sharks and rays of australia - semantic scholar...176 sharks and rays of australia white shark...

Sharks and Rays of Australia

Peter R. Last and John D. Stevens

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S H A R K S A N D R A Y S O F A U S T R A L I A118

CRESTED HORNSHARKHeterodontus galeatus (Günther, 1870)

16.1

ALTERNATIVE NAMESCrested Bullhead Shark, Crested Port Jackson Shark.

FIELD CHARACTERSA hornshark with a large, blunt head, high supra-orbital crests

terminating abruptly behind the eyes, dorsal-fin spines, an anal

fin, and with broad, dark bars, and saddles that do not form a

harness-like pattern.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURESBody stocky. Head large and blunt; high supra-orbital crests with

nearly vertical posterior edges; nostrils connected to mouth by

grooves; gill slits moderately large; mouth small, almost

terminal. Teeth similar in both jaws; anteriors small, pointed,

multicuspid in juveniles; posteriors molar-like with medial

ridges. Skin rough, denticles enlarged. First dorsal-fin origin

over pectoral-fin bases. Both dorsal fins preceded by spines.

Dorsal fins very high and with rounded tips in juveniles,

relatively lower in adults. Pectoral fins very broad, tips broadly

rounded. Anal fin present; caudal fin with distinct ventral and

subterminal lobe.

COLOURMostly yellowish brown; interorbital region and back anterior to

first dorsal fin dark; broad dark bars on cheek and below first

dorsal fin; dark saddles between dorsal fins and behind insertion

of second dorsal fin; lacking a harness-like pattern.

SIZEYoung hatch at about 22 cm and adults thought to attain 130 cm

or more. Males mature at about 60 cm and females at about

70 cm.

REMARKSEgg-cases are spirally flanged and have long tendrils at their

apices. About 10–16 are laid annually during July or August in

20–30 m depth amongst seaweed or sponges. The eggs hatch anterior tooth of upper jaw posterior tooth of upper jaw

30°

20°

40°

140° 150°

?

DISTRIBUTIONCape Moreton (southern Queensland) to Batemans Bay (New

South Wales), possibly also Cape York. Continental shelf from

close inshore to about 90 m depth.

SAROA Txt 1-550.indd 118SAROA Txt 1-550.indd 118 20/11/08 3:32:28 PM20/11/08 3:32:28 PM

Last, P.R. and Stevens, J.D. (2009). Sharks and Rays of Australia. Second Edition. CSIRO PUBLISHING, Melbourne, 656 pp.

© CSIRO 2009 http://www.publish.csiro.au

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H O R N S H A R K S 119

undersurface of head

below the first dorsal fin, and with a few oblique stripes

posteriorly (markings often pale in large adults).

SIZE

Hatches at about 23 cm and reported to attain 165 cm (normally

much smaller). Males mature at about 75 cm and females

between 80 and 95 cm.

REMARKS

Research has shown that this species segregates by sex and

maturity stage. Sharks observed on sublittoral reefs in New

South Wales are mainly adult females. They forage at night,

returning to particular caves and rocky gutters during the day;

these resting sites may be reused in the future. On the central

New South Wales coast, breeding occurs in late winter and

spring, when females lay 10–16 eggs in rock fissures on inshore

reefs (usually in less than 5 m depth). The eggs are about 15 cm

long, 8 cm wide and have spiral flanges (which help retain them

in the rock fissures) but lack tendrils. The young hatch after

about 12 months and grow to maturity in 8–10 years (males) and

11–14 years (females), attaining ages of at least 28 years for males

and 35 years for females. Adult females migrate south in summer,

some as far as 800 km to Tasmania, returning north in winter.

They feed mainly on benthic invertebrates (echinoderms and

PORT JACKSON SHARKHeterodontus portusjacksoni (Meyer, 1793)

16.2

ALTERNATIVE NAMESBullhead, Oyster Crusher, Tabbigaw.

FIELD CHARACTERSA distinctive hornshark with a large, blunt head, supra-orbital

crests that slope away gradually behind the eyes, dorsal-fin

spines, an anal fin, and dark markings on the body in the shape

of a harness.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURESBody stocky. Head large and blunt; supra-orbital crests with

gradually sloping posterior edges; nostrils connected to mouth

by grooves; gill slits large; mouth small, almost terminal. Teeth

similar in both jaws; anteriors small, pointed, multicuspid in

juveniles, unicuspid in adults; posteriors large, flat, molar-like

and without medial ridges. Skin rough, denticles enlarged. First

dorsal-fin origin over pectoral-fin bases. Both dorsal fins

preceded by spines. Dorsal fins high with narrowly pointed tips

in juveniles, relatively lower and with rounded tips in adults.

