TITLE PAGE

EFFECT OF COMMUNICATIVE METHOD ON STUDENTS’ACHIEVEMENT AND INTEREST IN IGBO LETTER WRITING

BY

OMEJE, MONICA OBIAGELIPG/Ph.D/98/26001

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THEDEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIANSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION

SUPERVISOR: PROF. (MRS.) G. C. OFFORMA

JANUARY, 2009

1

CERTIFICATION

OMEJE, MONICA O., a postgraduate student in the Department of Arts

Education, with Registration Number PG/Ph.D/98/26001 has satisfactorily

completed the requirements for research work for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Language Education. The work embodied in this project is

original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other Diploma or Degree

of this or any other university.

______________________Omeje, Monica Obiageli

Student

________________________ ________________________ Prof. G. C. Offorma Dr F. A. Okwo

Supervisor Head of Department

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APPROVAL PAGE

This project has been read and approved for the Department of Arts

Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

By

___________________ ______________________________ Prof. G. C. Offorma Dr (Mrs.) Uju Umo

Supervisor Internal Reader

___________________ ______________________________ Prof. T. N. Kanno Dr F. A. Okwo External Examiner Head, Department of Arts Education

___________________________Prof. G. C. Offorma

Dean, Faculty of Education

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to

my heavenly mother – Mary

whose constant intercession made the completion

of this research work a reality.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work could not have been a reality if I was left alone to do it. I most

humbly express my gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Grace C. Offorma for her

cooperation, help and expert advice during the tempting and difficult times of this

thesis. She was ever ready to help me with all diligence and devotion in the course

of this research work.

I acknowledge with gratitude the contributions of Prof. S. A. Ezeudu, and

Prof. I. U. Nwadike. They were my readers during the proposal stage, and

provided some of the materials needed for this research work. My gratitude also

goes to Dr. Uju Umo, who was my content reader, and who offered relevant

corrections during and after my Ph.D. seminar.

Dr. F. A. Okwo, Head, Department of Arts Education deserves a special

commendation for his invaluable suggestions, comments and constructive

criticisms throughout the period of this research work. He was of immense help at

the initial stage of this study when my supervisor was outside the country. He is

ever disposed to listen and help his students and this brings succour to many

people.

I thank my friend, Dr. (Mrs.) P. N. Uzoegwu for her moral support. Her

good counseling was the morale booster that propelled me to finish this research.

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I equally wish to thank the principals, all the Igbo language teachers and

students of the schools I used for the study, for their cooperation. To many who

contributed towards the completion of this work, too numerous to mention here, I

will ever remain grateful.

I am most indebted to my ever loving and caring husband, Barrister C. P.

Omeje who has been a source of inspiration to me. His love and encouragement to

me, both financially and academically helped to make this research work a reality.

I appreciate in a special way the love and support of my children – Uchenna,

Nonso, Nnamdi, Martin, Chinaemerem, Chibuike and Onyinyechi.

Finally, I am greatly indebted to my sisters and brothers for their kind

support, prayers and encouragement during the course of my study.

Above all, I am most grateful to God Almighty for His mercies upon me.

Omeje, Monica Obiageli (Mrs.)

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Table of Contents

TITLE PAGE - - - - - - - - i

CERTIFICATION - - - - - - ii

APPROVAL PAGE - - - - - - - - iii

DEDICATION - - - - - - - - iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - - - - - - - v

TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - - vii

LIST OF TABLES - - - - - - - - xi

ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study - - - - - - - - 1

Statement of the Problem- - - - - - - - 13

Purpose of the Study- - - - - - - - - 14

Significance of the Study - - - - - - - - 15

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Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - - 17

Research Questions - - - - - - - - 18

Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - - 19

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE - - 21

Conceptual Framework - - - - - - - - 22

The Concept of language / the place of Igbo Language in Nigerian Education System - - - - - 22

Philosophical basis of teaching and learning Igbo letter writing in schools - - - - - - - - 27

The Concept of Letter writing - - - - - - 32

Methods of teaching Letter Writing in Igbo Language - - 39

Problems of teaching and learning letter writing in Igbo language 46

The Concept of Communicative Teaching Method - - - 50

An Overview of the indigenous Communicative Teaching Approach 68

Interest as a factor in language learning - - - - 72

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The Influence of Gender in Language Learning - - - 74

The Influence of School Location in Language Learning - - 77

Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - - 79

Language learning theories and Methods - - - - 79

Review of Related Empirical Studies - - - - - - 89

Summary of Literature Review - - - - - - - 94

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD - - - - 96

Design of the study - - - - - - - - - 96

Area of the Study - - - - - - - - - 96

Population of the Study - - - - - - - - 97

Sample and Sampling Technique - - - - - - 97

Instrument for Data Collection - - - - - - - 98

Validation of the Instruments - - - - - - - 99

Reliability of the Instruments - - - - - - - 100

Experimental Procedure - - - - - - - - 101

Control of Extraneous Variables - - - - - - - 105

Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - 108

Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - - 109

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS - - - - - - 110

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION, EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS - 121

Discussion - - - - - - - - - - 121

Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - 129

Educational Implications - - - - - - - - 131

Recommendations of the Study - - - - - - - 132

Limitations of the Study - - - - - - - - 133

Suggestions for Further Research - - - - - - 134

Summary of the Study - - - - - - - - 134

REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - 138

APPENDICES:

A: Questionnaire - - - - - - - - 148

B: Possible Items for Achievement Test in Igbo Letter Writing - 149

C: Achievement Test in Igbo Language for Pre-Test/Posttest - 150

D: Marking Scheme for the Pre-Test/Posttest - - - 151

E: Rating - - - - - - - - - 152

F: Igbo Language Interest Inventory (ILII) - - - - 153

G: Lesson Notes for the Experimental Group - - - 154

H: Lesson Notes for the Control Group - - - - 159

I: Coefficient of Concordance (W) - - - - - 163

J: Reliability Analysis of Interest Scale - - - - 164

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K: List of Schools used for the Study - - - - - 166

L: Scale and Scoring Format for ILII - - - - - 167

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Distribution of sample by gender and location 98

2 Pre/Post Achievement mean () score of students taught letter writing using communicative method and conventional method 110

3 Pre/Post test mean () achievement scores of male and female students taught letter writing in Igbo language 111

4 Mean () achievement and Gain scores of Urban and Rural Students in letter writing in Igbo language. 111

5 Pre/post test mean () interest scores of students taught letter writing in Igbo language. 112

6 Pre/post test mean interest scores of male and female students taught letter writing in Igbo language 113

7 Pre/post test mean interest scores of urban and rural students in letter writing in Igbo language 114

8 Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of students’ post achievement scores in Igbo letter writing by treatment, method, gender and location

115

9 9 Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of students

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interest scores by method, gender and location

13

118ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to find out the effect of communicative method on

students’ achievement and interest in Igbo letter writing. The influence of gender

and school location on the effectiveness of method was also explored. Six research

questions and ten hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. A quasi-

experimental research design was employed. The type was non-equivalent control

group design. Population of the study consisted of SS II students in all the

secondary schools within Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State. The population

of SS II students in Nsukka Education Zone in the 2006/2007 academic session

was approximately nineteen thousand, five hundred and three (19,503) according

to the Planning, Research and Statistics (PRS) Unit of Post-Primary Schools

Management Board, Nsukka Zonal Office. The sample size comprised of 174 SS

II students. Using stratified random sampling technique, two schools were selected

from urban and rural areas respectively. In each selected school, one arm of SS II

was randomly selected and assigned to treatment condition. While one urban

school was assigned to experimental group, the other one was assigned to control

group. The same was done for the rural schools. The experimental group was

taught with communicative teaching method while the control group was taught

with the conventional lecture method. Treatment lasted for four weeks. Two

instruments used for data collection were face validated; and their reliability index

14

are 0.6 and 0.8 respectively. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to

analyse the data collected from this study. Major findings of the study are: (1)

Communicative teaching method had significant effect on students’ achievement in

Igbo letter writing; (2) Gender had no significant effect on achievement and

interest of students in letter writing in Igbo language; (3) School location had a

significant effect on students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing. The influence on

the interest of the students was not significant; (4) Interaction effect of teaching

method and gender on both achievement and interest of students in letter writing in

Igbo language was not significant; (5) Interaction effect of teaching method and

school location on both achievement and interest of students in letter writing in

Igbo language was not significant. Suggestions for further studies based on the

findings of the study include the replication of this study in other branches of Igbo

language learning such as reading (Agụmagụ) and grammar (ụtọ asụsụ). It was

recommended among other things that since this method is relatively new in the

teaching of Igbo language, secondary school Igbo teachers should be made familiar

with the method through workshops and seminars organized by the Government

and other agencies like the Society for the Promotion of Igbo Language and

Culture (SPILC).

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the StudyThe phenomenon of language is natural to man. Language is one of the

factors that distinguishes human race from the lower animals (Azikiwe, 1998). It

is man’s most basic tool without which it will be difficult for man to live and

interact together. Language is also a means of social control, an instrument which

enables us to communicate our thoughts. This implies that language is a means of

conveying meaning which has become accepted and systematized through a long

period of use.

Kodilinye (1972) noted that language is a master key to the treasure house of

a people’s cultural heritage, and where it is not fully developed and cultivated, it

reacts on the people and retards their achievement and the expression of their

individuality. In recognition of the role of language in expressing the people’s

culture, the International Institute of African Languages and Culture (1930) at

Rome stated that every child must learn to love and respect his culture. One way

of doing this is through the use of language.

People can best show their identity and individuality by the use of language.

A person cannot understand another person’s thought until it is expressed in a

language. Okonkwo (1972) believes that no language can be more appropriate for

self-expression than the natural language which is the mother-tongue of a people.

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This is the language that comes almost spontaneously and imperceptibly and grows

out of the natural environment of the speaker. According to Adiele in Nwadike

(2002:6), “a race whose language cannot be used for literary and serious purposes

has no real identity, the race is decadent.” He went further to say that the most

conclusive conquest of a people is the conquest through language. Nwadike

(2002) equally says that the most essential asset of a people is their own language –

their mother tongue. According to him, no people under normal circumstances

would want their mother tongue to die, for it is after all the language that makes

them an ethnic entity or nation. Without a language of its own, a nation becomes

merged and lost in the foreign group whose language it is forced to speak. With its

own language, a nation identifies itself and ensures its perpetuation. It is those

languages, which are taught widely in schools as written languages that will

survive and develop.

In view of the above fact, the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) in the

National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004:6) states clearly that –

In addition to appreciating the importance of language in the educational process and as a means of preserving the people’s culture, the government considers it to be in the interest of national unity that each child should be encouraged to learn one of the three major indigenous languages other than his own mother tongue.

Government in the same policy considers the three major indigenous languages to

be Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. Through this way, Igbo language emerged as an

17

academic discipline, and a core subject at the Senior Secondary Education level,

which students must pass before graduation. Still appreciating the use of mother

tongue in educating the child, the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004:7) on

nursery education states that – “the medium of instruction should be principally the

mother tongue or the language of the immediate community.” This in our own

case is the Igbo language.

Though recognized in schools, the use of English language as a second

language in the country, and the language of interaction among the different ethnic

groups in the society makes people to look down on the study of indigenous

languages like Igbo. The consequence of this is that many Nigerians equate formal

education with the knowledge of English language. Naturally, this led to the poor

attitude exhibited by students towards Igbo language study. Furthermore, the non-

inclusion of Igbo language as a pre-requisite for entrance into institutions of higher

learning in Nigeria also contributed to the less interest shown by students towards

the study of the subject. Also, playing a major role in this regard is the false sense

of value. Since Igbo language is the mother tongue, many students think that they

have known it all, and that it is an easy subject and so, they show little or no

interest in its study.

Letter writing is an integral part of essay writing in any Igbo language study

and this has been shown to be the greatest problem area for students in

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examinations. The West African Examination Council (WAEC) Chief Examiners’

Report of 1997 reads that

… candidates’ performance did not reflect the good standard of the questions. They performed far below expectation. It was evident that most of the schools either did not have qualified Igbo language teachers or had teachers who were not prepared to teach. Lack of seriousness on the part of the candidates also contributed to their poor performance, … lack of attention to proper use of diacritic marks robbed the candidates of vital marks. It was also observed that many candidates did not know the difference between what they speak, and what they were expected to write. In other words, these groups of candidates wrote in their different dialects whereas they were expected to write in the standard Igbo…, this affected the essay questions more… (p. 26)

The Chief Examiners’ Report of 2005 further corroborated that of 1997 that

students’ performance in Igbo language is generally poor. The report indicates that

Candidates’ performance did not reflect the good nature of the questions; some of them were not well prepared for the examination…, their weaknesses showed in very poor handwriting resulting in illegibility; writing on irrelevant aspects of questions with regard to letter writing; writing less than the required length of essay, and use of dialects in writing (pp. 24-25).

From the WAEC reports cited, the students’ major weaknesses could be pointed

out as: inability to express themselves very well in the standard Igbo, poor

knowledge of grammatical rules, inability to put diacritic marks where necessary,

inability to understand questions, use of dialects in writing by many of them, and

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lack of seriousness on their part. These shortcomings pose a great problem to the

study of Igbo language in general, and letter writing in particular.

In order to find solutions to some of the problems confronting language

education, Wilkins (1983) stated the need to evaluate methods according to their

success in providing real competence in language. Competence in Igbo language

implies ability to speak and write the standard Igbo freely without ambiguity and

devoid of dialectal interference. Standard Igbo according to Emenanjo (1988) is

the Igbo that is generally accepted and understood by all Igbo speaking people

irrespective of dialectal differences. It is a collection of different Igbo dialects

hence no persons, or groups can lay claim to it as the original speakers of the

language. That is the language that is being learned and taught in schools.

Standard Igbo is the language students are expected to use in writing their

examinations, especially their essays and letters. However, evidence from the

WAEC reports already cited reveals that many students have no mastery of

standard Igbo, and this contributes to students’ poor achievement in Igbo language.

The mastery of any language implies correct usage at the grammatical,

phonological and semantic levels. Letter writing is an important aspect of Igbo

language study, which exposes students to these aspects of language skills namely

– grammatical, phonological and semantic rules as applicable to the language. In

support of this fact as it were, Ogbalu (1972:6) stated that “letter writing is very

20

important for testing a student’s command of the language; students should be able

to write letters with ease and the usual rules for letter writing should be observed.”

Some of these rules include:

Ide adresị (writing of address)

Itinye akara ntụpọ n’ebe okwesiri (correct use of diacritic marks)

Ide adresi abụọ maka leta anamachọihe (writing of two addresses for formal

letters)

Idezi isiokwu mbunuuche (choosing correct titles for formal letters)

Ihazi edemleta n’ụdị mmalite, obi/etiti na mmechi (organizing the work in

the form of introduction, body of the letter and closing)

Idezi ihe na nkeji na nkeji (organizing your points in paragraphs)

Iji ezigbo Igbo izugbe were dee leta (using standard Igbo to write your letter)

Since essay writing generally exposes students to the grammatical,

phonological and semantic rules of a language since letter writing is very important

for testing a student’s command of the language, it naturally follows that these

aspects of Igbo language study should be taught well in schools by the teachers if

students are to improve their achievement and interest in the subject. This is very

necessary because it has been posited that the lack of interest shown by students

towards the study of Igbo language is not inherent in the subject itself (Umo, 2000)

but could be traced to among other factors, teachers’ use of inappropriate methods

21

and materials in teaching. Poor teaching method has been cited earlier as one of

the problems confronting effective teaching and learning of Igbo language in

schools since its introduction as a school subject. The method that is dominantly

used by most Igbo language teachers in teaching virtually all aspects of Igbo

language study is the lecture or conventional method. This method is teacher-

centred, and that makes students passive listeners in the class. The conventional

method is subject-matter oriented and uninspiring to students. Its emphasis is on

cognitive performance especially as it affects memorization and simple recall of

facts which students are not interested in. The conventional method deprives the

students virtually of all responsibilities for using their own mental abilities to

compare and decide what is important to learn. It overlooks the individual

differences of the learners, and denies them adequate and prompt attention of the

teacher. WAEC Annual Report (2005) also attributes students’ poor achievement

and interest in Igbo language to poor teaching method, which invariably leads to

poor performance in examinations.

It is believed by researchers (Okorie, 1984; Azikiwe, 1989; and Umo, 2000)

that students may become more interested and invariably achieve higher in Igbo

language examinations if learner-centred active methods replace the teacher-

centred passive ones. One of such learner-centred active methods is the

communicative teaching method which is the focus of this research work. The

22

communicative teaching method is an alternative approach to language teaching.

It is a method which aims at equipping learners with the necessary communicative

competence. The method emphasizes communication in the target language of the

learner. Communicative teaching method is learner-oriented and involves all the

four language skills; listening, speaking, reading and writing. The goal of this

method is to achieve fluency in the target language, therefore, the method helps the

learners of a language to understand and express themselves in the language.

According to Offorma (2000), communicative teaching method emanated from the

understanding that the essence of learning a language is for communication and not

for learning of grammatical rules. In language teaching, this method tries to bring

into the classroom the learners’ life-experiences and relates what they experience

outside the school to what they do in the school. The learners’ needs guide how

the lesson contents are selected in the use of communicative method, because the

aim is to help the learners become competent users of the target language which in

this case is the standard Igbo. The teacher’s duty is to make the learners acquire

the basic knowledge of the language and so be able to express themselves in the

language. The teacher can do this by handling the different aspects of the language

such as grammar, lexis and phonology simultaneously.

Communicative teaching method has some peculiar characteristics for it to

be effectively employed. One of such characteristics according to Offorma (2000)

23

is the rapport between the teacher and the learner. Language teachers must be

ready to work hard to motivate the learners through the learning experiences

presented to them. This, they can do by presenting to the class lively activities like

finding out missing information, discovering differences and reconstructing story

sequence that will involve active participation of the learners, so as to arouse and

maintain the learners’ interest in Igbo language. As a result of this rapport, the

learners look forward to participating in future class activities.

Another characteristic of the communicative teaching method is the fact that

linguistic forms such as vocabulary and grammar are no more the focal points of

study but they become instruments used to achieve the speech acts. Thus, the

learners learn how to use the relevant grammatical forms of the language before

even knowing their functions. The teacher then uses the speech acts to fix the

grammatical rules in the learners’ memory, since the essence is for communication.

The knowledge of linguistic forms and structures is applied in determining

meaning and in communication. What is learnt is supposed to be used in real life

situation by the learners and not just for the purpose of examination.

Based on the above characteristics, it becomes obvious that every language

lesson could be made communicative depending on the way the teacher handles it.

In line with this fact, Osakwe (2003) presented what she called ‘The Indigenous

Communicative Teaching Approach (ICTA)’. The ICTA according to Osakwe

24

(2003) is an adaptation of the communicative teaching method to suit the special

interests of Nigerians in various environments in teaching not just the English

language but all school subjects. It encourages the teacher to be creative and

sensitive to the special needs of the learner. The teacher adjusts and reworks the

scheme of work to suit the interest and ability level of the learner. He is

encouraged to generate teaching materials from local sources. The ICTA can be

applied in teaching all school subjects. Some of its characteristics as presented by

Osakwe (2003:9) include:

(1) It is Leaner-Centred: This means that the learners are active

participants in the teaching and learning process.

(2) It is Task-Based: This means that learners are mostly engaged in

problem-solving activities.

(3) It is Interaction-Based: An interaction-based lesson achieves its

objectives through group discussion and the collaborative efforts of

learners.

(4) It is Communication-Based: This means that the content of each

lesson must be meaningful to the learner in such a way that the lesson

relates classroom information to information outside, which learners

are already familiar with.

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Nichols (1978) sees methods as probably the most obvious part of the

curriculum when one gets into the school. According to him, the worth of any

given method depends on the extent to which it succeeds in engendering interest

and performance in a subject. Interest in a subject according to Okoye (1981) is an

emotionally oriented behavioural trait which determines a pupil’s vim and vigor in

tackling educational or other activities. Agwagah (1993) stated that interest

concerns preferences for particular types of activities and that it is a tendency to

seek out and participate in certain activities. There is therefore the need to

emphasize interest in learning activities both in learning outcomes and in subject

areas. This also involves assessing interest of learners in subjects which they are

exposed. This is very important in Igbo language study because according to

Afigbo (1971), an overwhelming majority of the educated Igbo cannot read or

write correctly in Igbo language. Also, many students do not attach much

importance to Igbo language study since it is not a pre-requisite for entry into the

universities and other higher institutions as compared to English language.

Furthermore, linguistic performance is said to differ according to gender

(Umo, 2000). There has not been any conclusive evidence as regards gender-gap

in comprehension and expression in any language. Some studies believe that

females have upper hand over males in linguistic aptitude (Nash, 1979), other

studies show that males perform better than females in language study (Uzoegwu,

26

2004). Yet, there are other studies that found no sex difference between male and

female in linguistic understanding in English language (Johnson & Harley, 1980).

Following this trend, it seems that gender gap in linguistic aptitude in any language

remains unclear hence the question of whether communicative method should

show any gender gap with respect to Igbo language becomes crucial.

Apart from gender, linguistic performance is said to differ according to

school location. Location refers to the influence of environment on learning.

According to Caning (1977), general theories of learning and the conditions under

which learning takes place effectively ought to be of vital concern to the teacher.

