(

+areto analysis is also called as =>5)> rule and as 'C analysis( It means only )>? of

pro#lems defects; account for =>? of the effects(

This analysis is a method of classifying items, events or activities according to their

relative importance(

+areto diagram can #e used in a wide range of situations where one needs to prioritise

pro#lems #ased on its relative importance( It can #e used as a ris! assessment technique from

activity level to system level(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f 5%*e"( Di%/*%4

@#tain data, using a chec! sheet or #rainstorm(

'rrange the data in descending order starting from the largest category to smallest(


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Calculate the total and percentage of the total that each category represents(

Compute the cumulative percentages(

raw a #ar chart with two vertical axes( 'long the left vertical axis, mar! the measured

values for each cause, starting from /ero till the total num#er of causes( The right verticalaxis should have the same height and should go from > to 1>>?( This axis displays the

cumulative percentages( 8ist the different !inds of causes along the hori/ontal axis, fromleft to right in descending order of frequency or costs(

raw a #ar a#ove each item whose height represents the num#er for that cause(

+lot a cumulative percentage line(

Now draw a hori/ontal line from =>? on the right vertical axis; to the left till the point

of intersection with the cumulative line, and then draw a vertical line from this

intersection downwards till the hori/ontal axis( 8eft from this intersection point are the)>? of causes the most essential #ottlenec!s; which causes =>? of the damages(

S"*%"ific%"i(n %n%,!i!4

Stratification is a method of analysis of data #y grouping it in different ways(

Stratification means segregating a group of measurements, o#servations or any other datainto several su# groups on the #asis of certain characteristics( These data are used for

identifying the influencing factors(

%achines, suppliers, operators, tools, gauges or time dependent sources li!e shifts ,

prepost lunch, start or end of shifts, etc(, are strata with respect to which the study of

variations is conducted for diagnosis and possi#le control5 prevention of variations(

S"*%"ific%"i(n %n%,!i! -*(ce'*e4

Collect data a#out any pro#lem in product5 defects

Consider potentially significant way of grouping data stratification; on #asis of factors

experienced

"epeat data through graphic manner reflecting stratification

'nalyse results and try new grouping, if necessary, to get insight into the pro#lem andma!e evident the correlation(

Collect data a#out any pro#lem in product5defects,etc

'nalyse results and try new grouping, if necessary,

to get insight into the pro#lem and ma!e evident

the correlation

"epeat data through graphic manner reflectingstratification

Consider potentially significant way of groupingdata stratification; on #asis of factors experienced


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Sc%""e* 'i%/*%4

The scatter diagram is a simple graphical device to depict the relationship #etween two

varia#les(

' scatter diagram is composed of a hori/ontal axis containing the measured values of one

varia#le and a vertical axis, representing the measurements of the varia#le(

This diagram displays the paired data as a cloud of points( The density and direction of

the cloud indicate how the two varia#les influence each other(

This diagram cannot prove that one varia#le causes the other, #ut they do indicate the

existence of a relationship as well as the strength of that relationship(

Diffe*en" ",-e! (f !c%""e* 'i%/*% -%""e*n!4

Strong +ositive Correlation: The value of A clearly increases as the value of B increases(

Strong Negative Correlation: The value of A clearly decreases as the value of B

increases(

9ea! +ositive Correlation: The value of A increases slightly as the value of B increases(


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9ea! Negative Correlation: The value of A decreases slightly as the value of B increases(

Complex Correlation: The value of A seems to #e related to the value of B, #ut therelationship is not easily determined(

No Correlation: there is any demonstrated connection #etween the two varia#les(


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5*-(!e (f !c%""e* 'i%/*%4

The purpose of the scatter diagram is, therefore, to display what happens to one varia#le when

another varia#le is changed(

This diagram is used to understand, why particular variations occur and how they can #econtrolled(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f %n !c%""e* 'i%/*%4

Select varia#les which are related to each other

Collect data

Create scatter diagram

B 'xis cause or independent varia#le

A 'xis &ffect or dependent varia#le

&xamine the shape of cloud of points

etermine the type and strength of the mutual relationship(

C(n"*( ch%*"4 ' control chart is a graph that displays data ta!en over time and the variations of this

data( ' control chart illustrates the dynamic performance of the process( This is #ased on a series

of random samples ta!en at regular intervals(

T,-e! (f c(n"*( ch%*"4

Control chart for varia#les 6 for measura#le data eg: timeControl chart for characteristics 6 for quantifia#le data such as num#er of defects

5*-(!e (f C(n"*( ch%*"4

The purpose of control chart is to identify when the process has gone out ofstatistical control, thus signaling the need for some corrective action to #e ta!en(

The general form of control chart:


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#. Explain the $ew Seven %anagement &ools?