Pectoral fins very broad, tips rather pointed. Anal fin present;

caudal fin with distinct ventral and subterminal lobe.

COLOURMostly greyish (sometimes brownish) with a dark bar between

the eyes extending down the cheeks; dark harness-like bars

after about 8 months. One individual, kept in an aquarium, grew

at about 5 cm per year, and laid eggs at 11 years of age when it

was 70 cm long. The diet consists of invertebrates, including

echinoids, crustaceans and molluscs, as well as small fishes. Not

utilised commercially in Australia.

LOCAL SYNONYMYMolochophrys galeatus (Günther, 1870).

REFERENCEMcLaughlin and O’Gower (1971).

FISH CODE: 37 007003





WHITE SHARKCarcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758)

30.1

ALTERNATIVE NAMESWhite Pointer, Great White Shark, White Death.

FIELD CHARACTERSA mackerel shark with large, serrated triangular teeth, a crescent-

shaped caudal fin, and minute second dorsal and anal fins.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURESBody fusiform, moderately stout; caudal peduncle with distinct

keel. Snout relatively short and bluntly conical. Teeth large, erect,

triangular and serrated; relatively more slender in lower jaw;

juveniles less than 200 cm with more slender teeth (sometimes

with lateral cusplets and lacking serrations on some cutting

edges). First dorsal-fin origin over pectoral-fin inner margins.

Second dorsal-fin origin in advance of anal-fin origin; second

dorsal and anal fins minute. Caudal fin crescent-shaped, without

a secondary keel below extension of caudal peduncle keel. Tooth

count [23–28/21–25]. Total vertebrae [170–187]; pre-caudal

[100–108].

COLOURDorsal surface blue-grey to grey-brown, often bronzy; white

ventrally; boundary between these tones is mostly abrupt.

Ventral tips of pectoral fins dusky; a dark spot may be present at

the pectoral-fin axil.

SIZEBorn at about 130 cm and attains 600 cm. Males mature at about

360 cm and females at about 450 cm.

REMARKSWhite Sharks appear to be scarce compared to most other widely

distributed shark species, being most frequently reported from

South Africa, the Great Australian Bight, northern California

and the northeastern United States. Like other mackerel sharks,

they have a heat-exchanging circulatory system enabling them

to maintain body temperatures higher than that of the

surrounding seawater. Oophagous with litters of 2–17; the

gestation period may be 18 months with a 3-year reproductive

cycle. Age at maturity is 7–9 years for males and 12–17 years for

females. Satellite tracking has shown that some South Australian

sharks migrate seasonally up the east and west coasts to southern

0°

0°30°60°90°120°150°180°150°120°90°60°30°

30°

60°

30°

60°

30°

DISTRIBUTIONCosmopolitan but mostly antitropical in temperate seas. Probably

throughout Australian waters, but more common in the south,

from southern Queensland to North West Cape (Western

Australia). Normally found over the continental shelf and often

close inshore but also occurs in the open ocean; recorded from

the surface down to 1280 m.

undersurface of headsecond teeth from symphysis

(upper and lower jaw)

SAROA Txt 1-550.indd 176SAROA Txt 1-550.indd 176 15/12/08 10:21:04 AM15/12/08 10:21:04 AM



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M A C K E R E L S H A R K S 177

Queensland and the North West Cape, respectively. A shark

tagged off South Africa travelled to northwestern Australia in 99

days and returned to its tagging location in just under 9 months.

Californian sharks migrate well offshore, as far as Hawaii, and

spend considerable time in the open ocean diving to at least

1000 m. Diets of specimens smaller than about 300 cm consist

mainly of a variety of teleost and elasmobranch fishes. Marine

mammals comprise an important part of the diet of larger sharks.

More attacks on humans, many of them fatal, have been

attributed to the White Shark than to any other marine animal.

Occasionally used commercially for its meat, fins, hide and oil.

White Sharks are now protected in several countries.

LOCAL SYNONYMYCarcharodon albimors Whitley, 1939.

REFERENCESWhitley (1939b); Sibley (1985); Boustany et al. (2002); Bonfil et al. (2005); Bruce et al. (2006).


SIZEBorn at 60–70 cm and attains at least 394 cm. Males mature at

about 195 cm and females at 280 cm.