Rural and urban circumstances present different stimulations for the learner. Many

studies have been carried out to investigate the effect of location on achievement

and interest of learners (Eneh, 2002). While some say that there is no basis for

location differences, many agree that rural and urban subjects achieve differently.

Based on this assumption, there is need for further studies on the issue of influence

of school location on the achievement and interest of students in languages.

From all that have been discussed, it could be deduced that the method a

teacher adopts in teaching to some extent contributes to students’ level of

achievement and interest in that subject. Letter writing is a skill that should be

learnt by students in the school. Students should possess good knowledge of the

standard Igbo before they can write good letters in Igbo language. One way of

27

achieving this fact is by the use of communicative method which aims at equipping

the learner with the necessary communicative competence in the target language

which is the standard Igbo. Moreover, because of the importance attached to letter

writing in any language examination, there is every need for teachers to adopt

suitable teaching methods that will enable students to acquire the skill effectively,

hence, this research work which tries to compare the effect of communicative

method on students’ achievement and interest in Igbo letter writing.

Statement of ProblemStudents’ achievement in letter writing at Senior School Certificate

Examinations has been generally poor (Chief Examiners’ Report: 2005). This low

level of achievement has been attributed primarily to poor teaching methods (Umo,

2000). The method that is often used by Igbo language teachers is the lecture

method. This method makes students passive listeners in the class as indicated

earlier. More so, the lecture method does not allow teachers to adapt learning to

the level of students’ understanding (Mkpa, 1987).

The poor achievement of students in Igbo letter writing may also be

attributed to poor knowledge of the standard Igbo. The WAEC Chief Examiners’

Report (2005:16) in Igbo language stated that “many students could not express

themselves in the standard Igbo…, candidates went straight into answering the

questions without properly understanding them…, some of them were not well

28

prepared for the examination.” From this report, students’ major weakness could

be their inability to express themselves very well in the standard Igbo.

Although the use of communicative teaching method has been tried in

subjects like English and French languages, its effectiveness is yet to be

determined in the study of Igbo language generally, and letter writing in particular.

Also, no study to the best of the researcher’s knowledge explored the effect of the

communicative method on students’ interest in Igbo language.

Based on the foregoing, therefore, the problem of this study put in question

form is: what is the effect of the communicative method on students’ achievement

and interest in letter writing in Igbo language?

Purpose of StudyThe purpose of this study is to find out the effects of the communicative

teaching method on students’ achievement and interest in letter writing in Igbo

language.

Specifically, the study aims at:

1. determining the achievement of the students taught letter writing

using communicative teaching method and lecture method;

2. finding out the effect of sex on the achievement of students taught

letter writing in Igbo language using the communicative method;

29

3. finding out the effect of location on the achievement of students

taught letter writing in Igbo language using the communicative

method;

4. determining the effect of communicative method on students’ interest

in letter writing in Igbo language;

5. finding out the effect of gender on the interest of students taught letter

writing in Igbo language using the communicative method;

6. determining the effect of location on the interest of students taught

letter writing in Igbo language using communicative method;

7. determining the interaction effect of communicative method and

gender on students’ achievement and interest in letter writing in Igbo

language;

8. determining the interaction effect of communicative method and

location on students’ achievement and interest in letter writing in Igbo

language.

Significance of the StudyThe teaching of Igbo language since its introduction as a school subject has

continued to suffer a lot of problems which hamper students’ achievement in the

subject. One of such problems is teacher’s use of inappropriate methods in

teaching almost all the aspects of the language which include letter writing.

30

Essay writing generally (of which letter writing is a part) is very important

for testing students’ command of a language. This is because it exposes students to

both the phonological and grammatical rules as applicable to the language. If

students are to improve their achievement in Igbo language, it is proper that they

be adequately taught letter writing by using the appropriate teaching method.

Hence, this study which tries to find out the effect of a teaching method on

students’ achievement is hoped to provide succor for Igbo language teachers by

empirically providing an instructional method that will improve students’

achievement in Igbo language generally and letter writing in particular. This is

very important because the use of teaching method that appeal to students will

increase the learners’ active participation in the lesson which consequently leads to

an overall improvement of students’ performance in the language.

Curriculum planners may find the result of the study useful when trying to

match curriculum objectives with appropriate methods of instruction.

If this method turns out to be effective, teachers may even start using it right

from primary school level to teach pupils and increase their interest in Igbo letter

writing. This in no small way, will boost the study of Igbo language as a whole

because according to Nwadike (2002), students learn more when they are

interested in a subject, and the method of study is favourable to them. If at the

early stages of education, pupils were made to play active role in the teaching and

31

learning through the use of communicative method, their interest towards the study

of Igbo language generally will be developed.

Through the findings of this study, educational administrators and principals

of schools may become aware of the benefits of communicative teaching method,

and so encourage teachers in their school to start using the method in teaching the

students especially the essays and letter writings. Textbook writers may become

aware of the merits of this method through the findings of this research, and may

start creating this awareness to people by including contents that require the use of

communicative teaching method in their textbooks.

Scope of the StudyThe study focused on the effect of communicative method on students’

achievement and interest in letter writing in Igbo language. Letter writing is very

broad in terms of content development. It is divided into two main types – formal

and informal types of letter writing. While the informal type of letter writing deals

with personal and private letters, the formal type is more of official letters like

application, excuse duty, business letters and so on. A formal letter was chosen for

this study because the researcher felt it would contribute in drilling the students to

the proper use of the standard Igbo. This is because in formal letters, the language

of expression is strictly official language, which is the standard Igbo. Formal

letters do not give room for jokes or use of dialectical slangs, as is the case with

informal letter. Since formal type of Igbo letter writing is equally very broad in

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terms of topics to be treated, the researcher limited her teaching to only four topics

based on the formal type of letter writing in Igbo language. The topics are:

(a) Nkọwa edemede leta anamaachọihe

(b) Degara ụlọọrụ na-arụpụta Mmanụ akwụkwọ ka ha were gị n’ọrụ dị ka o

debe ego.

(c) Degara onyeisi ụlọakwụkwọ gị leta rịọ ya maka ohere ịkwụsị akwụkwọ

abalị atọ. (Depụta ihe mere iji chọọ ohere a.)

(d) Degara onyeisi ụlọakwụkwọ gị leta mkpesa banyere mpụ na aghụghọ

ụmụ akwụkwọ na-eme n’ule n’ụlọ akwụkwọ unu.

These topics were drawn from the SSI Scheme of Work 2006/2007 academic year.

Research QuestionsThe following research questions guided the study:

1) What are the relative mean scores of students taught letter writing in Igbo

language using communicative teaching method and those taught using

the conventional method?

2) What are the relative mean achievement scores of male and female

students taught letter writing in Igbo language?

3) To what extent does location affect the mean achievement scores of

students in letter writing in Igbo language?

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4) What are the relative mean interest scores of students taught letter writing

in Igbo language using communicative teaching method and those taught

using the conventional method?

5) What are the relative mean interest scores of male and female students

taught letter writing in Igbo language?

6) To what extent does location affect the mean interest scores of students in

letter writing in Igbo language?

HypothesesThe following null hypotheses were tested at .05 level of significance:

1) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

students taught letter writing in Igbo language using communicative

teaching method and those taught using the conventional lecture method.

2) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male

and female students taught letter writing in Igbo language.

3) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

urban and rural students taught letter writing in Igbo language.

4) There is no significant interaction effect of instructional method and

gender on students’ mean achievement scores in letter writing in Igbo

language when they are taught with communicative teaching method.

5) There is no significant interaction effect of instructional method and

school location on students’ mean achievement scores in letter writing in

Igbo language using the communicative method.

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6) There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of students

taught letter writing in Igbo language using communicative teaching

method and those taught using conventional lecture method.

7) There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of male and

female students taught letter writing in Igbo language.

8) There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of urban and

rural students taught letter writing in Igbo language.

9) There is no significant interaction effect of instructional method and

gender on students’ mean interest scores in letter writing in Igbo

language when they are taught with communicative teaching method.

10) There is no significant interaction effect of instructional method and

school location on students’ mean interest scores in letter writing in Igbo

language using the communicative method.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Works related to this present study are reviewed under the following sub-headings:1. Conceptual Framework

The concept of language/the place of Igbo language in Nigerian Educational System.

Philosophical basis of teaching and learning Igbo letter writing in schools.

The concept of letter writing

Method of teaching letter writing in Igbo language

Problems of teaching and learning letter writing in Igbo language

The concept of communicative teaching method

An overview of the Indigenous Communicative Teaching Approach

Interest as a factor in language learning

The influence of Gender in language learning

The influence of Location in language learning

2. Theoretical Framework

Language learning theories and methods

3. Review of Related Empirical Studies

4. Summary of Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

36

The Concept of Language and the Place of Igbo LanguageIn Nigerian Education System

Language is a vital tool for man’s activities on earth. This belief is based on the fact that language is the main means of inculcating knowledge, skills and competencies. It is an indispensable tool for effective communication in any society and for the transmission of culture from generation to generation. Okonkwo (1972) sees language as the greatest transmitter of human intelligence. According to him, philosophies, ideologies, concepts, feelings are mere meaningless abstractions if there is no language to transform them to forms that could be digested by the human understanding. Poetry and literary works of all types are byproducts of language for they are emotions, ideas and experiences decked out in charming, touchy and intelligible languages. As poetry and other literary works depict to a great extent, the culture of a people, languages are therefore great vehicles of a people’s cultural heritage.

Igbo language like every other language is an instrument which binds the

people together, identifies them, and endows them with a distinct entity. It is a

medium for expressing in its own peculiar way and manner, the features of the

group of people who speak the language.

While other language groups around the world see in their mother tongues the

epitome of their being, the Igbo man appears to care less for his own language. It

is true that during the early days of Christian Missionary ventures, foreigners

played havoc and made nonsense of Igbo language and culture. Igbo names were

called heathen-names; Igbo dances and music were heathenish and inspired by

cannibalism. Unfortunately, out of ignorance the Igbo man accepted all that had

been heaped and piled upon him. Ibiam (1971) pointed out that:

We were and still are in the orbit of European culture and thinking, and until we can tear ourselves away from such an alien orbit, it would be difficult and almost impossible for us to reflect our thoughts, words and actions, our own culture and our special destiny in the world of hustle and fierce competition for the survival of the fittest… (p. 26)

37

The above points of Ibiam (1971) manifest itself clearly in the lives of the Igbo

even till today. Take for instance in the local names, in many cases, ‘h’ is affixed

after a name with a vowel to make it look English. Thus the following names are

common in Igbo:

Mbah for MbaEzeh for Eze

Okwor for Okwo

Ibeh for Ibe(SPILC, 1979)

Again, many of the place names do not look or sound like Igbo names. For instance, a word like ‘Onitsha’ the way we spell and pronounce it is not correct Igbo, rather it is ‘Ọnịcha’ (SPILC, 1979). Take other samples like:

Awgu instead of ‘Ọgwụ’Awka instead of ‘Ọka’Awkunanaw instead of ‘Ọkụnaanọ’

Even in speaking the language, it is extremely rare to hear people speak Igbo

completely without adulterating it with English words. This is unlike English; no

English man will spell ‘knife’ as ‘naife’; or ‘cuff’ for ‘cough’; to make it easy for a

foreigner. The non-English must learn and know how to spell and pronounce

every word in the English language or he or she fails. The above fact can be

attributed to ignorance and lack of pride and appreciation for our mother tongue –

the Igbo language (SPILC, 1979).

Based on the above facts, it is no exaggeration to say that Igbo language is a

victim of apathy. The irony of it all is that it is the Igbo themselves who are

38

largely responsible for the sorry state of affairs. This is because while the Igbo

man, especially the educated ones, find it fashionable to speak English; they

consider it less dignifying to use their mother tongue. In view of this, Ekechukwu

(1975:17) asserted that “it is not unusual to find even in the Igbo heartland that the

members of a family prefer to converse in a second language where they have

acquired one.” A possible explanation of this attitude is that the Igbo are highly

imitative people who are strongly attracted by the lure of the novel and the

unknown.

Nwadike (1992) noted that any race whose language is swallowed up cannot

be recognized. This statement shows that for any community or race to be

recognized as existing, it must have a language of its own. According to Ogbonna

(1987:21), “The importance of any language cannot be overemphasized… that is

why government in advanced societies has always placed emphasis on the

development of their languages even when such languages are not the lingua

franca.”

A situation like this where the indigenous language is not relegated to the

background is very important because a child gets to know the immediate members

of his family before his social horizon starts. In order to communicate effectively

in the home, the child has to learn the mother tongue, which is often referred to as

the first language. This first language serves as a launching pad for the study of

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other languages. This is not so with Igbo language where many families,

especially the educated ones, prefer to train their children in the second language –

the English language. The consequence of this behaviour is that the child becomes

a foreigner in his own land and most of his reasoning is done in a foreign language.

The importance of laying the strongest possible foundations for a language

during the first fifteen years of life cannot be overemphasized. The Federal

Government of Nigeria recognized this in the National Policy on Education

concerning Nursery Education, where it stated thus: “for the first three years of

life, the medium of instruction should be principally the mother tongue or the

language of the immediate community” (FRN, 2004:6). This is because a child

comprehends teaching faster when it is done in the mother tongue which the child

is accustomed to than when it is done in English. For instance, a mathematical

concept will be better understood faster by a child if it is explained in Igbo

language than when it is explained in a foreign language which the child is yet to

learn – the English language. A language survives and prospers only to the extent

that it is preserved and enriched by each new generation of speakers, each in its

own season. Efforts should therefore be directed at making school children

competent and proficient user of Igbo language.

Furthermore, for the objective of the Federal Government to be realized, the

teaching of mother tongue (and in this case, Igbo language) should be started as

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early as a child starts schooling. This should be so because those early years in

school are the most impressive. Emphasis must be laid on the teaching and

learning of Igbo language from the nursery school for it is on the experiences of

their first language that the success of other languages coming later depends. The

importance of Igbo language in the upbringing of the child has made scholars in

the language emphasize the teaching of other subjects using the Igbo language as a

medium (Ubahakwe, 1977; Nwadike, 1992). There is no doubt that teaching a

child to become fluent in a second language before emphasizing the mother tongue

is as irrational as teaching a child to walk before he crawls. Yet this is the case in

the schools, where teachers prefer to teach English rather than Igbo, and students

prefer to study English more to the detriment of Igbo and other indigenous

languages.

A fact that must be borne in mind is that English language will ever remain a

foreign language to the Igbo man, except perhaps for few Igbo people who have

English mother, but such people are very few indeed, and are seen as foreigners in

their own land or strangers in Igbo land. Only few people can claim to use English

with the natural ease and the flexibility of an English man. When an English man

uses his language, it comes with spontaneity, ease and flexibility, which no

classroom and no language laboratory exposure can give to a foreigner. There is

therefore need for us to develop Igbo language as our first language and as the

41

greatest and unique means of expressing the achievements of our people. Hence,

the present researcher feels that using a method that involves active participation of

both teachers and students will help to revive students’ interest in the study of Igbo

language at the secondary education level.

Philosophical Basis of Teaching and Learning Igbo Letter Writing in SchoolsLanguage study is an important area of study in schools. This is because language is one

of the most vital elements for all forms of learning. As Mgbodile (1996) affirms:…language is essential for thinking and for abstract reasoning, all of which are active ingredients for learning; the process of imparting knowledge, the transfer of values, attitudes and the acquisition of skills and competencies are possible through the instrumentality of language.

The above view shows clearly that language is an effective medium of expression

in any society. For any community or race to be recognized as existing, it must

have a language of its own. Thus Nwadike (1992) rightly stated:

Ọ bụ asụsụ na-eme mba ka ọ bụrụ ihe ọ bụ. N’enweghi asụsụ nke ya, mba ga-atufu ejirimara ya, ma mba ọ bụla nke na-asụ asụsụ mba ọzọ ma ọ bụ kwere ka asụsụ ya nwụọ, mba ahụ abụrụla ozu nke na-enweghi ike ịba uru: Omenala mba ọ bụla nke asụsụ ya nwụrụ anwụ na-ekpochapụ daa mmiri (p. 5)

The above remarks of Nwadike (1992) emphasize the need for communities to

promote the use of their indigenous language among their members, and one way

of doing this is by teaching the language in schools. It is an accepted fact that one

may have an idea to put forward but unable to express oneself in the appropriate

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language and as a result, much of the information one intends to transmit is lost in

the process. Bamgbose (1989:5) stated: “Formal education in the mother tongue in

West Africa began with efforts of Christian Missionaries who were conscious to

spread their religion as effectively as possible and to read their scripture in their

tongue”. The above statement shows that clarity of thought cannot be achieved

without proper foundation in the mother tongue.

The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) recognized three major

indigenous languages to be taught in schools. These are Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba.

From this, it is very clear that a child has to learn his own language in the first

instance. In further recognition of this fact, the International Institute of African

languages and Cultures (IIALAC) in 1930 at Rome, stated that for the first three

years in school, the medium of instruction should be principally the mother tongue.

The rationale for this decision according to IIALAC is that language and mind

work together, and where a child cannot speak his mother tongue, such a child is

bound to do most of his thinking in a foreign language. Thus, the child becomes a

foreigner in his own language. This is what Whorf (1992) meant when he said that

a child who cannot speak his mother tongue already has a problem in the process

of his thinking.

For the objective of the Federal Government and IIALAC to be realized, the

teaching and learning of the mother tongue and in this case, Igbo language should

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be made effective in the schools. One way of doing this is by drilling students to

write correctly and cohesively in the language. In recognition of this imperative,

Nwadike (1992) stated:

Ọ bụrụ na mba ọ bụla achọọ ka o nwee ihe jikọrọ ya na agba ochie ha, ha aghaghị ichekwawa asụsụ ha; Asụsụ ga-ewuru naanị mgbe a na-akuzisi ya ike n’ụlọ akwụkwọ; Mana naani ịsụ ya asụ ezughi; ọ bụrụ na e deghi ya ede, desie ya ike n’akwụkwọ, ọ ga-anwụkwa (p. 5).

The above statement of Nwadike (1992) emphasizes clearly the need for teaching

Igbo letter writing in schools. In Igbo language study, letter writing is an integral

part of written Igbo composition, which in itself, is a branch of Igbo language

study generally. As an important aspect of written Igbo composition, letter writing

involves the use of language in a skillful manner to explain and or present clearly

one’s ideas or feelings concerning a particular thing which can be an event, human

needs, feelings, problems, opinions, and so on. It can also touch on festivals,

objects, culture or anything at all. Nwadike (1998) defines letter writing as “a

process of sending information between two people where the sender informs the

receiver of his problems, or what he wants to be done, and his needs.” Igbo letter

writing is of two types – edemede leta nkeonye and edemede leta anamachọihe

(informal letter and formal letter). While the informal type of letter can focus on

any of the things mentioned above, the formal letter is more of official letters. It

can be in the form of application, business letters, protest, excuse duty, and so on.

44

However, whatever the case may be, in all aspects of language learning, letter

writing as an integral part of the written Igbo composition, is very beneficial to the

learner, because, it exposes the learner to all the skills involved in a language.

Both phonological and grammatical rules are learned in it so that the learner learns

to write correctly without much ambiguity in the language. Letter writing is very

important in one’s life therefore students should be properly exposed to it in Igbo

language for them to write effectively.

However, it is disheartening to observe that quite a number of students

cannot write good letters in Igbo language despite the fact that composition is a

compulsory section in certificate examinations in Igbo language (WAEC Report,

2005). The puzzling question now is: why is this so?

Poor teaching method may be a contributory factor to students’ poor

achievement in Igbo letter writing. Methodology is very vital in any teaching-

learning situation. Emphasizing this, Ridgewell (1986) concluded that what a

teacher requires when selecting a method of teaching any topic is to look for a

method that will best help the students learn the desired understandings and in the

process achieve the desired objectives. Such a method will involve active

participation of the students in the lesson since their interest will be taken care of.

It is a fact that students perform better when they are actively involved in a lesson

and the topic under study is familiar to them. Hence Nwadike (1992) stated that:

45

Ezigbo edemede bụ nke sitere n’ihe metụtara onye na ndụ. Anyị na-ede edemede dị ezigbo mma mgbe ihe anyị na-ede maka ya metụtara anyị ma ọbụ na o doro anyị anya nke ọma; anyị na-edekwa ezigbo edemede mgbe anyị wepụtara obi nke ọma tinye uche na ya (p. 7).

Many a time, students perform poorly in Igbo letter writing because they are

asked to write about something they do not understand, and which they have no

interest in (Nwadike, 1992). If teachers want their students to attain proficiency in

Igbo letter writing, they must use methods that appeal to them, and expose them to

different topics which they understand, and in which they have interest.

The Concept of Letter WritingWriting generally is very important to people both during examinations and

in official matters. According to Thornton (1980), writing is a linguistic activity

normally engaged in by an individual who is responding to a demand, and who is

literate enough to switch into the written mode to make that response. Uzoegwu

(2004) opines that writing is a dialogue between the writer and the reader, and so,

the substance of what is written must, when it reaches the reader, say what the

writer intends as clearly as if the writer were there in person. This means that

writing involves making the writer’s ideas understandable to the reader through the

use of appropriate words, diacritics coherent paragraphs and lucid argument or

message.