$ew seven management tools"i( 'ffinity iagram

ii( Interrelationship igraphiii( Tree iagramiv( %atrix iagramv( +rioriti/ation %atricesvi( +rocess ecision +rogram Chart

vii( 'ctivity Networ! diagram

Affini", 'i%/*%4

'n affinity diagram is a tool to collect a large amount of ver#al expressions and organi/e

then in according to natural relationship #etween individual items( This diagram is also referred to as a * diagram after its inventor iro *awa!ita(

This is a special !ind of #rainstorming tool(

5*-(!e (f %ffini", 'i%/*%4

To provide a visual representation of large amount of ideas(

To determine logical priorities(

To extract the large amount of useful information from few or scattered data, or from

unrelated ideas(

To understand and organi/e pro#lems that is not clear(

To create new concepts(

5*(ce'*e "( c(n!"*c" Affini", 'i%/*%4 Identify the pro#lem and phrase it without #iases

rainstorm ideas and opinions, individually and record on the cards

Sort cards into groups and discard those with no affinity

8a#el the groups and organi/e the cards under then to form chart

'nalyse the results and plan action-points

Re%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%4


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"elationship diagram is a tool fro finding causes to a pro#lem( The #asic logic #ehind the

tool is the same as those of the cause and effect diagram( This diagram not only clarifies the

relationship #etween cause and effect #ut also #etween the various causes( It is a graphicalrepresentation of all factors in a complicated pro#lem, system or situation(

5*-(!e (f *e%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%4

To generate a visual representation of the relations #etween an affect and its cause as well asthe inter relationship #etween the different causes of the pro#lem(

This tool can #e used to

Identify !ey pro#lem from a list of important pro#lemsD

Identify the root cause of existing pro#lemsD

Identify !ey factors needed to ma!e a decision(

D*%f"in/ *e%"i(n!hi- 'i%/*%4

Identify and decide the effect of the pro#lem( 9rite it in the centre of a #oard and enclose

it in a dar! #ordered rectangle(

Conduct #rainstorming to identify the immediate causes of effect( Note down these

causes in rectangle around the centre dar! rectangle(

Connect these immediate causes to the effect #y connecting the rectangles of the causes

to that of the effect with a line( This line has an arrow pointing towards the effect(

The elements of the rectangle with the most outgoing arrows will indicate the root causes(

Those one with the most incoming arrows will #e !ey outcomes or results(

T*ee 'i%/*%4

' tree diagram systematically #rea!s down a topic into its components elements and shows thelogical and sequential lin!s #etween these elements( The tree diagram systematically outlines the

complete spectrum of paths and tas!s that must #e carried out to achieve a goal(

U!e! (f "*ee 'i%/*%4

The purpose of tree diagram is to explore the ways and means to achieve the o#.ective,

develop a list of alternative means and to present them in visual understanda#le form( It helps to develop a systematic, step #y step, strategy to achieve an o#.ective(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f "*ee 'i%/*%.

State the pro#lem to #e studied

rainstorm all possi#le causes or methods of addressing the pro#lem(

Identify and list the primary, secondary and tertiary means from #rainstorm

'rrange and rearrange the elements in proper order in #oxes(

M%"*i7 'i%/*%4

' matrix diagram is a tool that is used to systematically organi/e information that must #e

compared on a variety of characteristics in order to ma!e a comparison, selection or choice(

It is a tool which the relations #etween two sets of factors in the form of a ta#le or a matrix(

%atrix diagram, sometimes referred as a Equality ta#leF, is the starting point in #uilding a Ehouseof qualityF

D*%f"in/ %"*i7 'i%/*%.

$irst decide on the two sets of factors to #e compared(

+lace the main factors vertically on the left hand side of the matrix and the dependent

factors hori/ontally on top of the matrix(


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In the main #ody of the matrix, place appropriate sym#ols at the intersecting square

#oxes denoting the relationship #etween the two factors(

Now score relationships and select most important relationship for analysis(

Deci!i(n "*ee4

' +rocess ecision +rogramme Chart ++C;, also !nown as decision tree, is a planning

tool to outline every conceiva#le and li!ely occurrence in any planning( The ++C forces proactive thin!ing on what can go wrong with oneGs plan and what

would one do to overcome the effect of such adverse occurrences(

This tool helps to anticipate undesira#le occurrences and ena#les one to prepare with

plans to neutralise their effect(

U!e! (f 'eci!i(n "*ee4

The ++C is useful when one wants to plan all possi#le chains of events that might occur

during a pro.ect(

This tool is particularly used in new product development, #uilding and equipment and

data processing programs(

This tool is widely used in decision ma!ing when the tas! is new, complex and unique(C(n!"*c"i(n (f 'eci!i(n "*ee4