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Writing is the last stage of language development skills. It is about the most

important of the skills because, according to Ogara (2006), “the inability to write

coherently as we speak fluently often constitutes a hitch to our self actualization

and limits our scope on several things.” To further buttress this view, Ogara

(2006) still maintained thus:

The human mind is bombarded with millions of thoughts on daily basis. These ideas come like waves and they can be translated into inspirational piece of writings… what is lacking in most people is the ability to translate those interesting thoughts of their minds into readable materials (p. 13).

In the course of writing, several factors cripple the initial intention to express

oneself. It may be the lack of ideas or a clear case of poor expressions. This is the

case with some students who are continually faced with writing exercises

especially during examinations.

Writing can take different forms, such as narrative, descriptive,

argumentative and expository and letter writing. All these forms of writing are

parts of written composition or essay which is an important aspect of language

study in secondary schools. This is because written composition is very important

for testing a student’s command of a language (Ogbalu, 1972). It exposes the

students to all the grammatical and phonological rules as applicable to the

language. The other forms of writing takes the same format and style, letter

writing appears to be different both in format, style and manner of presentation.

47

This makes it pertinent to have a clear understanding of what letter writing is all

about.

Many scholars have tried to give their own personal explanation of letter

writing. Thus, Nwadike (1998:6) defines letter writing as “a process of sending

information between two people where the sender informs the receiver of his

problems, or what he wants to be done, and his needs.” Ezikeojiaku (1999) sees

letter writing as a very useful thing in peoples’ lives. According to him, letter

writing helps people in sending message to their presupposed destination. Letter

writing speaks the writer’s minds to the reader and helps in human relationships.

A letter is a written message from one person to another. It is a written or

printed communication directed to a person or organisation. Historically, letters

were the only reliable means of communication between two persons in different

locations. With the advancement in communication technology, the role of letters

has changed significantly since the 19th Century. The development of the

telegraph, telephone and the Internet has all had an impact on the writing and

sending of letters. Be this as it may, letters are still used, particularly by

companies and advertisers for the main reason that it has no special device needed

– almost everybody has a home, which means they are easy to reach. A mailbox is

all that the intended recipient needs – not like the e-mail or phone calls where the

intended recipient needs access to a computer and a telephone respectively.

48

Letter writing is of two main types – informal and formal letter writing. The

informal letter is more of personal or private letters like writing a letter to a friend,

Daddy, Mummy, brother, uncle, and so on. In this type of letter writing, the tone

and style of writing is very personal. The writer has only one audience which is

the reader, and depending on the relationship that exists between the two, he/she

can adopt a much more free and intimate style of writing – like being humorous,

cracking jokes, using riddles and so on – in sending information to the reader, who

also understands the information so conveyed using such style of writing. A good

informal letter is the type that has lively style of writing, echoing the personality of

the sender, and yet aimed at the mind and heart of the receiver.

A formal type of letter writing is more of official and business-like letters.

This is the type of letter writing that is purely for official or business purpose. The

language is purely official. A business letter is a formal way of communicating

between two or more parties. Business letters can be informational, persuasive, or

promotional.

The most important element of writing a good formal letter is the ability of

the writer to identify his audience, and then use the relevant official language of

the audience. Letters involving business (personal or corporate) should be concise,

factual and focused. The writer should focus on the information requirements of

the intended audience or addresses, and should use simple, straightforward

49

language for clarity and precision. As much as possible, the writer should use

language and terminology familiar to the intended recipient. Use of technical

terms and acronyms without explanation should be avoided, unless the writer is

certain that the addressee is familiar with them.

A formal letter is made up of six parts – addresses, heading, salutation, body

of the letter, closing and signature. In Igbo language, there are a number of

conventions that should be used when writing a formal or business letter. Firstly,

the address consists of two parts – the writer’s address which is written in the top

right-hand corner of the letter, and the recipient’s address which is written on the

left. The date is included in the address. The heading is the title of the letter. This

is called Isi okwu mbunuuche in Igbo language. The heading can be written in

capital letters or in small letters whereby it is underlined. The salutation is written

‘Sir or Madam’ as the case may be. In Igbo, we call it Ekele mmalite, and it is

always started thus: Ezigbo onye isi. The body of the letter is the content of a

formal letter. It is called Obi/etiti edemede in Igbo language. The body of the

letter is written in paragraphs. The first paragraph should be short and state the

purpose of the letter. The second paragraph, or paragraphs in the middle of the

letter, should contain the relevant information behind the writing of the letter.

Most letters in Igbo language are not very long, so the writer should keep the

information to the essentials and concentrate on organizing it in a clear and logical

50

manner rather than expanding too much. The last paragraph of a formal letter

should state what action the writer expects the recipient to take. The closing is the

ending of a formal letter. If the name of the recipient is not known to the writer,

the letter can be ended thus: ‘Yours faithfully’, but where the writer knows the

name of the recipient, the closing is thus: ‘Yours sincerely’. In Igbo language, it is

called Ezigbo onye nke gi. The writer’s signature comes afterwards, followed by

his/her name which is written underneath the signature.

The above facts are the conventions to be followed by students in order to

write good letters in Igbo language. They culminate into the things examiners look

out for while marking student’s essay write-ups and letter writings in any language

examination. These according to Nwadike (2002) include content and organization

(Nhazi), expression (Nka edemede) and mechanical accuracy (Ndezita). These

things are very important in any essay or letter writing exercise.

The content of any writing as stated in Nwadike (2002) deals with ideas and

their development and so requires the ability to think creatively and develop

thoughts excluding all irrelevant information. Organisation of any essay or letter

writing depends on the type of topic given to the students. Good organisation

according to Uzoegwu (2004) requires suitable opening, general development,

paragraphing and proper linking of paragraphs, balance, unity, coherence and a

suitable conclusion. Organisation of a letter therefore involves sequential

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presentation of points and arrangement of ideas into paragraphs. It is the ability of

the students to manipulate and economize sentences and paragraphs.

Expression involves “interesting and convincing treatment of material

relevant to the topic, clarity and general appropriateness of style involving aptness

of vocabulary, effective arrangement and variation of sentence patterns and

imaginative use of figurative language” (Uzoegwu, 2004:22). Expression therefore

means the ability to write correct and appropriate sentences. In Igbo letter writing,

expression involves effective use of the standard Igbo and figurative language like

idioms and proverbs appropriate and relevant to the title of a letter. Mechanical

accuracy involves writing the required length of essay and avoiding errors that are

undeniable in grammatical structure, punctuation and spelling. This implies

adhering strictly to the conventions for writing standard Igbo.

Letter writing occupies an important place in life and this has led to the

quest for the appropriate method to teach this skill by teachers. Long & Richards

(1987) postulate that traditional approaches to teaching writing require that

students formulate their ideas beforehand, to elaborate upon them by using some

prescribed rhetorical framework and to submit these written products for grading

purposes. The teacher is seen as a critical audience who is out to find faults and

errors. Modern methods of teaching writing like the communicative teaching

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method emphasize the process of writing rather than the product. In this way the

teacher is a co-writer, a facilitator and a counselor (Uzoegwu, 2004).

Letter writing is a skill that must be learnt by students in the school. Its

importance in the life of students, and the society at large, create the need for

teachers to adopt suitable teaching methods that will enable students to acquire the

skill effectively. This research therefore is all about the effect of a teaching

method on the achievement and interest of students in letter writing in Igbo

language.

Methods of Teaching Letter Writing in Igbo LanguageMethodology is very vital in any teaching/learning situation. In this regard,

Onwuka (1984) defines it as a process by which the teacher presents his materials

to learners and engages them in the task at hand. He further expresses that

methodology is a course of action or a method of operation, which varies

according to circumstances. In line with the above explanation, Hirst (1974) sees

methodology as representing the types of activities pursued by teachers and pupils

in discussions, group work, survey, demonstrations and films and so on. To him,

therefore, methodology stands for what the teacher does in cooperation with his

students in order to effect desirable changes in the behaviour of the learner.

Still emphasizing the important role of appropriate choice and use of

methods in teaching generally, Onwuka (1984) holds the view that:

53

The success or failure of any educational endeavour or the effectiveness of any learning depends ultimately upon the method adopted by the teacher. However grounded his aims and objectives, and whatever be the content, and however relevant it may be, unless the teacher adopts suitable methods, his efforts would be of no avail (p. 122).

From the above explanation, there is no doubt that Onwuka (1984) sees

methodology as a very vital part of any curriculum, and which contributes much to

the attainment of goals of education. According to him, the choice and appropriate

use of the right methods in teaching are principal factors that contribute to effective

teaching and learning.

Brown (1982) draws a line of demarcation between what he refers to as

traditional time-tested methods and modern approaches to teaching. While the

former represents those methods that have been used over the years and which

have stood the test of time, the latter stands for those methods which are of

relatively recent origin, and which are more pragmatic in their approaches to

teaching. While the traditional time-tested methods are teacher-centred and

therefore, make learners passive, the modern approaches emphasize a shift from

the teacher to the learner. Here, the learner is translated from a passive receiver of

knowledge into an active creator of the process in which he learns. Brown (1982)

therefore argued that to have found an answer by his own effort is of more value

and importance to the child than to hear it from the teacher. The opinion of Brown

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here was that learning is more effective and makes more meaning to the child

when he is encouraged to participate in the teaching-learning process. A method,

therefore, whereby the learner works in concert with the teacher to achieve

objectives is believed to be more effective in teaching than that in which learner

remains an inactive receiver of information and instruction.

It was in recognition of this invaluable role of appropriate methods in

effective teaching and learning of Igbo written compositions generally that

Nwadike (1992) has in mind when he stated that a good composition write-up must

come from one’s personal life experience as well as interest. According to him,

“anyị na-ede edemede dị ezigbo mma mgbe ihe anyị na-ede maka ya metutara

anyị...”. Nwadike’s remark is in line with our emphasis in the background that

continuing dependence by Igbo language teachers on traditional methods that do

not appeal to students and in which they have no interest in teaching Igbo language

has constituted a problem on the process of effective teaching and learning of the

subject.

The teaching and learning of letter writing in Igbo language requires a

variety of methods for it to be effective and interesting to the students. Some of

the methods used by the teachers as stated in Nwadike (1992:5) include:

Expository/lecture method

Discovery method, and

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Project method.

Reports such as Mmaduegbunam (1994) and Umo (2000) have shown that most

Igbo language teachers apply only the conventional lecture method in teaching

virtually all the areas of Igbo written composition including letter writing. This is

a very wrong approach to language teaching generally. It is a fact that monotony

kills interest while variety is the spice of life. To this, Onwuka (1984) observed

that no single method is superior to others nor should one method be constantly

used in preference to others. In language teaching, a variety of methods are

desirable. Three things are very important for teaching letter writing in Igbo

language. These according to Nwadike (1992) are:

What to write (ihe a ga-ekwu/ede)

How to write it (ikwu/ide ya)

How to write it correctly (ikwu/ide ya nke ọma)

In analyzing the above facts, one should bear in mind that good letter writing

is one that comes from the writer’s personal experience. As already indicated

students often do not write good letters because they do not understand the topic

they were asked to write on. If teachers want students to develop their writing

capabilities, they must use methods that appeal to them in their teaching, and

explain topics clearly for the students to understand and appreciate them. This

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calls for analysis of the different methods of teaching letter writing as outlined by

Nwadike (1992).

The expository/lecture method is about the oldest teaching method and

appears to be popular in the teaching of Igbo language generally. The lecture

method can be seen as a speech spoken or read before a group of people, especially

as a method of teaching at universities. Alcorn (1970) defined it as a process of

delivering verbally, a body of knowledge according to a pre-planned scheme. The

lecture method involves the use of oral and aural skills. It is the conventional

method applied by teachers generally in every teaching/learning situation.

Ogunsanya (1984) noted that the lecture method is the easiest, cheapest and most

familiar of other methods, but at the same time, it is the most abused and least

effective in many respects, situations and circumstances.

Okorie (1984) noted that the method reverses the concept of education,

which stresses that the best learning is that which results from purposeful activities.

According to him, the problem of the lecture method is that the teacher tends to

perform activities that should be carried out by the learners. The activities include

referencing, outlining, organizing data and so on. The students are listeners and

takers of notes. He concludes that it is the teacher who learns and not the learners.

The conventional lecture method is time-saving, especially where a lot of

ground is to be covered in a limited time. It affords the instructor excellent

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opportunities to learn to use reference sources to outline and organize ideas, to

formulate conclusions, and to speak.

Its demerit according to Offordile (1995) lies in the fact that it is rather

subject-centred, and while it makes the teacher active, it reduces the students to

mere passive listeners. The lecture method has its emphasis on cognitive

performance especially as it affects memorization and simple recall of facts which

adults are not interested in. It deprives the students virtually of all responsibilities

for using their own mental abilities to weigh, compare and decide what is

important to learn. It overlooks the individual differences of the learners, and

denies them adequate and prompt attention of the teacher.

The discovery method is also known as inquiry method. It is the type of

method whereby learners gain knowledge from their own investigations. The

students probe issues seeking for ideas, facts and information, and while doing

that, they find answers for themselves and draw their own conclusions. According

to Onwuka (1981), the learners taught by discovery method observe the method of

teaching adopted by the teacher, and in this way, activity oriented procedure,

which allows for self-direction, exploration, nurturing and satisfaction of curiosity

is offered.

Obodo (1990) has it that the discovery method provides an avenue where the

learners use existing and established rules or principles to discover things for

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themselves. He advised that the teacher might give some clues where necessary, to

the proper handling of the tools, materials, or equipment and ask the students

leading questions, thus the role of the teacher under this method is that of a guide.

According to Clark (1973), the principal object in all inquiry teaching is for the

learners to think carefully about ideas, problems and issues under consideration.

The advantage of this method is that learners work freely on their own. The

disadvantages are that it can be abused. An incompetent teacher may not be an

effective guide. As a result, the learners will wander purposelessly in jammed

information and idea.

The project method involves small groups or individuals working

independently on planned schemes or undertakings. In this way, knowledge is

gained and specific objectives are achieved. According to Wheeler (1978), the

project is a purposeful activity or a meaningful whole or unit of experience, which

proceeds in social environment. Hence, it is another application of the unit idea.

The project method is a process, which enables students to acquire whole-

hearted purposes and to pursue them to a satisfactory end. This is the stand of

Onwuka (1984) who defined project as a purposeful activity, which enables

students learn to work together on selected plans. They clearly see the purpose of

whatever task they undertake. He stressed that it is a process based on

commonality of purpose and on the cooperative effort of both the teacher and the

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learners. Nwosu (1998) maintains that when project method is used, the learning

experiences are the problems to be solved. The project may be theoretical or

practical, whichever they are, the teacher and the students work cooperatively and

the problems to be solved expose pupils to learning experiences. The teacher’s

major role here according to Pinsent (1962) is merely to guide the activities of the

class through discussion, conferencing, giving an advice, counseling or instruction,

which may be oral or written. In other words, the teacher functions as a guide,

adviser and counselor. Hughes & Hughes (1978:10) put this in a clearer

perspective when they said that “the work of the teacher is not so much to teach

school subjects as to guide and organize students’ projects.”

Advantages of this method according to Onwuka (1981) include the freedom

they offer to learners to determine what they wish to investigate. The method

trains students in the art of working on selected plans and on appreciating the

purpose of whatever task they undertake. Offordile (1995) has it that the project

method motivates the students and develops in them the spirit of healthy

competition and cooperation. It develops initiative and organized thoughts.

Students not only learn facts in a natural setting but also develop the habits of

painstaking inquiry and tolerance as they become exposed to the selection and use

of figurative language and harder vocabulary. However, their disadvantage

according to Nwosu (1998) lies in their usage. Where abused, the teacher arranges

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schemes and plans for the learners and deprives the individual his own initiative.

Furthermore, the conventional timetable provides for too many subjects and tends

to be overcrowded for meaningful projects in all the subject areas.

Problems of Teaching and Learning Letter Writing in Igbo LanguageSome of the problems confronting the effective teaching and learning of

Igbo letter writing in schools are inherent in the language. One of such problems is

tonal problem. This problem scares students as well as foreigners away from

learning the language. Igbo is a tone language, by which is meant that the meaning

of a word is dependent on the minimally significant sound contrast between its

component syllables. It belongs to the group of languages called the ‘Kwa’

language of West Africa (Ward, 1939). The meaning of the words of this group of

languages is dependent on the contrastive tones of its syllables. The syllables

might be high, low or mid-tone and must be rightly indicated in speech if the

correct meaning of the word is required. In other words, the sound of a word with

different syllabic tones is the same but the meaning differs simply because of the

tone differences. Ogbalu (1972) gave some examples with the word egbe (kite),

the two syllables ‘e-gbe’ are minimally constrastive, and so also egbe (gun). The

two words have the same spelling but different meanings determined by the tone

differences. Take another instance in a word like isi (smell). The meanings of

these words can only be determined by the tone differences, since they all have the

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same spelling. Ogbalu (1972) pointed out the fact that in writing, beginners find it

difficult to indicate tones with the high ( / ), low ( \ ) and mid ( – ) signs. It is this

problem of indicating tones that teachers as well as students point out as why Igbo

language is difficult to learn (Ogbalu, 1972). Many students do not indicate these

tone differences in their write-ups, and this makes it difficult for teachers to mark

their papers correctly. Some sentences are such that the meanings can only be

determined by the tone. Take for instance, a sentence like: egbe gburu ọkụkọ (A

kite killed the fowl). The meaning of these sentences can only be indicated by the

tone in any composition in Igbo language. The above fact poses great problem to

students in their essay and letter writing. The researcher feels that tonal problem

may be one of the factors responsible for students’ poor performance in Igbo letter

writing in external examinations like SSCE.

According to Ogbalu (1972:5) “the apparent solution to the tone problem is

to mark all the tones in writing as it is done in Yoruba and some other tone

languages.” Unfortunately, this method is not followed in Igbo since it was

reduced to writing; rather, the practice had been to mark the tones only where

context could not help the reader to understand the meaning the word would take,

and in enumeration of names or objects where the lexical meaning is paramount.

For instance, a sentence like egbe gburu ọkụkọ (A kite killed the fowl) is tone

marked in Igbo because the meaning cannot easily be decoded from the context

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since there is another sentence in Igbo that reads egbe gburu ọkụkọ (A gun killed

the fowl). The same goes for words like òké (rat), òkè (share), óké (big), ókē

(boundary). A sentence like Nne m gara ahịa (My mother went to market), is not

always tone marked in Igbo language because the meaning can always be decoded

from the context.

Another problem confronting the effective teaching and learning of Igbo

letter writing is dialectal variations. Most indigenous languages have a multitude

of dialects, which make communication difficult. This is true of Igbo language. It

has been noted that the numerous dialects found in Igbo speaking areas make the

teaching and learning of Igbo letter writing cumbersome. The multiplicity of the

dialects and the disparity found among them cause differences in pronunciation,

tonology and articulation of words. Commenting on this, Emenanjo (1988) claims

that Igbo is a difficult language because it is a tone language and exposes itself to

various dialects. Furthermore, Oraka (1983:64) re-affirmed that “people must have

lost interest in the study of Igbo language because of the many dialects found in the

language”. WAEC Report (1998) noted that most students do not know the

difference between what they speak and what they are supposed to use in writing

their essays. In other words, most students wrote in their different dialects,

whereas they are expected to write in the standard Igbo. Thus, poor knowledge of

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the standard Igbo may be one of the factors responsible for students’ poor

achievement in Igbo letter writing in school certificate examinations.

A third major problem of Igbo letter writing is the problem of address. This

is a very big problem hindering effective teaching of Igbo letter writing by

teachers. The problem is whether to write address in Igbo or English. Up till the

time of this research, no agreeable Igbo pattern has been reached on how to present

address in Igbo letter writing, rather the practice is to write address the way it is

written in English to avoid confusing Post Office workers. This problem arose

because of the fact that Nigeria is a country with many languages. Most Post

Office workers are not Igbos, and as such may not be able to decode or interpret

addresses on top of envelops if they are written in Igbo language. So, to avoid

letters getting lost, or not reaching its final destination, it is advised that in Igbo

letter writing, addresses should be left the way they are in English. In emphasizing

this fact, Nwadike (1998) has this to say:

Mgbe ọ bụla a na-ede leta, a ga-ahụ na usoro e si-ede adres ndị/ebe ka a ga-agbaso n’ide ya. Ya bụ ka a hapụ ide ya n’Igbo nke nwere ike ibute mgbagwojuanya ma ọbụ na o ruo na Pos Ofiisi (p. 4).

This problem of address coincides with what Ubahakwe (1977) called

psycholinguistic see-saw. Students are taught to write address in English, and then

the body of the letter in Igbo, thereby confusing them the more. The bewildered

students begin from the opposite end of the see-saw. That is, they first learn how

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to write address in English, before decoding it in Igbo and then coding it back in

English in their papers. Until a solution is found, address is and will continue to be

a major problem of Igbo letter writing.

The Concept of Communicative Teaching MethodThe communicative method is a teaching method that emphasizes

communication as the essence of language learning. It also emphasizes interaction

as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Historically,

communicative teaching method grew out of people’s displeasure with the

traditional methods which make students passive participants in the teaching and

learning process. Such traditional methods include the Audio-Lingual Method

(ALM) which arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language proficiency

in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely tied to

behaviourism and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central

elements of instruction. Proponents of the ALM felt that this emphasis on

repetition necessitated a corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming that continual

repetition of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of incorrect structures and

non-standard pronunciation. In the classroom, lessons were often organized by

grammatical structure and presented through short conversation. Often, students

listened repeatedly to recordings of conversations and focused on accurately

mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical structures in these dialogs.

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Critics of the ALM, such as David Nunan asserted that this overemphasis on

repetition and accuracy ultimately did not help students achieve communicative

competence in the target language. They looked for new ways to present and

organize language instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus,

which eventually led to the development of the Communicative Language teaching

Method (CLtM).

A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language-

learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-

functional syllabus, instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure

as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of notions and functions. In

this model, a notion is a particular context in which people communicate, and a

function is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. For example, the

notion or context ‘shopping’ requires numerous language functions including

asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion

‘party’ would require numerous functions like introductions and greetings, and

discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notional-functional syllabus

claimed that it addressed the deficiencies found in the ALM by helping students

develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.

Communicative Language teaching Method (CLtM) is seen as an extension

of the notional-functional syllabus which places great emphasis on helping students

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use the target language in a variety of contexts and on learning language functions.

Unlike the ALM, the primary focus of CLtM is on helping learners create meaning

rather than helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures. Thus, CLtM

propagates the teaching of language as communication rather than as a system of

structures. Its emphasis centres on helping students use language fluently both

orally and in writing (Nolasco & Arthur, 1988). Unlike the traditional methods,

CLtM has the striking aim of simultaneously developing in the learner the four

linguistic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. The principle guiding

the use of this method according to Offorma (2002) is that language is an aspect of

life and it is used for communication. Therefore, classroom activities should be

related to the life experiences of the learners. Classroom practice and management

focus on the social context of teaching and learning. The focus is also on

functional language usage and the ability of learners to express their own ideas,

feelings, attitudes, desires and needs.

Communicative language teaching method is often defined as a list of

general principles or features. One of the most recognized of such principles is

Nunan (1991:279) five features of CLtM. These include:

(1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in

the target language.

(2) The introduction of authentic text into the learning situation.

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(3) The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on

language but also on the learning process itself.

(4) An enhancement of the learners’ own personal experiences as

important contributing elements to classroom learning.

(5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language

activities outside the classroom.

These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLtM to show that they are very

interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection

between the language as it is taught in the class and as it is used outside the

classroom. Under this definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop

their communicative competence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable

and beneficial form of instruction.

Wilkins (1983) sees the aim of communicative language teaching as the

production in the individual of the ability to create and to construct utterances

(spoken and written), which have the desired social value and purpose. For him,

mechanical drills are not in themselves communicative. A communicative method

is one which stimulates the operation of all the essential mental processes, which

are carried out in the normal use of language, and does so under conditions which

resemble those that obtain in ordinary communication. Open ended questioning

and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized

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as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic

materials in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive

practice in negotiating meaning.

The goal of the CLtM is to help learners to achieve communicative

competence in their target language. Communicative competence refers to the

ability of the learner to apply knowledge of both formal and sociolinguistic aspects

of a language with adequate proficiency to communicate. According to Anasidu

(2002), communicative competence comprises grammatical competence and the

ability to use it to communicate functional and social meanings in concrete

situations.

In Igbo language study generally, achieving communicative competence

refers to ability to attain proficiency in the use of the standard Igbo. Standard Igbo

is the Igbo that is taught and learnt in the school. It is a combination of various

Igbo dialects, which no one can lay claim to. As Ogbalu (1972) puts it, the

standard Igbo is a cross-fertilization of Igbo dialects. As a matter of fact, the

standard Igbo is supposed to be used in market places, in the churches, mass

media, schools, writings of different types, and so on. It is the language students

are expected to use in writing their examinations in Igbo language. Unfortunately,

most students and teachers have not mastered the use of the standard Igbo, and this

contributes to the students’ poor achievement in certificate examinations in Igbo

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language (WAEC Report, 1998). The use of communicative method may help

learners to achieve communicative competence in the standard Igbo. This implies

learners acquiring facilities in using the standard Igbo in ordinary circumstances,

as they use their own different individual dialects. This kind of facility allows an

Igbo language learner to respond spontaneously whether orally or in writing in the

standard Igbo without the need to search for the most appropriate, or the most

correct word or phrase. For instance, one can say, Achọrọ m ịzụta ahuekere (I

want to buy groundnut); instead of - Achọrọm igote ọpapa/groundnut, which is the

way it is commonly said.

There are other competencies that are embedded in the attainment of

communicative competence. These competencies according to Canal (1983) cited

in Osakwe (2000:52) are constituents of communicative competence. They

include:

Grammatical competence (ability to construct grammatically correct

sentences in the target language)

Socio-linguistic competence (ability to produce and understand

utterances which are appropriate to the context in which they are

uttered)

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Discourse competence (ability to produce large units of language in

different genres like narrative, scientific report, argument, newspaper

article, interview, casual conversation and academic paper)

Strategic competence (ability to use verbal and non-verbal strategies

to communicate effectively).

When therefore a learner is said to have attained communicative competence

in Igbo language, it means that the learner has the ability to use the standard Igbo

in such a way that depicts mastery of its grammar. It also involves recognition of

the socio-cultural norms and social context in the language use and the ability to

effectively use standard Igbo strategies in communication.

Achieving communicative competence is best done through natural language

learning, which is learning language in the environment of the native users

(Osakwe, 2000). However, since the standard Igbo language is a cross-fertilization

of all Igbo dialects, which are not owned by any group or people, the classroom

setting becomes the major means of learning it. Furthermore, linguistics (like

Krashen, 1982; and Nunan, 1989a) believe that the use of communicative teaching

method in the classroom will help to ensure that learners attain communicative

competence in the target language.

It is important to stress here that the communicative language teaching is

more a cluster of approaches than a single methodology. According to Alaneme

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(1987), the communicative teaching method is a necessary point of departure from

the traditional teacher centred methods in which the learner represents an animate

but passive tabula rasa on whose mind the presumed all-knowing teacher writes all

forms of knowledge, attitudes and values, into an active child-centred method of

teaching which if properly utilized would enliven to great extent the teaching and

learning of Igbo language as an independent course of study. Also, if properly

utilized, the communicative method may become effective in bringing life and

vitality into the study of Igbo language generally, since it helps to sustain the

learners’ interest and help to shade off some of the negative attitudes towards the

study of Igbo language in the past.

A major attribute of the communicative language teaching method according

to Brumfit (1984) is the opportunity offered to students to create rather than

become passive recipients of ideas and information. In a communicative

classroom, both the learner and the teacher know the purpose of language learning.

The focus is usually how to use language in carrying out functions or doing things.

Learners are active participants in the teaching and learning process. Classroom

activities cease to be teacher-centred and learners lead class activities. Learner’s

initiative is encouraged through several language tasks and the learners do

something with the language in order to learn it. Learners have opportunity to

express their own individuality and contribute their personality to the learning

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process. In his own view, Alaneme (1987) sees the communicative method as an

effective means of developing the skill of utilizing facts and information. Because

the student is constrained to contribute ideas, his knowledge does not become inert

ideas but rather can be used to improve oneself and one’s society. The

communicative method according to him makes students to achieve fluency, and

better understanding of topics and issues, thereby making learning more

meaningful and raising their retention.

In line with Alaneme (1987), Thomas (1987) describes the communicative

teaching method as characterized by increased involvement and active

participation of members of the class. The teacher’s role here is that of a guide and

a director. The teacher directs the thoughts of the students to find solutions to

given problems. Language presentation here involves the development of all the

language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Grammatical skills are

taught in the context of language skills.

Classroom setting in a communicative language teaching often takes the

form of pair and group-work requiring negotiation and cooperation between

learners. It also requires fluency-based activities that encourage learners to

develop their confidence, role plays in which students practice and develop

language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciation focused

activities. The classroom activities are categorized into two broad forms. These

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are functional communicative activities and social interaction activities. The

functional communicative activities according to Offorma (2002) deal with the

language that conveys an intended meaning effectively in a specific situation. The

main aim of the activity is the fact that learners should use the language they know

in order to get meaning across as effectively as possible. Success is primarily

measured according to their ability to cope with the communicative demands of the

immediate situation. Such activities include: finding out identical pair sequences

or locations, missing information, and missing features. The social interaction

activities on the other hand deal with the learner’s ability to use language

appropriate to the social context in which the interaction takes place. These

include simulation and role play which are important techniques for creating a

wider variety of social situations and relationships. Others include sharing and

processing information with unrestricted cooperation and this can be achieved

through discovering differences, following directions, reconstructing story

sequence, and analyzing information.

In performing these activities, the learners can interact in different forms

hence, there can be learner-teacher interaction, learner-learner interaction which

include pair work and group activities, and there is individual learner’s

contribution. In all these modes of interaction, the learner is an active participant

in the teaching and learning process. He/she is expected to contribute as much as

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he/she gains and learns in an interdependent way. The learner is a negotiator

between himself/herself, the learning process and the object of learning (Uzoegwu,

2004).

The teacher in a communicative class is seen as a facilitator of learning.

According to Offorma (2002:101), the teacher’s role include:

Giving advice when it is necessary

Correction of error when it is absolutely necessary

Acting as a co-communicator to the learner (it is more of learner-

directed), and

Giving guidance and stimuli thereby facilitating learning.

The language lessons presented to students are always task-based. This implies

that they are conducted using communicative method. Osakwe (2000) defined

communicative task as “a piece of classroom work that involves the learner in

comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language

while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form.” Nunan

(1989) made a distinction between a communicative task and traditional language

task. According to him, communicative tasks differ from ordinary traditional

language tasks because it requires the learners to pay attention to specific linguistic

properties which include phonological, lexical or grammatical properties in order

to learn them. For Osakwe (2000:54), communicative writing task should require

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students to think as well as to expound knowledge. Some examples which she

suggest include:

Asking students to come up with a task report for consumers.

Asking students to review a task for a given journal.

Requesting students to provide a written summary after reading a

passage.

Giving students paragraphs with disarranged sentences to put in

proper order.

Asking students to go through a passage and work in groups to note

the expressions in the passage.

Asking students to read a passage on a given personality, and based

on the information derived from the passage, answer certain questions

relating to the personality.

From the examples above, it becomes obvious that every language lesson

can be made communicative task depending on the way the teacher designs it.

Such communicative task should possess certain specific features which according

to Osakwe (2000:55) include:

- there must be a communicative purpose, and not just a linguistic goal

- focus should be on message rather than on the linguistic code

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- provision should be made for some kind of gap which could be

information or opinion gap.

- opportunity for negotiation should be provided when carrying out the

task through pair or group work.

In Igbo language study, the teachers could design the following language

tasks:

Inye ụmụakwụkwọ ihe ọgụgụ ma gwa ha ka ha depụta na nkenke ihe ha

ghọtara na ya. (Requesting students to come up with a written summary

after they must have read a passage.)

Gwa ụmụaka ka ha chọpụta atụmatụokwu niile sitere n’ihe ha gụpụtara dịka

ilu, ụkabụilu, na akpaalaokwu, ma depụta nkọwa ha. (Asking students to

find out the figurative speeches like proverb, and idioms from the passage

they have read, and write out their meanings.)

Gwa ụmụaka ka ha dee edemede dị mma banyere otu onye ala m a na-anụ

aha ya n’obodo m. (Requesting students to write an essay on a well known

personality in our country.)

In Igbo letter writing, the following language tasks could also be designed by

teachers:

Gwa ụmụakwụkwọ ka ha degara onye isi ụlọ akwụkwọ ha leta iji gwa ya

maka ajọ ọnọdụ agụmakwụkwọ n’ụlọakwụkwọ unu. (Requesting students

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to write a formal letter to the Principal of their school telling him of the poor

state of education generally in the school.)

Degara kọmịshọna mmụta dị n’aka akwụkwọ kọọrọ ya ihe dị ụlọ akwụkwọ

unu mkpa ị ga-achọ ka o mere unu. (Requesting students to write a formal

letter to the Commissioner for Education telling him some of the things the

school lacks, and begging him to come to their aid.)

Degara otu ụlọ ọbaego akwụkwọ maka owuwe n’ọrụ dị ka ọgbakọego.

Tinye ihe mere ka i tozuo ịrụ ọrụ a. (Asking students to write application

letter to a bank, include why you consider yourself fit and proper for the

job.)

Depụta okwu ị ga-agwa ọhanaeze iji zipụta na asụsụ Igbo bụ asụsụ kwesiri

ịmụ n’ụlọakwụkwọ dị ka asụsụ ndị ọzọ. (Requesting students to write a

formal speech on why Igbo language should be studied in schools like other

subjects.)

In performing the above tasks, students must be given opportunity for

negotiation and discussions in the target language through pair or group work. In

this way, communicative competence is achieved.

Evaluation here is based on the whole learning process. All the errors made

by students in the course of their discussions in order to learn are tolerated by the

teacher, who might even use them to structure and review his teaching strategy. In

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other words, evaluation is generally based on the process and achievement of

communicative purpose. When solution to a given task is found, students put their

findings in writing, and exchange their papers among themselves for correction.

This practice is very beneficial to both the learner and the teacher as well, because

students learn from their own mistakes, and the burden of marking is taken over

from the teacher. According to Brumfit (1984), one of the most crucial merits of

students correcting their own work is that practice in looking for errors or faults of

organizing in other peoples’ work, helps a student to find out errors in his own

work.

(A communicative task-based model is represented in the diagram below.)

COMMUNICATIVE TASK-BASED MODEL FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS:

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Goal Teacher sets goal for the lesson (e.g. usoro ide edemede leta anamachọihe

Input Teacher gives out a task (e.g. Degara kọmịshọna na-ahụ maka mmụta leta kọọrọ ya mkpa ọ dị ịmụ asụsụ Igbo n’ụlọ akwụkwọ dịka asụsụ ndị ọzọ.) Teacher instructs groups to explain and give reasons for their points.

Task should be on a sheet of paper or blackboard.

Group/Pair Work

Students interact/discuss in groups/pairs to solve problem task

Group defence/ Criticism and teacher’s input

Question and answer stage, including teacher’s input. Other groups ask questions on presentation. Presenting group answer/defend position.

Evaluation Group/individual evaluation. Exchange of completed tasks and assessment.

Communicative task-based model for the experimental group adapted from Osakwe (2000:111)

Furthermore, the communicative teaching method has many other

advantages that ranked it above other methods especially in relation to language

teaching and learning. One of such benefits is the fact that the method is learner-

centred. This means that the responsibility for learning is entrusted on the students

themselves who are active participants in the teaching and learning process. In

other words, learners are allowed to have direct experience by being given

autonomy over their language learning. As Carcy (1986) in Osakwe (2000) stated,

with learner-centred tasks, students assume greater control over what they write,

how they write it, and the evaluation of their own writing.

The communicative teaching method is also integrative. This means that

learners have the opportunity of developing the whole language skills

simultaneously, namely – listening, speaking, reading and writing. The language

tasks provide opportunity for students to talk, discuss, and respond to what they

hear, read and write all in a given task (Prabhu, 1987).

Apart from being integrative, the communicative teaching method develops

learners’ communicative skills by building learner’s fluency and accuracy in the

target language. According to Nobuyoshi & Ellis (1993), communicative tasks

build learners’ fluency by enabling learners to activate their linguistic knowledge

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for use in natural and spontaneous language, and this is evidently seen when

learners engage in conversation as they carry on a task. Communicative tasks also

contribute to accuracy (that is, linguistic competence) by enabling learners to

discover new linguistic forms during the course of communicating, and also by

increasing their mastery of already acquired forms. Another major advantage of

the communicative teaching method is that the language tasks generate and sustain

interaction amongst learners. Interaction according to Al-Arish (1991) is valuable

because one student’s hypothesizing question may direct another student to reflect

over something which he/she has not considered. Progress on the part of the

students could be said to be interpersonally incremental through indirect

interaction, since each student must reflect on the other student’s hypothesis and

put it in the intra-personal pattern that his or her mind is developing.

Moreover, group interaction, which is an attribute of the communicative

teaching method encourage reflective thinking and language learning. It provides

great opportunity for feedback during language lessons.

In his own findings, Nunan (1989a) in Osakwe (2000:60) summarized the

essential role of group work as an attribute of communicative teaching method as

follows: Group work

- increases the opportunities for learners to use the language

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- improves the quality of student task, and allows greater opportunity for

the individualization of instruction

- increases students’ motivation and provides an environment in which

learners can comprehend

- gives learners opportunities for production and provides contexts

within which meaning can be negotiated.

Having seen the numerous advantages and characteristics of communicative

language teaching method in language learning, it becomes necessary to explore

the effect of this method in Igbo language instruction, with the possibility of

adopting it in the teaching and learning of Igbo language generally, as well as in

the teaching and learning of Igbo letter writing. It is hoped that when adopted, it

will help sustain the interest of learners towards the study of Igbo language, and

help to shade off some of the negative attitudes exhibited by students towards the

study of the subject.

An Overview of the Indigenous Communicative Teaching Approach (ICTA)

The Indigenous Communicative Teaching Approach is an adaptation of the

Communicative Language teaching Method (CLtM) to suit the special interest of

Nigerians in their various environments in teaching all school subjects. This novel

approach was propagated by Osakwe (2003) to encourage Nigerian teachers to be

creative and sensitive to the special needs of the learner. According to her, the

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teacher adjusts and reworks the scheme of work to suit the interest and ability level

of the learner, and the teacher is encouraged to generate teaching materials from

local sources. The ICTA as stated in Osakwe (2003) considers the local-setting

first before looking outwards. It can be applied in teaching all school subjects and

has the following characteristics:

1. It is Learner-Centred: Classroom activities are such that learners participate

actively in carrying out tasks. The teacher talks less and allows for more

learner-learner talk. He facilitates the lessons by leading pupils to use their

initiative and creates opportunities for learners to explore and test-run their

variously formed hypotheses. According to Osakwe (2003:7), in a learner-

centred lesson, the learner is provided with every opportunity to initiate,

create, evaluate, correct and recreate. These according to her means that the

teacher should plan out lessons in such a way that pupils:

- ask questions- answer questions- do group work- interact with others through discussion- perform activities- solve problems- help to source teaching materials

2. Task-Based: Learners are continuously engaged in problem-solving activities

that challenge their intellect, and require them to think and process

information to come up with ideas, and solutions to given problems. In task-

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based lessons, learners are not passive listeners but are rather active

participants in the teaching and learning process.

3. Interaction-Based: This means that lesson objectives are achieved through

group discussion and the collaborative efforts of the learners. Learners learn

in an interdependent way, and they arrive at solutions to a given problem

through sharing, and exchange of ideas.

4. Communication-Based: The ICTA is also communication based. This means

that each lesson contents must be meaningful to the learner. The teacher

uses local examples to deliver lessons. Thus, the content of every lesson

must be related in such a way that the learner will easily decode the intended

information of a lesson, using materials and ideas from the local setting.

He/she is also able to show the reception of this information through

feedback. The indigenous communication-based lesson relates classroom

information to information outside, which learners are already familiar with.

This relationship contributes to the learner’s understanding of the lesson, and

through this way, meaning and learning is achieved.

5. Integrative in Nature: Lesson contents are integrative in ICTA. This means

that the teacher relates lesson topics to the life experiences of the learner as a

whole – showing the relevance and existence of the topic in other subjects

and aspects of life. In teaching a topic, the teacher makes serious efforts to

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link up the topic to related topics in the same subject and other subject areas.

Lesson integration here also involves teaching in ways that encourage

learners to see the fact that skills, concepts and other sub-skill units are

related to form a whole. In this regard, a mathematics concept, for example,

can further be understood in a language lesson, and a social studies topic can

be used to develop a passage for a reading comprehension lesson. Thus, the

integrative strategy tries to link up all learning into a meaningful whole.

6. Use of Authentic Materials: The ICTA stresses the use of authentic materials

drawn from the learner’s immediate environment. According to Osakwe

(2003), materials are authentic if they are genuine and true to life. If

learners are taught with materials they can recognize in real life, they are

more likely to remember and learn faster than when they are taught with

abstract, foreign and unreal materials. For example, a triangle or square will

be better understood if they are seen in real life objects like tables, windows

and leaves, than if the shapes are drawn on the board.

7. Establishment of Subject Corners: The ICTA emphasizes the establishment of

subject corners. Subject corner means a display of locally sourced materials

for teaching different subjects in a corner of the class. The materials are

sourced by both learners and the teacher, and are used as teaching and

learning resources as the need arises.

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8. Evaluation-Based: The ICTA is also evaluation-based. According to Osakwe

(2003), both formative and summative evaluations are used. This means that

while teaching, the teacher assesses learners’ understanding through

questioning and interaction. The outcome of the progressive evaluation

forms his or her new step whether to review or proceed to new concepts.

Summative evaluation is used to assess the extent to which intended

objectives are met in a given class period.

Interest as a Factor in Language LearningInterest has been defined as a condition of wanting to know or learn about

something (Ekeke, 1987). It is a quality that arouses a curiosity that holds and

maintains attention. A feeling of interest towards a thing helps focus attention to

that thing. Onwuka (1984) maintains that interest helps learners to explore

activities fully and to come out with desired learning outcomes. According to

Lovel (1973), psychologically, interest is an individual’s behaviour tendency

towards an object, a class or classes of activities. He further stated that interest

acts as a very powerful motive and no one attacks a task energetically unless he has

interest in it. Interest develops working skills more effectively because to be

interested in something is to be absorbed, and to be carried away by it. The

function of interest is to engage learners in activities, which they continuously and

consistently carry out. To secure the learners’ interest, therefore, means to attach

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some features of seductiveness to the activities. A learning situation should

involve the learner if he is to gain significantly from it.