$irst, prepare a EnormalF flow chart of the process with all expected events as steps in the

chart(

Identify the various possi#ilities of the process not going as per the plan due to any

a#normal occurrences(

9rite these occurrences on the flow chart through #ranching at appropriate locations(

Now identify the ways and means to counter the effect due to a#normal occurrences(

9rite these counter-measures in rectangles connecting the corresponding a#normal

occurrence on one side and the process o#.ective on the other(

A**() 'i%/*%4

'n arrow diagram is a graphic description of the sequential steps that must #e completed #eforea pro.ect can #e completed( The +&"T +rogram &valuation and "eview Technique; and C+%Critical +ath %ethod; charts are the #est !nown arrow diagram( It is a planning tool that

determines the critical path of a process or a pro.ect(

U!e! (f A**() 'i%/*%4

To show the paths to complete a pro.ect(

To find the shortest time possi#le for the pro.ect(

To display graphically simultaneous activities(

This diagram is indispensa#le for long term pro.ects(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f A**() 'i%/*%4

Identify and list each activity to #e done in the pro.ect(

etermine the sequence of activities

Construct a networ! reflecting the precedence relationships

9rite the activity time under arrow leading from it(

M%"*i7 '%"% An%,!i! 'i%/*%4

' matrix data analysis diagram is very much similar to a matrix diagram with a difference

that numerical data is used instead of sym#ols indicating the existence and strength of


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relationship( It is the only tool among the ENew Seven %anagement ToolsF which uses

numerical data and produces numerical results(

U!e! (f M%"*i7 '%"% An%,!i! 'i%/*%4

To present numerical data a#out two sets of factors in a matrix form and analyses it to get

numerical output(

This tool is used in E+rincipal Component 'nalysisF where only two characteristics can#e studied at a time(

This tool is advantageous in studying the parameters of production processes, in

analy/ing mar!et information, in finding lin!s #etween numerical and non-numerical

varia#les and so on(

C(n!"*c"i(n (f M%"*i7 '%"% An%,!i! 'i%/*%4

ecide the two factors whose relations are to #e analysed

Chec! the num#er of individual items in the two factors

+repare a matrix to accommodate all items of the two factors

&nter numerical data in the matrix

'nalyse the final results

'. Explain the (on(epts of Six Sigma?

Six Sigma" Six-Sigma is a #usiness process that allows organi/ations to drastically improve their#ottom line #y designing and monitoring every day #usiness activities in ways that minimi/ewaste and resources while increasing customer satisfaction( It is achieved through continuousprocess measurement, analysis H improvement(

S"e-! "( %chie9e !i7 !i/% !"%"e4 Step1: Identify the process you create or service you provide(

Step): Identify the customers for your product or service and determine what they consider

important( Step2: Identify your needs to provide the product or service that satisfies the customer(

Step3: efine the process for doing the wor!(

Step4: %ista!e-+roof the process and eliminate waste effort( Step: &nsure continuous improvement #y measuring, analy/ing and controlling the improved

process(

). Explain the *en(h mar+ing !ro(ess an, reasons to *en(hmar+?

:ench%*in/ 4 enchmar!ing is the process of determining who is the very #est, who sets the standard, andwhat that standard is( enchmar!ing can provide them with data to show what can #e achieved

and how can #e achieved(

O;


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It aims at external orientation of the company(

It aims at identifying a technological #rea!through(

It aims at searching for industry #est practices(

T,-e! (f :ench%*in/4

C%!!ific%"i(n ;%!e' (n "he O;


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:enefi"! (f ?MEA4

Improve +roduct5 +rocess relia#ility and quality(

Increase customer satisfaction

&arly identification and elimination of potential product5process failure modes(

+rioriti/e +roduct5+rocess deficiencies(

Capture engineering5organi/ation !nowledge

ocument and trac! the actions ta!en to reduce ris!(

+rovide focus for improved testing and development(

%inimi/e late changes and associated cost(

'ct as catalyst for teamwor! and idea exchange #etween functions(

S"%/e! (f ?MEA e"h('((/,4

S"%/e14Specifying +ossi#ilitiesa( $unctions #( +ossi#le failure modes c( "oot causes d( &ffectse( etection5+revention

S"%/e24Juantifying "is!

a( +ro#a#ility of cause #( Severity of effect c( &ffectiveness of control to prevent caused( "is! priority num#er

S"%/e#4Correcting igh "is! Causesa( +rioriti/ing wor! #( etailed action c( 'ssigning action responsi#ilityd( Chec! points on completion

S"%/e+4"e-evaluation of "is!a( "ecalculation of ris! priority num#er

sivan unit iii tqm

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