According to Ekeke (1987), unless a learning situation is arranged in a way

that would arouse and maintain pupils’ interest they will not learn well or work

consistently. If the learner must gain any substantial knowledge, skills, abilities,

competence and others, he ought to be engaged in activities, which should be

interesting to him. According to Chauhan (1978), Freudian theory has it that

interest is attached or invested in a given object or activity if the object or activity

is associated with pleasure. An interesting object is one in which an individual

tends to seek or approach while an uninteresting object is one in which an

individual tends to retreat from or avoid.

Since learners learn that which is interesting to them, they would refuse to

learn whenever their interests are not taken care of. When learners are engaged in

activities that are uninteresting, they create disciplinary problems. Disciplinary

problem arise where learners are bored, frustrated and are kept passive as in the use

of the traditional teaching methods. Giving learners identical assignments,

monotonous work and making them conform to restrictive rules of conduct make

them uninterested in learning. A good teacher adopts a variety of methods to

increase the learner’s zeal for learning and to help prevent disciplinary problems.

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Interest facilitates learning. According to Nwadike (1992), learners learn

more effectively when they are interested in what they learn. Moreover, in the

view of Congdon (1941), interest produces effort, and effort in its own increases

interest, and a combination of the two usually result in success. This study

therefore explores the effect of the communicative method on students’ interest in

Igbo language and letter writing.

The Influence of Gender in Language LearningGender is an important variable that plays important role in language

learning. Gender refers to the varied socially and culturally constructed roles,

qualities, behaviour and so on that are ascribed to women and men of different

societies (UNICEF, 1991). In the opinion of Bassow (1991) gender is a

psychological term describing behaviours and attributes expected of individuals on

the basis of being born either male or female. Keller (1991) sees gender as a

cultural construct developed by the society to distinguish the roles, behaviours,

mental and emotional characteristics between males and females. In showing the

difference between sex and gender, Uzoegwu (2004) states that sex is a physical

distinction while gender is a social and cultural one. This implies that roles and

expectations of male and female are defined by societies and cultures. In some

societies, men are expected to behave in a certain way and to perform certain

duties. The same thing equally applies to women in some societies. For instance,

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in Igbo society, women do not use proverbs in a social gathering if the men are

present. Gender therefore, refers to a social label by which society distinguishes

two groups of people.

In her own contribution, Uzoegwu (2004) opines that gender comes into

play in writing generally because personality characteristics play important role in

learning and achievement. According to her, personal orientation and thinking

styles of females differ from that of males in achievement. Females may appear to

be suspicious, worried and introverted and these personality characteristics do not

promote learning and achievement. Females may generally think that there are

defects in their personality and as such they might not attain their objectives. In

support, Roberts (1986) discovered that females have general tendencies to think in

negative ways about the task in which they engage. This attitude of females may

affect their achievement in letter writing when communicative teaching method is

used because the method requires interaction with others through group discussion.

Many studies have been carried out to ascertain whether or not the gender of

learners influence their academic achievement. Quite a number of them concluded

that sex produced a strong differential effect on performance of students. Some

studies showed the superiority of males over females in academic performance.

Such is the study of Obioma & Ohuche (1981), Russell (1982) and Uzoegwu

(2004). Uzoegwu (2004) for instance found that male students taught essay

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writing in English using cooperative and lecture method performed better than the

female students taught essay writing using the same methods. There are other

studies that oppose this view. Such studies showed the superiority of females over

males in academic achievement. Examples include Guildford (1969) who

suggested that females perform better in memory for words and word fluency.

Nash (1979) also noted that females tend to do better on tests of verbal ability

including such components as fluency, reading and creative writing. Mansaray

(1988) equally found that girls performed better than boys in both the global and

the analytic cognitive styles of verbal concept attainment in social studies.

In addition to studies which reveal male or female superiority, some others

found that males and females perform equally. These studies therefore maintain a

neutral stand in sex relationship to performance. Example is that of Ezike &

Nwana (1981) who found no discernible difference in the performance of both

male and female students taught mathematics concepts using English and Igbo

languages respectively. Osakwe (2000) also found no significant difference in the

mean achievement of male and female students taught Use of English using

communicative approach.

The differential conclusions on the influence of gender on the achievement

of subjects show that there is a contradictory view with regards to factors which

increase achievement and enhance interest of male and female in subject areas.

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This study therefore wants to see if communicative teaching method will reconcile

the views by making some input which could increase achievement and interest of

students in Igbo letter writing.

The Influence of School Location in Language LearningThe location of a school is an important variable that affects students’

performance in language learning. Over the years, there has been controversy on

the question of whether schools have effect on the behaviour and attainment of

children who attend them. According to Uzoegwu (2004), location of a school

determines so many things that are important in learning, such as learning facilities

and environmental factors, infrastructures, number and quality of teachers and the

class size. Adequate provision or lack of these facilities respectively may improve

or hamper learning by students.

Secondary schools in Nigeria are located in urban and rural areas. Uzoegwu

(2004) opines that no two schools’ environment is the same. The difference in

school environment is expected to result in a differential impact in the acquisition

of skills in language learning. Many studies have been carried out on the influence

of environment on learning. According to Caning (1977), general theories of

learning and the conditions under which learning takes place effectively ought to

be of vital concern to the teacher. Offordile (1995) stated that environment

provides different learning stimulations and as a result, pupils would perform

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differently because they experience different environments. The study of Rose &

Rose (1961) proved that the learner’s environment as derived from his socio-

cultural background would influence the relationship between his intelligence and

his academic performance. Conditions in the home, socio-cultural background,

economic and physical circumstances, socio-environmental activities and

traditional beliefs and choices influence options which affect a child’s intellectual

stimulations.

Rural and urban circumstances present different stimulations for the learner.

Based on this assumption, many studies have revealed that on the average, urban

students perform better than their rural counterparts. Many reasons have been

given for this fact. One of such reasons, according to Uzoegwu (2004) is the fact

that majority of the students from the rural schools in Nigeria come from poor

homes and this affects them academically. These students from the rural schools

lack the basic amenities like reading materials and library facilities. They also do

not have qualified teachers in most of the subjects. This is unlike the students from

the urban schools who have the background experience which enhance learning

and performance. To elaborate on this point, Imoagene (1979) states that because

of urban involvement, students in urban schools perform better in language

learning than those in the rural schools. His reasons include the fact that rural

students have limited access to reading materials, inadequate reading culture and

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insufficient graduate teachers in most of the subjects. Further studies which report

superiority of urban students over their rural counterparts in academic achievement

include the works of Nwachukwu (1982), Umo (2000), Eneh (2002) and Akabogu

(2002). The work of Inomesia (1985) is on the opposing side. His study reported

that rural primary school pupils performed better than their urban counterparts in

primary school sciences.

This present study is therefore a contribution to further studies which are

required on the issue.

Theoretical Framework

Language Learning Methods and Their Associated Shortcomings

and TheoriesThere are various methods and theories which have strong implications for

language teaching and learning. According to Osakwe (2003), every language

teacher is consciously or unconsciously influenced by a particular belief or

philosophy about how best language is learnt. Anasidu (2002) stated that different

motivations in language teaching gave rise to these language methods, and each of

these methods reflects or has the elements of the underlying theory as well as the

linguistic description it draw data from. Thus, over the years, various teaching

methods have been used with the hope of improving language learning. In this

review, we shall take a look at some of the popular methods that have been in use

over the years.

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Grammar-Translation Method: This is one of the earliest methods in

language teaching. The method lays much emphasis on prescriptive rules which

have to be memorized and applied in usage. It believes that the normative rules

mastered by the learner enable him to attain correctness in the target language.

This method also emphasized word and grammar knowledge, sentence formation

and accuracy. In the words of Osakwe (2003), the grammar-translation method

stresses much memorization of rules of grammar translation, copious written

exercises and the learning of long bilingual vocabulary lists. Under this method,

learners are passive participants in class activities. They simply receive rules from

teachers and do given exercises from grammar texts. Translation is a crucial goal

of this method. This is because the medium of instruction is normally the first

language, and the target language is learnt by means of translation. Anasidu

(2002) stated that the grammar-translation method is solely concerned with the

written language and sees the language of the best literature as the only

authoritative guide to the desired standard of speech and writing. The method

places much emphasis on the skills of reading and writing to neglect of those of

listening and speaking.

A major criticism of this method is the fact that it is solely concerned with

the written language. Other language skills like speech is ignored because the

method attaches no importance to the distinction between speech and writing.

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Furthermore, the method lays too much emphasis on learning about language

rather than learning to use the language, hence, learners under this method are

generally passive in class activities.

Besides the fundamental weaknesses above, Anasidu (2002) wrote that

another major weakness of this method is the fact that it has memorization as an

important technique. This is because memorization is tedious and taxes the

learner’s memory greatly hence, it cannot be suitable for all grades of learners.

Also, it must be extremely boring and frustrating to learners.

The grammar translation method is deeply rooted in the theory of mentalism

which stresses the importance of the mental processes in language learning.

According to this theory, man is born species specific and species uniform. This

means that human beings are born with innate capacity to acquire or learn

language. Both acquisition and learning imply the existence of an innate

mechanism called language acquisition device (LAD). This is why at birth a child

gradually and naturally acquires the mother tongue, without any classroom

teaching, because he/she has the innate capacity to do so. The mentalist believes

that language learning is a rule-governed process. Once the rules are known, one

can produce an infinite number of new sentences.

Anasidu (2002) wrote that in mentalist theory, language learning is a bi-level

process. On the mental level, there is the deep structure, which consists of the

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underlying rules, while on the physical level there is the surface structure, which is

the utterance. The deep structure relates to the internalized knowledge called

competence, while the surface structure relates to actual speech called

performance. Whatever the case may be, the mentalist theory emphasizes the role

of the mind in language learning.

The Direct Method: Criticisms of the grammar-translation method led to

the introduction of the Reform or Direct Method. This method emphasizes the use

of the spoken language. It laid great emphasis on the correct pronunciation of the

target language. This was achieved through constant drills and repetition, and the

learner was allowed to write only what he/she had heard and said. So, listening to

and speaking the language take precedence over reading and writing it. The direct

method completely rejects the use of mother tongue in language learning, hence,

translation from the target language to the mother tongue was totally banned. This

was to avoid interference of the mother tongue with the target language being

acquired by learners. Osakwe (2003) writes that this method does not recognize

the explicit formulation and teaching of grammatical rules. The learner is

encouraged to acquire grammatical structures inductively by practicing with

complete and meaningful utterances.

The direct method according to Osakwe (2003) was first in the line of

methods that emphasized actual communication, so it received overwhelming

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approval in the field of language teaching. That is to say that the purpose of

language learning was communication; students asked and answered questions.

They were allowed to think in the target language as soon as possible.

A major disadvantage of this method according to Offorma (2002) was the

mechanical repetitive drills, which could be engaged in without thought on the part

of learners. Abstract concepts are difficult to translate, and the method

presupposes a resourceful teacher endowed with real fluency in the modern

language he or she teaches.

Another major weakness of this method was lack of time on the part of the

second language learners to acquire it. The direct method wants the learner to

acquire the foreign language exactly the same way he/she did the mother tongue,

regardless of the fact that the time and opportunity the learner has to learn the

foreign language in the school cannot be compared with their experiences in

learning their mother tongue. To buttress this fact, Widdowson (1990) drew

attention to the fact that classroom learners under this method cannot acquire the

foreign language as they do the mother tongue for want of time. Osakwe (2003)

also wrote that the direct method was faulted for forcing learners too early to

communicate in the foreign language, resulting in inaccurate fluency.

The direct method is anchored on the theory of socio-linguistics which

emphasizes the importance of interaction as a means of learning. The proponents

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of this theory believe that the environment and the social context in which

language learning takes place are important factors in language learning. Socio-

linguistic theorists believe that interaction between the learners and users of the

language is the best way of learning the language. Therefore, interaction is a key

factor in this theory. Learners must interact with the users of the language in order

to learn it.

The Audio-Lingual Method: This method was popular in the 1960s. It

emphasized the use of oral proficiency and habit formation through drills and

repetition exercises. Learners are made to listen to dialogues repeatedly and

possibly act them out. The method adopts intensive pattern practice as its

technique, emphasizing the skills of listening and speaking. According to Offorma

(2002), the audio-lingual method stresses oral proficiency, and that the amount of

practice done determines the quality of permanence of learning. Since language

learning is a habit formation, the more something is repeated, the stronger the habit

and the greater the learning.

The audio-lingual method provides a lot of practice in the target language,

thereby enhancing the learner’s ability to speak the language. However, its

disadvantage according to Anasidu (2002) lies in the fact that it is parrot-like and

does not inculcate an in-depth knowledge of the target language in the learner who

has failed to develop grammatical competence in the target language.

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Another weakness of audio-lingual method is the fact that the linguistic

skills of reading and writing were not duly emphasized. They only serve as a

follow-up after the intensive pattern practice, which is its main concern.

The method was also faulted for the fact that it can only serve the need of

beginners, hence, it is by no means suitable for all target language learners.

Anasidu (2002) wrote that remedial and advanced learners obviously find this

method boring and frustrating because their goal is not mere oral performance.

Intensive pattern practice does not offer them the required rules to tackle and

overcome their grammatical problems.

A further disadvantage of this method is the fact that it is teacher-centred

and teacher-controlled. All the activities in the class revolve around the teacher’s

instruction. The method also failed to prepare students for real life communication

which language is supposed to serve.

The audio-lingual method is greatly influenced by the theory of behaviorism

which likens language learning to habit formation. According to this theory,

language is said to be habit-governed. This means that the learner learns only

those things that can be observed. The only data that are relevant are people’s

utterances and situations that give rise to them. Each utterance is a response to a

stimulus and learners given the same conditions learn in the same way. Any

change in learning is due to differences in learning experiences. The behavioural

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theory does not believe in any special internal human endowment that makes

language possible, but it accepts the fact that language is species-specific.

In his own contribution, Anasidu (2002) wrote that in behaviorist theory,

learners are exposed to only the right responses, and learning is enhanced by

repetition and reinforcement, avoiding errors which when they occur are neither

repeated nor reinforced so that they will disappear. Furthermore, when the learner

has learnt the right responses, further linguistic development is by means of

analogy. This simply means that the learner builds up sentences analogous to the

structures already learnt in the classroom.

The Communicative Method: The aim of this method is to develop

communicative ability in the learner through the inculcation of communicative

competence. According to Anasidu (2002), communicative competence comprises

grammatical competence and the ability to use it to communicate functional and

social meanings in concrete situations. In communicative method, the four

linguistic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed

simultaneously in the learner. The main focus of this method is meaning which is

the ultimate goal of communication. Anasidu (2002)wrote that meaning is so

important to this method that it is ready to overlook errors that do not lead to

communication breakdown so as to give the required emphasis on the

communication of meaning. According to Osakwe (2003), communicative method

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is an electric approach, which takes the best of all the methods mentioned above.

The method is also eclectic in nature, drawing from the strengths of other methods

for maximum effectiveness as shown in figure 2.

Communicative teaching method is greatly influenced by the theory of

mentalism. This is because the method strongly believes that the development of

communicative competence is an internal process hence, whatever experience the

learner is exposed to is meant to enhance the processes inside him. Anasidu (2002)

stated that those internal processes normally determine the sequence of learning

followed by the learner. Therefore, learning always takes place when the learner is

exposed to a natural environment even in the absence of a teacher. Hence, the

teacher is seen neither as an initiator nor a dominator, but only as a facilitator of

learning.

From the chart below, communicative method is presented as an eclectic

approach drawing from the strengths of other methods. It is influenced by

mentalistic or cognitive theory which stresses that mental process and memory are

essential in language learning. Communicative method also draws from

sociolinguistic theory which stresses that interaction with the users of the target

language helps learning. The direct method is anchored on the theory of

sociolinguistic and it stresses the skills of listening and speaking which are parts of

the language skills emphasized by communicative method. The audio-lingual

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method is anchored on behavioural theory and it stresses speaking and writing

skills which are also emphasized by communicative method.

Communicative method is therefore depicted in the chart as taking the best

of all other methods.

Fig. II: Summary Chart on Theories and Factors Affecting Language Teaching and Learning and Their Methodological Implications

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Mentalistic or Cognitive theory

Socio-linguistic theory

Behavioural theory

Mental process and memory are essential in

language learning

Interaction with the users of the target language helps learning

Stresses habit-formation and imitation and

repetition

Language is rule-patterned. With

rules, infinite structures are

produced

Direct methodAudio-lingual

method

Grammar-translation method

Stresses listening and speakingNo use of mother-tongueStresses use of the target language in actual situations

Stresses speaking and writing through dialogues and drillsUnconscious learning of grammar rulesStresses pronunciation Teacher-centred. Memorizing rules

and vocabularyCopious writing exercisesRules of grammar and translation.

Communicative Language teaching: an eclectic approach

Culled from Osakwe (2003)

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Review of Related Empirical Studies

There are some empirical studies on the effect of communicative method on

learners’ achievement in the languages. Most of these studies were conducted

outside Nigeria.

A study by Prabhu (1987) and his associates centered on a communicational

teaching project popularly known as the Bangalore Project in India. The project

grew out of dissatisfaction with structural teaching and Prabhu’s conviction that

there was need for a change in methodology of teaching English at both primary

and secondary level of education in India. The experimental study lasted for three

years and was rated highly by an independent team of evaluators who assessed it in

1984. A comparison was made between the communicational task-based method

used by Prabhu and Indian version of the structural method, which involves a

systematic teaching of grammatical-structure. The result of the comparison reveals

that grammar construction can place through a focus on meaning alone. A

conclusion drawn from Prabhu’s project is that a task-based communicational

teaching produces a better impact on language learning than the orthodox

traditional approach.

Risking fun project is another empirical study on communicational task-

based teaching method carried out by Coleman (1987a). The study was carried out

in Indonesia and lasted for a period of four years. The project was geared towards

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generating an alternative approach to the traditional approach used in teaching

English to large groups of first year university students. The Risking fun project

required three types of method: data for management, background information, and

suggestions for management. Using various interaction modes, learners in

Coleman’s project carried out different tasks using both their national language and

English. They used their national language in collecting data from fellow learners

and used English for writing and reading information in the tasks. Through several

tasks and interaction modes, Coleman and team were able to use the task-based

approach to get learners to create their own data from raw materials provided to

them at the beginning of the lesson. This project reflects the positive effect of

task-based language approach in teaching the English language in a large class

situation.

Efficacy of different methods of teaching English for Specific Purposes

(ESP) is yet another important research on communicative methodology conducted

by Biria & Tahririan in 1994. The purpose was to find out if the communicative

method was compatible with the goals of ESP teaching. The subjects for the study

were 120 students who were randomly selected from a population of 410 male

students, aged 19 to 21, studying at Tehran Air University (TAU). Using a

General Proficiency Test (GPT), the sample of students selected was classified as

intermediate and advanced. With a table random numbers, the 120 subjects were

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assigned to three different classes of 40 students for the three different approaches

(translation approach, rhetorical/communicative approach, and the reading

approach). The experimental group was taught by the rhetorical/communicative

method, while the two control groups were taught by text-translation and reading

methods, respectively. At the end of instruction, all the subjects took the English

for Specific Purposes Test (ESPT). A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

was used to analyse the data. The result showed that despite the homogeneity of

the three groups and positive role which proficiency played in the study, the mean

ESPT score achieved by the rhetorical/communicative group was far greater than

those of the translation and reading groups. Based on the result, conclusion was

drawn that under equal conditions, the higher mean score of the rhetorical/

communicative group could be attributed to the effectiveness of the

communicative approach in ESP teaching.

A study by Osakwe (2000) analysed the effects of communicative task-

based approach in large classes on students’ performance in the Use of English.

Her subjects consisted of all first year students of Nnamdi Azikiwe University,

Awka, who take the compulsory Use of English course. Thus, the sample of her

study was about 3,058 students of Arts and Science disciplines. The methods

employed were the communicative task-based approach and the conventional

lecture method, which served as control method. The duration of the study was

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eight weeks. The design was quasi-experimental that made use of pretest and post-

test. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypothesis. It was

found that the communicative task-based method facilitates the learning of Use of

English in large classes more than the conventional method. Although this study is

similar to the present research in design and method, it greatly differs from it in

other respects, such as population and sampling.

Uzoegwu (2004) carried out a research on the effect of the cooperative

learning method on students’ Achievements in English Essay writing. Her subjects

consisted of all Senior Secondary 2 (SS II) students, and her sample was made up

to 299 SS II students from four secondary schools in Nsukka Education Zone. The

design was quasi-experimental and two treatment conditions were used. Analysis

of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data, and the result showed the

superiority of the cooperative teaching method over the conventional method in the

teaching of English essay writing. This study resembles the present one in

experimental design and population, but differs from it in method and other areas,

such as sampling.

In Igbo language area, there have been empirical studies too.

Mmaduegbunam (1994) studied on factors militating against the Effective

Teaching and learning of Igbo in Secondary Schools in Nsukka Urban. Her

findings showed that poor methods of handling the subject affect its development.

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It was also found that the number of periods allotted to Igbo lesson is not

encouraging, and most teachers do not make use of instructional materials in their

teaching. Suggestions such as the adoption of new learner-centered teaching

techniques were made for Igbo language teachers to apply in teaching Igbo

language generally.

Umo (2000) carried out a study on the effect of games on the academic

achievement and interest of Junior Secondary School students in Igbo grammar.

Her population consisted of all the Junior Secondary Year Two (JSS II) students in

Nsukka Education Zone. The sample of her study was 240 JSS II students drawn

from eight schools in Nsukka Education Zone. The method employed was the use

of game strategy in the teaching of Igbo grammar. The design was quasi-

experimental. It was found that the use of games in the teaching of some aspects

of Igbo-grammar enhances students’ interest in the subject. Thus the use of games

as a teaching strategy was advocated because of its effectiveness in making

learners active participants in the teaching and learning process. This study is

similar to the present one only in the experimental design, but differs from it in

other areas like method and population.

From the reviewed studies, no such work had been done on the effect of

communicative teaching method on students’ achievement and interest in Igbo

letter writing, so this study is justified.

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Summary of the Literature ReviewA number of emphases have been made in this review to establish the need

for new methods of teaching Igbo letter writing in schools.

On theoretical and philosophical basis of teaching and learning letter writing

in Igbo language, the review reveals the importance of language as an

indispensable tool for communication and the most vital element for all forms of

learning. It also shows that in all aspects of language learning, letter writing is the

most beneficial to the learners because it exposes the learner to all the skills

involved in a language including the phonological, grammatical, and semantic

rules. Again, when this skill is acquired, it is life-long. Through this way, learners

learn to write correctly without much ambiguity in language.

The review also established the fact that students perform poorly in written

Igbo composition especially in letter writing because they are asked to write about

something they do not understand and in which they have no interest and

experience. If students are to perform better in Igbo letter writing, the teachers

must use teaching methods that appeal to them, and expose them to topics which

they understand and in which they have interest.

The literature also reveals that some of the problems involved in the study of

Igbo language as a whole equally manifest in the teaching and learning of Igbo

letter writing. Some of these problems are inherent in the language. They include

tonal problem, dialectal variations and problem of address.

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This review equally highlights the need for new methods of teaching Igbo

letter writing. The conventional teaching methods are no longer challenging in

preparing learners for meaningful language study. The lecture method was shown

to be a passive method, which does not yield much result especially with the

learning of language. New teaching methods that are learner centered, and make

students active participants in the teaching and learning process were advocated to

be used by teachers in language learning. One of these methods is the

communicative teaching method. The aim of this method is to help learners

achieve communicative competence in the target language. The method has been

shown in literature to embody characteristics like group work, interaction and

problem solving/tasks which motivate language learning. However, no empirical

study known to the researcher has been carried out in Igbo language to determine

the relative effectiveness of this method.

The information above formed the basis for this present study, which sought

to determine the effect of communicative teaching method on students’

achievement and interest in Igbo letter writing.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter is a presentation of the general method and procedure the researcher adopted in this study. It includes: the research design, area of the study, population, sample and sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validation of instrument, reliability of instrument, experimental procedure, and method of data analysis. Design of the Study

This study employed a quasi-experimental design. Specifically, it is a non-equivalent control group design. This design was adopted for this study because it was not possible to randomly sample the subjects so as not to disturb the school structure of placement of students. Intact classes were used for this study. There were both experimental and control groups. This design is also called a non-randomized control group design. The design is illustrated as follows:

Area of the StudyThis study was conducted within Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State. Nsukka

Education Zone comprises Nsukka, Igbo-Etiti and Uzo-Uwani Local Government Areas. The choice of Nsukka Education Zone is because the researcher wanted to use students that share common socio-cultural environment. Schools in Nsukka Local Government Area were used for this study because Nsukka has both urban and rural locations.Population of the Study

The population of this study comprised nineteen thousand, five hundred and three (19,503) SSII students in the Senior Secondary Schools in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State. There are altogether fifty (50) Senior Secondary Schools in Nsukka Education Zone. The population of SSII students in Nsukka Education Zone in the 2006/2007 academic session was approximately nineteen thousand, five hundred and three (19,503) according to the Planning, Research and Statistics (PRS) Unit of Post-Primary Schools Management Board, Nsukka Zonal Office. SSII students are not in the examination class, but it is assumed that they have more experience in the skill of writing having gone through junior and one year of senior secondary education. Sample and Sampling Technique

The subjects for this study comprised 174 students drawn from a population of 19,503 from four secondary schools in Nsukka Local Government Area of Nsukka Education Zone. Using stratified random sampling technique, two schools were selected from urban area, while two schools were selected from rural area. In each sampled school, one arm of SSII was randomly selected and randomly assigned to treatment condition. Therefore, one urban school was assigned to experimental group, while the other was assigned to the control group. The same was done for the rural schools. A total of four classes of SSII students were involved in the study. The distribution of male and female students in the intact classes used for the study is shown in Table 1. Summation of the number of male students in the four intact classes gave the 80 male students used for the study. The same was done for the female subjects to get the 94 female students used for the study. (See Table 1 for details). Table 1: Distribution of sample by gender and locationSchool Location Male Female Treatment Total

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School 1 Urban 20 17Experimental

(Communicative-Method)37

School 2 Urban 20 24 Control (conventional-method) 44

School 3 Rural 21 26 Experimental (communicative-method) 47

School 4 Rural 19 27 Control (conventional-method) 46

Total 80 94 174

Instrument for Data Collection Two instruments were used to collect the data for the study. They are:

(1) Letter writing Achievement Test (LWAT)

(2) Igbo Language Interest Inventory (ILII)

The instruments were developed by the researcher.LWAT was a formal type of letter writing achievement test consisting of one item –

‘Degara onye isi ụlọakwụkwọ gị akwụkwọ ozi kọọrọ ya maka ajọ ọnọdụ agụmakwụkwọ n’ụlọ akwụkwọ unu’. The students were required to write 300 words on the topic, for a period of 45 minutes for each group. The 300 words limit is in keeping with the WAEC Igbo language examination practice. The achievement test was used as pre- and post-treatment tests, and they consisted of the same items. The pre/post tests were scored over 100 marks based on the criteria for scoring essay and letters in Igbo language. These were contained in the marking guide as shown in Appendix E.

ILII was a 20-item interest inventory consisting of 10 positive and 10 negative items. This inventory was developed by the researcher. The instrument was constructed on a 4-point rating scale ranging from SA to SD (see Appendix L).Validation of the Instruments

Four letter writing topics and their marking guide were face validated by three experts in Curriculum and Languages Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. During face validation, the letter writing topics and their associated marking guide were scrutinized in terms of relevance, content and clarity and difficulty level. One of the topics was eventually chosen after little adjustments like changing the word ‘Gọvanọ’ to ‘onye isi ụlọ akwụkwọ’ and the word ‘leta’ to ‘akwụkwọ ozi’, also, the word ‘steeti gi’ was changed to ‘ụlọ akwụkwọ unu’. The final topic thus reads: ‘Degara onye isi ulọ akwụkwọ gị akwụkwọ ozi, ma kọọrọ ya maka ajọ ọnọdụ agụmakwụkwọ n’ụlọ akwụkwọ unu’. This topic formed the pre-test and post test (see Appendix B).

For the ILII, 30 positive items were initially presented to experts to validate based on the following criteria:

- Extent to which the statements in the ILII assesses interest in Igbo languages.

- Clarity of language to SSII students.

Following the experts’ comments, the final version of the ILII consisting of 20 items of 10 positive and 10 negative items formed the ILII. This means that out of the 30 original positive

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items, 10 were dropped based on experts’ recommendation and another 10 restructured to include negative items.

The lesson plans were face validated by three experts in language education. They were specifically requested to examine the extent to which:

- The lesson plans covered the contents of instruction/scheme of work;

- The lesson objective were clearly stated;

- The objectives were appropriate to the students’ level.

Their report indicated that the lesson plans are of very good standard.Reliability of the Instruments

Inter-rater reliability of the letter writing topic was determined. Five students outside the researcher’s area of study were involved. Three raters rated each student’s work and the instrument yielded an inter-rater reliability index of 0.6, using the Kendall’s co-efficient of concordance (see Appendix I). The raters based their rating on the points presented by the researcher in the marking guide. This is in line with the pattern of rating students scripts in senior certificate exams (see Appendix E).

The Letter Writing Achievement Test (LWAT) was further subjected to test-retest reliability estimate. This was to ensure stability of the instrument as the same instrument was to be used as pre- and post-tests. After the first administration, a 2-weeks’ gap was allowed before the second administration to the same set of students. Using the Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient technique, the LWAT yielded a reliability index of 0.7. This co-efficient is high and shows that the LWAT is stable over time.

For the ILII, an estimate of internal consistency using Cronbach Alpha formula was used because the items are not dichotomously scored. An internal consistency index of 0.8 was obtained. The Experimental Procedure

The Letter Writing Achievement Test (LWAT) and Igbo Language Interest Inventory (ILII) were administered as pre-test to the subjects before the commencement of treatment. Thereafter the teaching began.

The experimental group was taught using communicative teaching method, while the control group was taught using the conventional lecture method. The main difference in the two methods lies in the pattern of conducting classroom activities. For the experimental group, the teacher divided the students into two heterogeneous groups. Class activities were controlled and conducted by the students with minimal teacher involvement. The teaching went like this:

Step I: Introduction: The teacher presented the students with assignment which centered on their peculiar language use experiences, “Depụta okwu ị ga-agwa Ọhaneze iji gosi na asụsụ Igbo bụ ihe tosiri ịmụ n’ụlọakwụkwọ dị ka asụsụ ndi ọzọ” (Write a formal speech to show that Igbo language is worthy of studying in schools just like other subjects). To find solution to this assignment, the students were involved in a pre-activity which involved brainstorming and group work. This was designed to set the students minds on the up-coming topic and main task.

Step II: Main task / group interaction: The students were then given a main task by the teacher (a problem solving activity), which led them to develop the targeted letter writing skill, through an integrative approach. The main task was a written formal letter from where the

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students were led to discover the distinctive features of a formal letter. The written formal letter served as the input and it can come in other forms with the goal of identifying how addresses are written, title of a letter written, ideas are developed into paragraphs, among others. In carrying out class activities, each group performs the following:(a) Reading out the written letter in the standard Igbo.

(b) Observing the format for writing formal letter.

(c) Asking and answering questions regarding the format and content of formal letter,

including the information and nature of paragraphs, and how ideas are developed into

paragraphs. This also includes title-formation and conclusion. That is, the students

addressed their minds to how title headings are formed in formal letter. This is best done

by inferring from the main task given. They also discussed how title-headings are written

(i.e. in capital letters or small letters) among other things.

From their discussion in the groups, the students were able to identify the distinctive features of a formal letter that make it differ from the informal type. The teacher’s role here was that of monitoring and facilitating class activities. The learner’s role was to serve as conversational partner and to participate actively in group interaction in classroom setting.

Step III: Evaluation: After group interaction and task completion, each group presents feedback on their completed task to the teacher. This forum created opportunity for exchange of information among groups. It also provided opportunity for teacher’s input and evaluation of the task. The activities here include group presentation and defence through group leaders.

Step IV: Evaluation: There was final review of task in groups. The evaluation was conducted first in groups through group presentation and defence, and finally individually.

In carrying out activities in the main task stage, exercises were designed in such a way as to encourage integrative use of language skills, so that the learners will have opportunity to speak, listen, read and write.

The activities in the control group were more of teacher centered. This means that all the class activities were controlled and conducted by the teacher with minimal students’ involvement. The teacher did all the talking while the students sat and listened with little or no input at all. The teaching was characterized by the following procedure:

Step I: The teacher wrote the topic for the day on the board.Step II: The teacher explained the topic to the students without any attempt to integrate

the language skills. For instance, the teacher explained to the students the features of a formal letter that make it differ from the informal letter. He listed the features on the board for the students to see, with some examples.

Step III: The teacher asked a few general questions based on what he taught the class. Responses were taken from the students.

Step IV: The teacher wrote notes on the board for students to copy.Step V: The students asked the teacher questions if the need arose.

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Step VI: The teacher responded to students’ question and summarized the lesson again for clearer comprehension by students.

The actual treatment session was carried out by the regular Igbo teachers in their respective schools, and they adhered strictly to the lesson plans prepared by the researcher for the groups. The experiment lasted for 4 weeks. At the end, the instruments were re-administered to the subjects as posttest by the teachers. The Igbo language teachers in each school helped in the administration and supervision of the subjects. At the end of the experiment, the students’ scripts were collected, marked and the scores recorded by the researcher. The pretest and posttest scores of the students were collected, organized, analyzed and used to test the research hypotheses and answer the research questions.Control of Extraneous Variables

The following experimental variables were controlled in this study:(1) Students’ Variable:

The students in the experimental and control groups received the same content area of instructional materials using four weeks. The teachers had contact with the subjects three times a week as specified in the school time-table. On the overall, 12 lesson periods of 45 minutes each were used by each group to cover the topics treated. (The instructional materials used for this study are contained in the lesson note as shown in Appendix G.)(2) Experimental Bias:

The students were taught by the regular Igbo language teachers in the four (4) schools

used for the study. The researcher therefore was not personally involved in administering the

research conditions.

(3) Teachers’ Variable:

Lesson plans covering the units of study were prepared by the researcher for the Igbo language teachers that took part in the study. The teachers in the experimental group had a pre-orientation training which lasted for two days. The essence of the training was to enable the experimental group teachers acquire the communicative teaching strategy, and the competencies for carrying out the experimental conditions. This helped to establish a common instructional standard among the teachers for the experimental groups. The training involved explanation of communicative methods, demonstration, its meaning and application to students, on the use of communicative methods by the teachers, and discussion of the lesson plans and research conditions. The teachers were made to follow the lesson plans prepared by the researcher strictly to ensure uniformity. This was achieved by explaining to them the benefits accruable from the use of communicative method, thus arousing their curiosity and interest in the method. At the end of the training, there was a discussion between the researcher and the teachers, which helped the researcher to assess their competency.

The control group teachers did not receive any training on communicative teaching strategy because they were expected to use the conventional method they were used to.(4) Instructional Situation Variable:

To ensure that instructional situations are the same for all the groups except in terms of the treatment condition, the researcher issued out lesson plans to the Igbo teachers in both the treatment and control groups. The teachings were conducted in all SSII classes of the four

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schools used for this research and not just in the intact classes that were used for the study. The reason was to control for Hawthorne effect, that is situation whereby students’ behaviour is affected not just by the treatment alone, but by their awareness that they were involved or taking part in a study. However, the researcher collected her data from only the sampled subjects.(5) Inter-Group Variable:

To check this variable, the experimental and control group subjects were drawn from different schools. The subjects therefore, did not have the opportunity of mixing together or knowing what is happening in each group. Again, because intact classes were used for this study, it implies that initial equivalence was not achieved for the research subjects in the four groups. In order to eliminate the errors of non-equivalence arising from the non-randomization of the subjects, the researcher used the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for data analysis. This invariably corrected for the non-equivalence among the research subjects.(6) Pre-test Post-test Effect:

The experiment lasted for four weeks, and it was expected that this period may have been long enough not to permit the pre-test to affect the post-test scores or to interfere with the experimental treatment.Method of Data Collection

Before the commencement of the experiment, the pre-test instrument was administered to both the treatment and control groups. This helped to determine the extent of subject’s achievement and interest in Igbo language letter writing before treatment. At the end of the experiment, the same instruments were administered to the subjects as post-test. This helped in determining subjects’ achievement and interest in Igbo language letter writing as a result of the methods used in teaching. For each of the groups, data for the pre-test and post-test were recorded separately. The scoring of both the pre-test and posttest were done by the researcher and the research assistants using the marking guide shown in Appendix D.

Method of Data AnalysisThe research questions were answered using mean () scores and standard deviation,

while all the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 alpha level using a three way (Method x Location x Gender) Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The use of ANCOVA was to partial out the initial differences of the research subjects due to sampling, as intact classes were used.

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

In this chapter, the results of the research are analyzed and presented. Data relevant to each research question or hypothesis are presented in tables and explained.

Research Question 1What are the relative mean scores of students taught letter writing in Igbo

language using communicative teaching method and those taught using the

conventional method?

Table 2: Pre/Post Achievement mean () score of students taught letter writing using communicative method and conventional method

Group N Pretest ()

Posttest ()

Gain score

Experimental (Communicative) 84 39.48 52.80 12.32

Control (conventional) 90 38.20 45.33 7.12

Table 2 shows the mean achievement score of students in the experimental

group for the pretest as 39.48 and post test which is 52.80 with a gain score of

12.32, while the control group had a mean achievement score of 38.20 for the

pretest and 45.33 for the post test, with a mean gain of 7.12. The experimental

group obtained a higher mean score than the control group. They also had a higher

mean gain of 5.20.

Research Question 2:

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What are the relative mean achievement scores of male and female students

taught letter writing in Igbo language.

Table 3: Pre/Post test mean () achievement scores of male and female students taught letter writing in Igbo language, using communicative method.

Group N Pretest () Post test () Gain ScoreMale 80 38.18 49.18 11.00

Female 94 39.38 48.79 9.41

From Table 3, it can be observed that the male students had a pre/post test

mean score of 38.18 and 49.18, while the female students had a pre/post mean

score of 39.38 and 48.79. The male students obtained a higher mean score than the

female students. There is also a mean gain of 11.00 for the male students, and 9.41

for the female students. This implies that the male group had a higher mean gain of

1.59.

Research Question 3:

To what extent does location affect the mean achievement scores of students

in letter writing in Igbo language?

Table 4: Mean () achievement and Gain scores of Urban and Rural Students in letter writing in Igbo language.

Group N Pretest () Posttest () Gain ScoreUrban 80 42.86 54.45 11.59Rural 94 35.39 44.31 8.92

Table 4 shows the pre/post test mean achievement scores of urban students

as 42.86 and 54.45 while that of the rural students are 35.39 for the pretest and

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44.31 for the post test. The urban students had a higher mean achievement score

than the rural students. There is also a mean gain of 11.59 for the urban students

and 8.92 for the rural students. This means that the urban students had a higher

mean gain of 2.67.

Research Question 4:

What are the relative mean interest scores of students taught letter writing in

Igbo language using communicative teaching method and those taught using

the conventional lecture method.

Table 5: Pre/post test mean () interest scores of students taught letter writing in Igbo language.

Group N Pretest ()

Posttest ()

Gain score

Experimental (Communicative) 84 51.20 54.44 3.24

Control (Conventional) 90 51.86 54.68 2.82

From Table 5, it can be seen that the control group taught with the lecture

method had a slightly higher mean interest score of 51.86 for the pretest and 54.68

for the posttest, while the experimental group taught with communicative method

had a mean interest score of 51.20 for the pretest and 54.44 for the post-test. There

is a mean gain of 3.24 for the experimental group, and 2.82 for the control group.

This implies that the experimental group had a slightly higher gain score of 0.42.

Research Question 5:

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What are the relative mean interest scores of male and female students

taught letter writing in Igbo language.

Table 6: Pre/post test mean interest scores of male and female students taught letter writing in Igbo language.

Group N Pretest () Posttest () Gain ScoreMale 80 49.59 52.76 3.17

Female 94 53.20 56.10 2.90

Table 6 shows the pre/post test interest mean scores of male students as

49.59 and 52.76, while that of the female students is 53.20 for the pretest and 56.10

for the posttest. The female students had higher mean interest score than the male

students. There is a mean gain of 3.17 for the male students and 2.90 for the female

students. This means that the male students had a slightly higher mean gain of

0.27.

Research Question 6:

To what extent does location affect the mean interest scores of students in

letter writing in Igbo language?

Table 7: Pre/post test mean interest scores of urban and rural students in letter writing in Igbo language.

Group N Pretest () Posttest () Gain Score

Urban 80 51.78 54.68 2.90

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Rural 94 51.34 54.48 3.14

In Table 7, the pre/post test interest mean score of urban students were 51.78

and 54.68. The rural students had a pre/post test interest mean score of 51.34 and

54.48. This shows that the two groups (urban and rural) maintained almost equal

level of interest in letter writing in Igbo language. However, the pre/post test

interest mean scores of the urban group were slightly higher than that of the rural

group. But there is a mean gain of 2.90 for the urban students and 3.14 for the rural

students. The rural students had a slightly higher mean gain of 0.24.

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students

taught letter writing in Igbo language using communicative teaching method

and those taught using the conventional lecture method.

Table 8: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of students’ post achievement scores in Igbo letter writing by treatment, method, gender and location.

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Source of Variation Sum of squares DF Mean

SquareF -

ObservedSig of

F Decision

Covariates 20461.708 1 20461.708 563.931 .000

Pre-test 20461.708 1 20461.708 563.931 .000

Main effects 2010.089 3 670.030 18.466 .000 S

Method 1691.341 1 1691.341 46.614 .000 S

Gender 52.255 1 52.255 1.440 .232 NS

Location 300.368 1 300.368 8.278 .005 S

2-way interactions 164.955 3 54.985 1.515 .212

Method x Gender 4.542 1 4.542 .125 .724 NS

Method x Location 2.323 1 2.323 .064 .801 NS

Explained 22636.752 7 3233.822 89.125 .000

Residual 6023.156 166 36.284

Total 28659.908 173 165.664

Table 8 shows that communicative teaching method is significant on

students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing at 0.05 level of significance. The

observed F-ratio for Method is 46.614. This value is significant at .000 which is

less than 0.05. Consequently, the researcher rejects the null hypothesis of no

significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught with

communicative teaching method and the conventional lecture method.

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Ho2: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement score of male and

female students taught letter writing in Igbo language using communicative

teaching method.

The data in Table 8 show that gender is not significant at 0.05 level of

significance. This is because the calculated F-value of 1.44 is significant at 0.23,

which is beyond 0.05. As a result, the research upholds the null hypothesis of no

significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students

taught letter writing in Igbo language using communicative method.

Ho3: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement score of urban

and rural students taught letter writing in Igbo language using

communicative teaching method.

The data in Table 8 on F-ratio test show that school location is significant at

0.05 level of significance. The calculated F-value of 8.28 is significant at 0.05.

Based on this fact, the research failed to accept the third null hypothesis.

Ho4: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional method and gender

on students’ mean achievement scores in letter writing in Igbo language

when they are taught with communicative teaching method.

The effect of interaction of method and gender on students’ achievement in

Igbo letter writing was not significant at 0.05 level. As shown in Table 8, the

observed F-ratio of 0.13 is significant at 0.72, which is far beyond 0.05. The

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research therefore upholds the null hypothesis of no significant interaction between

method and gender on students’ achievement.

Ho5: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional method and school

location on students’ mean achievement scores in letter writing in Igbo

language using communicative method.

The data presented in Table 8 show that the interaction of Method and

Location had no significant effect on students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing

at 0.05 level. The observed F-value of 0.06 is significant at 0.80 which is much

higher than 0.05. Based on this, the research accepts the null hypothesis of no

significant interaction between Method and Location on students’ achievement.

Ho6: There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of students

taught letter writing in Igbo language using communicative teaching method

and those taught using the conventional method.

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Table 9: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of students interest scores by method, gender and location.

Source of Variation Sum of Squares

DF Mean Square

F-Observed

Sig of F

Covariates 2060.512 1 2060.512 303.665 .000

Pre inter 2060.512 1 2060.512 303.605 .000

Main effects 12.649 3 4.216 .621 .602

Method 4.086 1 4.086 .602 .439

Gender 7.649 1 7.649 1.127 .290

Location .430 1 .430 .063 .802

2-way interaction 34.899 3 11.633 1.714 .166

Method x Gender .509 1 .509 .075 .785

Method x Location 7.449 1 7.449 1.098 .296

Explained 2108.060 7 301.151 44.373 .000

Residual 1126.613 166 6.787

Total 3234.672 173 18.698

Data in Table 9 shows that the communicative teaching method had no

significant effect on the interest of students in Igbo language at 0.05 level of

significance. This is because the calculated F-value of 0.60 is significant at 0.44,

which is beyond 0.05. Based on the non-significant F-value obtained, the research

accepts the null hypothesis.

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Ho7: There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of male and

female students taught letter writing in Igbo language through the

communicative teaching method.

Table 9 shows that gender was not significant at 0.05 level of significance.

The calculated F-value is 1.13 and this is significant at 0.29 which is beyond 0.05.

On this basis, the research upholds the null hypothesis of no significant difference

in the mean interest scores of male and female students in Igbo letter writing.

Ho8: There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of urban and

rural students taught letter writing in Igbo language using communicative

method.

The data in Table 9 show that school location was not significant at 0.05

level of significance. The observed F-value of 0.06 is significant at 0.80 which is

far beyond 0.05. Consequently, the research accepts the null hypothesis of no

significant difference in the mean interest scores of urban and rural students in

Igbo letter writing.

Ho9: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional method and gender

on students’ mean interest scores in letter writing in Igbo language when

they are taught with communicative method.

The data presented in table 9 show that the interaction effect of method and

gender on students’ interest in Igbo letter writing was not significant at 0.05 level

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of significance. This is because the calculated F-value of 0.08 is significant at 0.79,

which is above 0.05 alpha level. Since this is so, the research accepts the null

hypothesis of no significant interaction effect of instructional method and gender

on students’ interest in Igbo letter writing.

Ho10: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional method and school

location on students’ mean interest scores in letter writing in Igbo language

using communicative method.

The data of Table 9 show that the interaction effect of method and school

location on students’ interest in Igbo letter writing was not significant at 0.05 level

of significance. The calculated F-value of 1.10 is significant at 0.29, which is

above 0.05 alpha level. As a result of this fact, the research accepts the null

hypothesis of no significant interaction between instructional method and school

location on students’ interest in Igbo letter writing.

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CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this chapter, the major findings of this study are discussed. This is followed by the conclusions, educational implications, recommendations, limitations, suggestions for further research and summary of the study. Discussion of Results

The discussions of the results of this study are presented under the following sub headings –

(1) Effect of teaching method on achievement in Igbo letter writing.

(2) Influence of gender on achievement in Igbo letter writing.

(3) Influence of school location on achievement in Igbo letter writing.

(4) Effect of teaching method on interest in Igbo letter writing.

(5) Influence of gender on interest in Igbo letter writing.

(6) Influence of school location on interest in Igbo letter writing.

(7) Interaction effect of method and gender and method and location on students’

achievement and interest in Igbo letter writing.

Effect of Teaching Method on Achievement in Igbo Letter WritingThe evidence obtained in this study shows that the experimental group taught Igbo letter

writing through the communicative teaching method obtained a higher mean score than the control group taught the same Igbo letter writing topics through the conventional lecture method. This finding is in line with other studies in which experimental treatment groups taught with learner active methods achieved significantly better results than the control groups. Such studies include those of Osakwe (2000), Umoh (2000), Eneh (2002), and Uzoegwu (2004). All these studies showed the superiority of the experimental method used over the conventional lecture method on students’ achievement. Osakwe (2000) for instance, found that students taught the Use of English through the communicative task-based approach achieved significantly higher than their counterparts taught the same topic through the conventional lecture method. Umo (2000) equally found that pupils taught some aspects of Igbo grammar through the Game strategy achieved significantly higher than those taught through the lecture method. Perhaps, one of the reasons for these findings is due to the fact that most of these new teaching methods are more students-friendly than the conventional methods used by teachers in teaching the subjects. In this new method, the students participate in class activities. Nwadike (1992) has stated that if students studying Igbo language are exposed to only the lecture method of teaching, their interest and achievement will fall. It is possible that the passive manner of teaching Igbo letter writing by the lecture method does not stimulate pupils’ intellectual abilities. It was no surprise,

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therefore, that students taught with communicative teaching method achieved higher than those taught with lecture method since the latter did not appear to stimulate and awaken the students’ active participation in letter writing topics they were taught. Apparently, the communicative teaching method provided a basis for an improvement of learner’s attainment in Igbo language studies. Influence of Gender on Achievement in Igbo Letter Writing

Evidence on the influence of gender on students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing shows that male students obtained a higher gain score than the female students in Igbo letter writing. Statistically, differences in male and female students’ achievement were not significant. Therefore, gender was not a significant factor in students’ achievement in Igbo language letter writing. This finding agrees with some earlier studies like Osakwe (2000), which found no significant difference in the mean achievement of male and female students taught Use of English. Uzoegwu (2004) also found that male students taught essay writing in English using cooperative and lecture methods performed better than the female students taught essay writing using the same methods. However, there are other studies whose results contradict the findings of this research. For example, Nash (1979) noted that female tend to do better on tests of verbal ability including such components as fluency, reading comprehension and creative writing. Guildford (1969) also suggested that females perform better in memory for words, and word fluency.

The issue of gender differences on students’ achievement in language study has generated a lot of controversies over the years. This controversy is as a result of the differences in language achievement as it relates to gender. Some studies believe that females outperform their male counterparts in linguistic aptitude (Nash, 1979), other studies contradict this view (Uzoegwu, 2004). Based on these contradictions, more studies are still required to ascertain which of the gender performs better than the other in language achievement. Meanwhile, the communicative teaching method should be used for teaching both male and female students since both gender benefits equally from using it. Influence of School Location on Achievement in Igbo Letter Writing

The evidence obtained in regard to the influence of school location on students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing shows that school location is a significant factor in students’ cognitive achievement in favour of students from urban schools. Many studies in this area tend to buttress the fact that students from urban schools always outperform their rural counterparts in cognitive achievement in the languages in general, and Igbo language in particular. For instance, the works of Umo (2000), Eneh (2002), and Akabogu (2002) show that location was a significant factor in the achievement of students in favour of urban schools. An explanation for this observed differential achievement in favour of students from urban schools could be that the environment of rural schools are generally insufficiently stimulating unlike urban schools which have lots of fascinating and stimulating objects and events that can enhance language learning. This goes to prove the fact that the location of a school determines so many other factors that improve learning such as infrastructure, quality of teachers, as well as learning facilities. In the case of Igbo language, most students in the urban schools come from different Igbo communities and because of the multiplicity of Igbo dialects, there seems to be uniformity in the use of the standard Igbo by the urban students than the rural ones who are in tune with their local dialects which they use most often in their homes. The standard Igbo is the officially recognized language used to teach Igbo as a subject in the schools. Its constant use by the urban students

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among other factors may have been partly responsible for this result; hence location was a significant factor in the achievement of students in letter writing in Igbo language.Effect of Teaching Method on Students’ Interest in Igbo Letter Writing

The results obtained in this study regarding the level of interest in Igbo letter writing as it was affected by the teaching method used showed that the communicative teaching method had no significant effect on the interest of students in Igbo letter writing at 0.05 level of significance. Interest of the learner was considered an important factor in this study because according to Ekeke (1987), if a true behavior of students is to be approximately obtained in a subject

area, interest, as a factor of the affective aspect must be there. Nwadike (1992) observed that students do not perform better in Igbo language because teachers use methods that do not appeal to them.

Considering the above statement, one can reasonably say that learners’ interest in any subject area depends to a greater extent, on the teaching method. According to Chauhan (1978), gestalt psychologists hold the view that it is the human mind, which is involved in learning. Where a learners’ mind has lost interest, the result becomes obviously poor achievement. In this study, even though the F-ratio was not statistically significant, the students’ gain score was higher for the experimental group taught with communicative teaching method, than the control group taught with the lecture method. This shows that the communicative teaching method has a lot of good qualities that enhance students’ interest in Igbo letter writing such as insight, perception, discovery and understanding in learning situations. However, the fact that the F-ratio was not statistically significant might have been due to the duration of the study which is considered short for interest to manifest. Chauhan (1978) stated that the development of interest by students is a slow process considering other factors that play some part such as length of time, effort of the students and pleasure based activities. He concludes by saying that interest takes longer time to manifest fully. This fact is supported by Umo (2000) whose work showed interest as being statistically significant in the teaching of Igbo grammar through the game strategy though with a longer duration of time. The work of Ofordile (1995) using a long period of seven weeks equally showed interest as a statistically significant variable in the teaching of selected social studies units using the binary teaching method. These results show that duration of study to some extent contributes to the manifestation of interest in individuals.Influence of Gender on Students’ Interest in Igbo Letter Writing

In this study, gender was found to have an insignificant effect on the interest of students in their study of Igbo letter writing. This is because students from the urban schools maintained the same level of interest with students from the rural schools. In other words, boys and girls from both urban and rural schools have the same level of interest in Igbo letter writing. This result has shown that gender is not a factor in the determination of interest of the students in Igbo letter writing. This finding is in line with earlier findings such as Ekeke (1987) who found that gender has no effect on students’ interest in Geography. A plausible excuse for this result might be the duration of the study, which may be short for interest to manifest. Also, it is a fact that ability in a subject may not be an indication of interest in the subject. The use of communicative teaching method has promoted gender equality in the interest of students in Igbo letter writing topics. It has also been demonstrated to be free of gender bias or to have gender influence on students’ interest in Igbo language generally.Influence of School Location on Students’ Interest in Igbo Letter Writing

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The issue of school location on interest of learners also formed part of this study. The result revealed that location had no significant effect on the interest of students in their study of letter writing in Igbo language. Both urban and rural students maintained the same level of interest in Igbo letter writing, although, the urban students achieved slightly higher than their rural counterparts. Also, the adjusted mean score of the urban students was slightly higher than that of the rural students. Against this finding, one may not be surprised with the small disparity between the interests in Igbo language of students in the urban setting as against that of the rural setting. This is because urban and rural students are stimulated differentially by their different circumstances. This implies that the urban environment has a lot of activities and facilities that make Igbo language learners interested in the subject. However, the fact that the urban students’ interest is not statistically significant from that of the rural students has proved that while location may be a factor in achievement using the communicative method, it is not a factor in the determination of interest. So many other factors may influence students’ interest in a subject. One of these factors is the duration of treatment which in this case was not long enough for interest to manifest.Interaction Effect of Teaching Method and School Location on Student’s Achievement and Interest in Igbo Letter Writing

Another finding of this study was that of insignificant interaction effect between teaching method and school location on achievement and interest. There was no significant interaction effect between method and gender on achievement and interest of students in Igbo letter writing. This means that communicative teaching method favors both sexes in the teaching and learning of letter writing in Igbo language. Both sexes (male or female) benefit equally from the use of the method. Communicative method does not discriminate between boys or girls, and as such, it should be used in teaching both sexes.

Also, both urban and rural students benefit equally from the use of communicative teaching method. An insignificant interaction effect between method and location implies that the method favors both urban and rural students in achievement and interest. It should be used in teaching both urban and rural students. Conclusion

On the basis of the findings of this study, the following conclusions were made. Communicative teaching method has facilitative effects on students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing. Students taught Igbo letter writing using the communicative teaching method achieved significantly higher than those taught with the lecture method. Gender had no significant effect on students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing. School location had a significant effect on students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing. In other words, students from urban area performed better than students from the rural area.

On the issue of interest, teaching method had no significant effect on the interest of students in Igbo letter writing. Gender also has no significant influence on the interest of students in Igbo letter writing. That is to say that male and female students maintained the same level of interest in Igbo letter writing. Location had no significant effect on the interest of students in Igbo letter writing. Urban students were found to have the same level of interest in Igbo letter writing with their rural counterparts.

Finally, it was found that the interaction effects of teaching method, school location, teaching method and gender were not significant for both achievement and interest of students in Igbo letter writing. These results indicate that communicative method which was more significant than the lecture method did not favour either the males or females in students’

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achievement and interests in letter writing in Igbo language. This means that communicative method is not discriminating to either boys or girls, or students in urban or rural both in achievement and interest.

Educational ImplicationsThe findings of this study have proved empirically the efficacy of the communicative

teaching method in enhancing students’ achievements in Igbo language generally. This implies that the method adopted by a teacher in teaching a subject determines, to a great extent, the level of students’ achievement in that subject.

The use of communicative method in teaching letter writing in Igbo language produced better results than the lecture method. The implication here is that since Igbo language teachers dominantly use the lecture method as revealed in the background, it means they are using the wrong method, thereby denying students the opportunity of improving on their achievement in Igbo letter writing.

Gender was found to have no significant effect on students’ achievement and interest in letter writing in Igbo language. This implies that whether boy or girl, the students are equally endowed to achieve well and develop interest in Igbo letter writing. This study also found no statistical teaching method and gender interaction in the achievement and interest of students in Igbo letter writing. Communicative teaching method desirably minimized to a negligible degree any gender influence on the level of interest in Igbo language among students. This is a credit to the method because boys and girls ought to aspire for equal educational opportunities and any teaching method that ensures this ought to be readily accepted and adopted by teachers.

This study also revealed that location has a significant effect on students’ achievement in letter writing in Igbo language in favour of the urban schools. Many reasons have been cited for this finding. These include the availability of better teaching materials and infrastructure in the urban schools compared to what are available in the rural areas. The implication here is that students in urban areas have more learning opportunities than those in the rural areas since they have more facilities for learning. On the issue of interest, location was found to have no significant effect on the interest of students. This implies that high interest in Igbo language is not dependent on the location of a school.Recommendations

Based on the findings and the implications of this study, the following recommendations are made:

(1) Since communicative teaching method has been found to significantly increase

achievement as well as enhance interest of students in Igbo language study, it is

recommended that secondary school teachers should be familiar with this method of

teaching so that they can start using it. Conferences, seminars and workshops should be

periodically organized by Governments and other relevant professional bodies like

SPILC (i.e. Society for the Promotion of Igbo Language and Culture and Igbo

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Language Teachers’ Association) to educate Igbo language teachers on the use of the

communicative teaching method in teaching and learning of Igbo language letter

writing.

(2) In addition to the above recommendation, Government bodies and curriculum planners

whose duty it is to design and revise secondary school Igbo curriculum should include

and emphasize the use of communicative teaching method in teaching Igbo letter

writing since the method has been proved to enhance students’ achievement in Igbo

letter writing.

(3) Also, Igbo language teachers in the rural schools should be encouraged to increase their

efforts and step up their professional flair so as to motivate their students to achieve

higher in Igbo language with their urban colleagues. One way of doing this is the

provision of more teaching facilities for Igbo language study in the rural areas by the

government.

Limitations of the StudyThe generalizations drawn from this study are subject to the following limitations:

(1) Altogether, four different secondary schools Igbo language teachers were involved in the

study. Therefore, some extraneous variables such as teaching style and manner of

speech arising from teacher differences were bound to have influenced the results of

the study to some degree.

(2) The contents covered were only four topics of the formal type of letter writing, which is

just a small part of the entire syllabus.

(3) The duration of this research was four weeks which might be short for a variable like

interest to manifest.

Suggestions for Further Research Areas for further research based on the findings and the limitations of the study are:

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(1) Replication of this study can be carried out in other branches of Igbo language

learning such as reading (Agụmagụ) and grammar (ụtọ asụsụ).

(2) Similar research can be carried out using students from other Education Zones in and

outside the state

Summary of the StudyThis study sought to identify the effect of communicative teaching method on

achievement and interest of students in letter writing in Igbo language. In addition, it investigated the influence of school location and gender on the achievement and interest of students in Igbo language studies.

Six research questions were posed and ten null hypotheses were formulated for the study. A quasi-experimental non-equivalent control-group design was utilized for the study. A sample of SSII students from four co-educational secondary schools in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State was purposively drawn for this study. Nsukka Education Zone was purposively selected for this study because it is the only education zone that has both urban and rural locations. Using stratified disproportionate random sampling, two schools each from urban and rural locations were selected for the study. Two of the selected schools (one in urban and one in rural areas), served as the experimental group. An intact class was randomly selected in each of the four schools and randomly assigned to treatment or control condition. A total of 174 SSII students were used for the study. The experimental treatment group was taught with communicative teaching method while the control group was taught with the conventional lecture method. Treatment lasted for four weeks. The students were taught by their regular teachers and teaching was done during the periods for Igbo language studies as on the school time-table. Lesson plans developed by the researcher were used for teaching the lessons.

Two instruments for data collection pertinent to the study were used. They are Letter Writing Achievement Test (LWAT) and Igbo Language Interest Inventory (ILII). The researcher developed both instruments and they were face validated by measurement and evaluation experts in the Department of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, and Igbo language teachers. The reliability indices of the instruments are 0.6 and 0.8 respectively. The instruments were administered as pretest before treatment and post-test after treatment.

The research questions were answered by calculating the mean scores and using them as a basis for comparison between the experimental and control group data. The hypotheses were tested using analysis of covariance (ANOVA).

Major findings of the study are:1) Communicative teaching method had significant effect on students’ achievement in

Igbo letter writing.

2) Gender had no significant effect on achievement and interest of students in letter

writing in Igbo language.

3) School location exerted significant influence on students’ achievement in Igbo letter

writing. However, it did not have significant influence on the interest of the students.

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4) Interaction effect of teaching method and gender on both achievement and interest of

students in letter writing in Igbo language was not significant.

5) Interaction effect of teaching method and school location on both achievement and

interest of students in letter writing in Igbo language was not significant.

These findings provided a basis for certain related conclusions such as the fact that communicative teaching method has facilitative effects on students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing. Implications of the study were presented. Based on the findings and implications, a number of pertinent recommendations were made. These include (1) familiarizing Igbo teachers with communicative teaching method through the organization of conferences, seminars and workshops by Government and relevant professional bodies like SPILC; and (2) emphasizing the use of communicative teaching method in teaching Igbo letter writing in the secondary school Igbo Curriculum by Government bodies and curriculum planners since the method has been proved to enhance students’ achievement in Igbo letter writing. Limitations of the study were presented and discussed and suggestions were made for further research.

135

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APPENDIX A

Department of EducationUniversity of NigeriaNsukka………………… 2002

Prof/Dr/Mr/NMrs__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VETTING AND FACE VALIDATION OF ANACHIEVEMENT TEST IN IGBO LANGUAGE

I am a postgraduate student of the above named University, and I am developing an achievement test in Igbo language study. I will be grateful if you go through this draft and respond to the attached questionnaire.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Please read each item and fill the corresponding colum. Tick () against the number if satisfactory. (Note: only one item is required for the achievement test.)

Which of the four letter-writing items is most suitable for the students in terms of

Language Expression Skill/method involved

1. Degara Kọmishona Mmụta dị n’aka Leta, gwa ya ihe dị Ụlọakwụkwọ unu mkpa Ị ga-achọ ka O meere unu.

2. Deere onyeisi Ụlọakwụkwọ gị akwụkwọ kọọrọ ya maka ajọ ọnọdụ agụmakwụkwọ n’ụlọ akwụkwọ unu.

3. Degara Ụlọọrụ na-arụpụta Simenti leta maka owuwe n’ọrụ dị ka ọgbakọego. Tinye ihe mere ka Ị tozụo ịrụ ọrụ a.

4. Deere onyeisi Ụlọakwụkwọ gị akwụkwọ ozi ma kọọrọ ya mkpa ọ dị na asụsụ Igbo bụ ihe tosiri ịmụ n’Ụlọakwụkwọ dị ka asụsụ ndị ọzọ.

146

APPENDIX B

Possible Items for Achievement Test in Igbo Letter Writing(Formal Letter)

1. Degara kọmịshọna mmụta dị n’aka leta gwa ya ihe dị ụlọakwụkwọ unu

mkpa ị ga-achọ ka o mere unu.

2. Degara onyeisi ụlọakwụkwọ gị akwụkwọ ozi kọọrọ ya maka ajọ ọnọdụ

agụmakwụkwọ n’ụlọakwụkwọ unu.

3. Degara ụlọọrụ na-arụpụta simenti leta maka owuwe n’ọrụ dị ka

ọgbakọego. Tinye ihe mere ka ị tozuo ịrụ ọrụ a.

4. Deere onyeisi ụlọakwụkwọ gị akwụkwọ ozi ma kọọrọ ya mkpa ọ dị na

asụsụ Igbo bụ ihe tosiri ịmụ n’ụlọakwụkwọ dị ka asụsụ ndị ọzọ.

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APPENDIX C

Achievement Test in Igbo Language for

Pretest/Post-Test

Name of School: …………………………………………………………………….

Name of Student:…………………………………………………………………….

Sex of Student: ...…………………………………………………………………….

Date: …………………………………………………………………………………

Ihe I tosiri Ịma:

Edemede leta gị agaghị akarị mkpụrụ okwu narị atọ.

Oge: Nkeji iri anọ na ise.

Ajụjụ:

Degara onye isi ụlọakwụkwọ gị akwụkwọ ozi kọọrọ ya maka ajọ ọnọdụ

agụmakwụkwọ n’ụlọ akwụkwọ unu.

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APPENDIX D

Marking Scheme for the Pretest/Post-Test

Ihe ndị a chọrọ n’aka ụmụakwụkwọ:

1. Adresi odee na nke onye ọ na-edegara akwụkwọ ozi ya.

2. Isiokwu mbunuuche edemede.

3. Nwata ọ bụla ga-edepụta akara o ji egosipụta ajọ ọnọdụ agụmakwụkwọ

n’ụlọakwụkwọ ha dị ka:

E nweghi ezigbo ndị nkuzi a zụrụ nke ọma.

E nweghi ezigbo akarangwa eji-agụ akwụkwọ.

Ọtụtụ abụbọ ọrụ ndị nkuzi na-agba oge ọ bụla.

Mpụ na aghụghọ ụmụakwụkwọ na-eme n’ule.

Oke ọnụ akwụkwọ eji-agụ akwụkwọ

Oke ọnụ ụgwọ akwụkwọ, dgz.

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APPENDIX E

Rating

1.

2.

3.

Ndezita (Mechanical accuracy i.e. spellings, punctuations

and dottings)

Nhazi (Organisation i.e. well written address, sequential

presentation of ideas, and arrangement of ideas into

paragraphs)

Nka edemede (Expression i.e. proper use of standard Igbo;

use of idioms and proverbs)

35 mks.

35 mks.

30 mks.

Total points100 marks

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APPENDIX F

IGBO LANGUAGE INTEREST INVENTORY (ILII)

SA A D SD1. Like studying Igbo language

2. Study Igbo letter writing at my free time

3. Feel shy speaking Igbo among my schoolmates

4. Pay for extra lessons on Igbo language

5. Speak Standard Igbo very well

6. Feel unhappy each time teacher writes Igbo language on the black board

7. Speaking Igbo in the class makes me unhappy

8. Do take home assignments in Igbo letter writing

9. Take part in Igbo language drama/debates in school

10. Do not like writing my letters in Igbo language

11. Like more lesson periods allotted to Igbo language per week

12. Enjoy Igbo lessons most when it is done in English

13. Write essays for publication in students’ Igbo Journals

14. Get bored whenever Igbo lesson is going on in the class

15. Stay away from class whenever an Igbo lesson is going on

16. Study Igbo language beyond school certificate level

17. Become an Igbo language teacher after graduation

18. Attend seminars and workshops in Igbo language

19. Encourage friends and relatives to write in Igbo language

20. Igbo language does not contribute much to learning

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APPENDIX G

Lesson Note for the Experimental GroupBased on Communicative Method

Hints for the Teacher

The goal of communicative method is to achieve fluency in the target language. The

teacher should bear this in mind while delivering his lessons. Each lesson should begin with a

brief explanation or oral discussion by the teacher on the topic of the day. All discussion must

be in the standard Igbo. Students must be made aware of this fact before group interaction.

Izuuka nke Mbụ

Ihe Ọmụmụ: Asụsụ Igbo

Klasị: SS 2

Oge: Nkeji iri anọ na ise

Isiokwu: Edemede leta anamachọihe

Nka Nkuzi: Mkparịta ụka, ajụjụ na nchọpụta

Mbunuuche: Mgbe nkuzi ga-akwụsị, a tụrụ anya na ụmụaka ga-enwe ike mee ihe ndịa:

(i) kọwaa ihe bụ leta anamachọihe

(ii) kwụpụta usoro esi-ahazi leta anamachọihe

(iii) chọpụta akara njirimara leta anamachọihe.

Usoro Nkuzi

Omume Onye Nkuzi Omume Ụmụaka

Onye nkuzi ga-eji nkenke okwu kọwara

ụmụaka ihe banyere isiokwu ihe ọmụmụ ahụ

bụ leta anamachọihe. Ọ ga-ekewa klasị ụzọ

abụọ, ma nye ha edemede leta edechagoro nke

ọma. Onye nkuzi ga-agwa otu ọ bụla ka ha

mee ihe ndia:

(a) Kọwaa ụdị leta bụ ihe ahụ

(b) Chọpụta akara njirimara ụdị leta ahụ

(ch) Tulee nhazi leta ahụ, tinyere nhazi

Ụmụaka ga-anọ n’otu ha dị iche iche dịka e siri

kewaa ha. Ha ga-enwe mkparịta ụka banyere

isiokwu e nyere ha. Ọ bụ olu Igbo izugbe ka

ha ga-eji na-eme nke a. Mkparịtaụka ha ga-

eme ga-agbaso usoro ndịa:

(a) Ótù onye ga-agụpụtara òtù ha

edemede leta ahụ e nyere ha n’olu Igbo

izugbe.

(b) Mgbe a gụchara ya, òtù ọ bụla ga-

152

echiche mebere isiokwu leta ahụ.

Mgbe ụmụaka na-enwe mkparịta-ụka, onye

nkuzi ga na-agagharị na klasị iji hụ na òtù

ọbụla ahapụgbị ihe a gwara ha mee wee

mebe ihe ọzọ.

Mgbe onyeisi òtù ọbụla na-agụpụtara klasị

ihe ndị ha chọpụtara, onye nkuzi ga na-

edetu nchọpụta ha n’ugbooji nke ọ ga

ekpokọta ọnụ oge ọ ga-emechi nkuzi ya.

Onye nkuzi ga-ahụ na ụmụaka ji olu Igbo

izugbe wee na-eme mkparịtauka ha.

Ọ ga-enye ohere maka ajụjụ na azịza n’etiti

ụmụaka site na nchọpụta ha.

agbalị ịhụ na ha chepụtara ọtụtụ atụmatụ

ma ọ bụ echiche ga-eduzi ha n’ịchọpụta

ihe ndị a gwara ha ka ha chọpụta.

(ch) Nwata ọ bụla ga na-edetu ihe ha

chọpụtara n’akwụkwọ.

(d) Ụmụaka ga-enye ohere n’etiti onwe ha

maka onye ọ bụla ikwupụta echiche ya

n’olu Igbo izugbe.

(e) Òtù ọ bụla ga-enwe onye ísí nke ga-

agụpụtara klasị ihe ha chọpụtara n’olu

Igbo izugbe.

Nwale na Mmechi

Onye nkuzi ga-ajụ ụmụaka ajụjụ site n’ihe ha gụpụtara. Ụmụaka ga-aza ajụjụ nke onye

nkuzi. Onye nkuzi ga-ekpokọta nkuzi ya ọnụ ma wetazie ihe ọmụmụ ahụ n’isi njedebe.

Ihe ọmụmụ niile a ga-amụ n’izuuka ọ bụla ga-agbaso usoro nkuzia. Ebe ụmụaka marala

ihe bụ leta anamachọihe, onye nkuzi ga-enyezi ha ọtụtụ ọmụmaatu ụdị leta a ka ha wee mụta

usoro nhazi ya. Nkuzi niile ga-agbaso usoro mkparịtaụka, ajụjụ na nchọpụta (communicative

method).

Isiokwu ụmụaka ga-amụ gụnyere ndịa:

1) Degara ụlọọrụ na-arụpụta mmanụ akwụkwọ ka ha were gị n’ọrụ dị ka o debe ego.

(Tinye ihe mere ka ị tozuo ịrụ ọrụ a).

2) Degara onyeisi ụlọakwụkwọ gị leta rịọ ya maka ohere ịkwụsị akwụkwọ abalị atọ.

(Depụta ihe mere iji chọọ ohere a.)

3) Degara onyeisi ụlọakwụkwọ gị leta mkpesa banyere mpụ na aghụghọ ụmụaka na-eme

n’ule ugbua. (Tinye ya aro ihe ndị ọga-eme iji gbochie ọghọm dị otua n’ụlọ

akwụkwọ unu.)

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Translated English Version of the Lesson NoteFor the Experimental Group

Hints for the Teacher

The goal of communicative method is to achieve fluency in the target language. The

teacher should bear this in mind while delivering his lessons. Each lesson should begin with a

brief explanation or oral discussion by the teacher on the topic of the day. All discussion must

be in the standard Igbo. Students must be made aware of this fact before group interaction.

Subject: Igbo Language

Class: SSII

Time: 45 minutes

Topic: Formal Letter

Performance Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the following:

(1) Explain what is meant by formal letter.

(2) Explain types of formal letter.

(3) Find out the distinctive features of a formal letter.

(4) Select appropriate words/sentences (official language) that suit a formal letter.

(5) Express their thoughts clearly in the standard Igbo through clarity of sentences.

(6) Write a good formal letter in the standard Igbo with minimal grammatical errors.

(7) Work communicatively through group discussion and sharing in the standard Igbo.

Activities

Teacher’s activities Students’ activities

The teacher starts the lesson with a brief

introduction of the topic. He divides the

class into two heterogeneous groups and

gives them an input – a written formal

letter. The teacher requests each group to

do the following:

The students stay in different groups as directed by

the teacher. They start discussion on the topic of

the day. The whole discussion must be in the

standard Igbo. The discussion goes like this:

One person reads out the formal letter to the

class in the standard Igbo.

154

(1) Explain the type of letter.

(2) Find out the distinctive features of the

letter.

(3) Examine the content of the letter and

its organisation like the salutation, the

topic heading, and so on.

As students discuss in their groups,

the teacher works around to ensure

that each group does not deviate

from what they are supposed to do.

During group presentation and

defence, the teacher writes down

each group findings on the board

for his summary.

The teacher ensures that each group

does their sharing and discussion in

the standard Igbo.

Other students listen and at the end, each

group tries to think out the points that will

lead them to discover the targeted letter

writing skills involved in a formal letter as

well as the features of a formal letter such as

address, salutation, title, opening sentence,

choice of words, paragraphing, body of the

letter, and so on.

As group interaction and discussion go on,

each child writes the findings in a paper or

note.

Every child contributes and brings out ideas

during group discussion and interaction.

Each group has a group leader that will

present their findings to the class during group

presentation and defence.

Evaluation

The evaluation is done first in groups through group presentation and defence. The

teacher then asks the students questions which they answer individually. The teacher

summarizes the lesson and brings it to an end.

Every lesson during the period of study follows the above procedure. Having known the

features of a formal letter, the teacher introduces different letter writing topics to the students in

the subsequent lessons for group discussion and interaction. The whole teaching is done through

communicative approach with emphasis on the use of the standard Igbo.

The topics are:

(1) Write a letter to an oil company for the post of Treasurer. (Include why you consider

yourself fit for the job.)

(2) Write a letter to your Principal requesting for permission to be absent from school for

three days. (Include why you need such permission.)

155

(3) Write a complaint letter to the Principal of your school on the high rate of

examination malpractice in the school. (Suggest to him measures he will take to

arrest the situation in the school.)

156

APPENDIX H

Lesson Note for the Control Group Based on theConventional Lecture Method

Izuuka nke Mbụ

Ihe Ọmụmụ: Asụsụ Igbo

Klasị: SS 2

Oge: Nkeji iri anọ na ise

Isiokwu: Edemede leta anamachọihe

Nka Nkuzi: Nkọwa, ọmụmaatụ na ajụjụ

Mbunuuche: Mgbe nkuzi ga-akwụsị, a tụrụ anya na ụmụaka ga-enwe ike mee ihe ndịa:

(j) kọwaa ihe bụ leta anamachọihe

(ii) kwụpụta usoro esi-ahazi leta anamachọihe

(iii) chọpụta akara njirimara leta anamachọihe.

Usoro Nkuzi

Omume Onye Nkuzi Omume Ụmụaka

Onye nkuzi ga-akọwara ụmụaka ihe bụ leta

anamachọihe na usoro esi ahazi ya, dịka: Leta

anamachọihe bụ ụdị leta na-ebu adresi abụọ. Ya bụ nke

‘odee’ na ‘ọgụụ’. ihe ndia:

Onye nkuzi ga-akọwara ụmụaka usoro ndị ọzọ e si-ahazi

leta a.

Onye nkuzi ga-akọwara ụmụaka usoro nhazi echiche dị

n’isiokwu leta anamachọihe.

Onye nkuzi ga-akọwakwara ụmụaka usoro mmechi leta

anamachọihe. Nke a na-ebu akara njirimara onye

(Signature), na aha odee n’uju

Onye nkuzi ga-edere ụmụaka nootu n’ugbooji ka ha

debanye na akwụkwọ ha.

Onye nkuzi ga-ajụ ụmụaka ajụjụ site n’ihe ọ kụziri ha.

Ụmụaka ga-anọ nwayọọ na-ege

ntị na ihe onye nkuzi na akụzi.

Ha ga-azakwa ajụjụ ọ bụla

nke onye nkuzi ga-ajụ ha

n’isi njedebe ihe ọmụmụ a.

Ụmụaka ga-edebanye nootu

onye nkuzi nyere ha n’ime

akwụkwọ ha.

157

Nwale na Mmechi

Onye nkuzi ga-ajụ ụmụaka ajụjụ site n’ihe ọ kụziri ha. Ọ ga-eme kwa mmeghari ihe ọ

kụziri ka ndị agbọtachaghị ya wee mụrụ ya.

Ihe ọmụmụ niile a ga-amụ n’izuụka ọ bụla ga-agbaso usoro nkuzi a. Ọ bụ ọrụ onye nkuzi

ịkọwara ụmụaka isiokwu ọ bụla ọchọrọ ikuzi ka o doo ha anya. Ọrụ ụmụakwụkwọ bụ ịnọ

nwayọọ na-ege ntị na nkuzi nke onye nkuzi.

Isiokwu ụmụaka ga-amụ gụnyere ndịa:

1. Degara ụlọọrụ na-arụpụta mmanụ akwụkwọ ka ha were gị n’ọrụ dị ka o debe ego.

2. Degara onyeisi ụlọakwụkwọ gị leta rịọ ya maka ohere ịkwụsị akwụkwọ abalị atọ.

(Depụta ihe mere iji chọọ ohere a.)

3. Deere onyeisi ụlọakwụkwọ gị akwụkwọ ozi ma kọọrọ ya mkpa ọ dị na asụsụ Igbo bụ

ihe tosiri ịmụ n’ụlọakwụkwọ dị ka asụsụ ndị ọzọ.

158

Translated English Version of the Lesson NoteFor the Control Group

Subject: Igbo Language

Class: SSII

Time: 45 minutes

Topic: Formal Letter

Performance Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the following:

(1) Explain what is meant by formal letter.

(2) Explain types of formal letter.

(3) Find out the distinctive features of a formal letter.

(4) Select appropriate words/sentences (official language) that suit a formal letter.

(5) Express their thoughts clearly in the standard Igbo through clarity of sentences.

(6) Write a good formal letter in the standard Igbo with minimal grammatical errors.

(7) Work communicatively through group discussion and sharing in the standard Igbo.

Activities

Teacher’s activities Students’ activities

The teacher starts the lesson with an explanation of the meaning

of formal letter: A type of letter with two addresses.

The teacher explains to the class the features of a formal letter.

This include: two addresses, salutation, title, body of the work,

and so on.

The teacher explains to the class the organisation of a formal

letter. He talks about the opening sentence, paragraphing (i.e.

sequential arrangement of ideas into paragraphs), the use of

official language – the standard Igbo, and so on.

The teacher talks about the closing format of a formal letter.

This bears the signature of the writer and the name in full.

Teacher copies note for students on the blackboard.

The students sit and

listen attentively to

the teacher.

They answer

questions from the

teacher and ask the

teacher questions if

need be.

The students copy the

teacher’s note into

their notebooks.

159

Evaluation

At the end of the lesson, the teacher asks the students questions on what he taught them.

The students respond to the teachers’ questions. The teacher summarizes the lesson and brings it

to an end.

Every lesson during the period of study follows the above conventional method. Having

known the features of a formal letter, the teacher introduces different letter writing topics to the

students in the subsequent lessons. He explains each topic very well in the class for easy

comprehension by students. The students listen attentively to the teacher and copy down notes

into their notebooks.

The topics are:

(1) Write a letter to an oil company for the post of Treasurer. (Include why you consider

yourself fit for the job.)

(2) Write a letter to your Principal requesting for permission to be absent from school for

three days. (Include why you need such permission.)

(3) Write a complaint letter to the Principal of your school on the high rate of examination

malpractice in the school. (Suggest to him measures he will take to arrest the

situation in the school.)

160

APPENDIX K

List of Schools Used for the Study

1. Model Secondary School, Nsukka

2. Community Secondary School, Obimo

3. Community Secondary School, Alor-Uno

4. Community Secondary School, Obukpa

166

APPENDIX L

Scale of Scoring Format For ILIINature of Statement SA A D SD

Positive Items 4 3 2 1Negative Items 1 2 3 4

167

APPENDIX I 163

APPENDIX J 164 165

168

Ph.D. ORAL EXAMINATION

CANDIDATE: OMEJE, MONICA OBIAGELI

REG. NO. PG/Ph.D/98/26001

DATE OF EXAMINATION: 3RD DECEMBER, 2008

166

CORRECTIONS SUGGESTED BY THE EXTERNAL EXAMINERSAND ACTIONS TAKEN

S/NO CORRECTIONS SUGGESTED PAGES ACTION TAKEN REMARKS

1. Write all names in full in the cover page and

title pagei Corrected

2. Put ‘partial’ before fulfillment in the title page i Corrected

3. Put the name of the Supervisor and Head of

Department in Certification Pageii

Correction

effected

4. Remove the first sentence in

Acknowledgementsv

Correction

effected

5. Re-write all chapter headings in capital letter in

the Table of Contentsvii

Correction

effected

6. Parts of the Abstract to be recast for better

clarityxii

Correction

effected

7. Put source after the first sentence in the

Background of Study1

Correction

effected

8. Some parts of the Background to be re-cast for

better clarity1-14

Correction

effected

9. Reconcile quotations and dates within the

Introduction with the references

1-23

137-144

Correction

effected in the

whole work

10. Reduce citations in the Statement of Problem15-16

Correction

effected

11. Remove the Theoretical Basis of Significance19

Correction

effected

S/NO CORRECTIONS SUGGESTED PAGES ACTION TAKEN REMARKS

12. Recast ‘Literature Review’ to ‘Review of

Related Literature’24

Correction

effected

13. Include review of ‘Gender’ and ‘Location’ as

variables in the Literature Review24-96

Correction

effected

i

14. Do not italicize the sub-headings in the

Literature Review25-96

Correction

effected

15. Reconcile citations and dates in the Literature

Review with the dates in the References24-96

137-144

Correction

effected in the

whole work

16. Put the feedback mechanism in the model70

Correction

effected

17. There should be an explanation of the chart on

p. 8989

Correction

effected

18. Specify Steps I & II 103Correction

effected

19. Explain Steps I-IV 104Correction

effected

20. Specify the exact activities of the therapists and

subjects at each point in time106

Correction

effected

21. Explain Tables 1-3 110-111Correction

effected

22. Indicate the number of males and females;

show their distribution by schools111

Correction

effected

S/NO CORRECTIONS SUGGESTED PAGES ACTION TAKEN REMARKS

23. Explain Tables 8 & 9 115-119Correction

effected

24. Put down the ‘certain related conclusions’

implied in the Summary136

Correction

effected

25. Include in the References cited authors not

referenced137-144

Correction

effected

26 Translate the Lesson Notes in Igbo to English152-155

Correction

effected

ii