REMARKSSeldom found in water below 16°C, although one vagrant was

recorded from Wilkesland, Antarctica, at 64°S. The Shortfin

Mako, like other lamnids, has a heat-exchanging circulatory

system. This enables it to maintain body temperatures higher

than that of the surrounding seawater permitting a higher level

of activity. It is probably the fastest of all sharks, capable of

spectacular jumps clear of the water when hooked. Reproduction

is oophagous (embryos feed on eggs continuously ovulated by

the female). Average litter size is 12 with up to 16 (possibly 25)

recorded; pups are born off New South Wales around November.

The gestation period is probably 15–18 months with a 3 year

reproductive cycle. Age at maturity is about 8 years for males

and 18 years for females. The diet consists mainly of teleost fish

and cephalopods. Individuals over 3 m may take larger prey such

as billfish and small cetaceans. It is potentially dangerous,

sometimes attacking boats. Commercially important for its fins

and good-quality flesh, also used for its oil, fins, hide and teeth

(for curios). Targeted in some areas but mainly a large bycatch of

pelagic longline fisheries for tuna and billfish. An important

recreational angling species; large numbers are caught by sport

fishermen in Australia.

LOCAL SYNONYMYIsurus mako Whitley, 1929.

SHORTFIN MAKOIsurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810

30.2

ALTERNATIVE NAMESMako Shark, Blue Pointer, Mackerel Shark, Snapper Shark.

FIELD CHARACTERSA mackerel shark with long, slender, pointed teeth that protrude

noticeably from the mouth, short pectoral fins, minute second

dorsal and anal fins, a crescent-shaped caudal fin, and indigo-

blue dorsal surfaces and white undersides.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURESBody fusiform, moderately slender; caudal peduncle with a

distinct keel. Snout relatively long, acutely conical. Eyes relatively

small. Teeth smooth-edged, similar in both jaws; anterior teeth

long, slender and pointed with reflexed tips; first upper anteriors

with incomplete cutting edges, lateral teeth progressively shorter

and more triangular. First dorsal-fin origin over or behind rear

tips of pectoral fins; first dorsal fin high, with a pointed apex in

adults; relatively short with a rounded apex in juveniles. Second

dorsal-fin origin well in front of anal-fin origin; second dorsal

and anal fins minute. Pectoral fins relatively narrow-tipped,

considerably shorter than head length. Caudal fin crescent-

shaped; no secondary keel below extension of caudal peduncle

keel. Tooth count 24–26/22–28 [24–26/24–29]. Total vertebrae

186–193 [182–196]; precaudal 109–111 [107–112].

COLOURDorsal surfaces indigo-blue, merging abruptly from lighter blue

on the flanks to white ventrally; undersurface of snout white.

Dorsal surfaces becoming dark grey after preservation.




C A T S H A R K S 205

MARBLED CATSHARK

REFERENCESWhitley (1939b); Grant (1978); Springer (1979).


Atelomycterus macleayi Whitley, 1939

31.18

ALTERNATIVE NAMEAustralian Marbled Catshark.

FIELD CHARACTERSA slender catshark with very large anterior nasal flaps that partly

overlap the mouth, long labial furrows (more than 4 times the

spiracle diameter), and 7 dark, predorsal saddles and numerous,

large black spots (saddles sometimes indistinct when spots are

dense).

DISTINCTIVE FEATURESBody slender, subcylindrical; snout very short, rounded. Anterior

nasal flaps very large, subrectangular, extending posteriorly to

overlap the mouth. Upper labial furrows long, level with upper

jaw symphysis; lower furrows almost joined. Teeth small, similar

in both jaws; tricuspid, with greatly enlarged central cusp. Skin

velvety; denticles minute, dense, feebly tricuspidate or with a

single cusp; no ridge of enlarged denticles along the dorsal

caudal-fin margin. First dorsal-fin origin over or slightly behind

pelvic-fin insertion; second dorsal-fin origin over or just anterior

to midbase of anal fin. Dorsal fins about equal in size, rather tall

and upright, posterior margins concave. Anal fin much smaller

than second dorsal fin, its base longer than first dorsal-fin base.

Pectoral fins small with broadly rounded apices. Caudal fin

short, weakly developed (with a terminal lobe and long, low

ventral lobe, ventral length of caudal fin longer than head).

Claspers of adult males short and very stout. Tooth count 70/70*.

Total vertebrae 167–183*; precaudal 112–132*.

COLOURUpper surface medium brown; with about 7 dark greyish,

predorsal, saddle markings and numerous large, black spots and

lines (saddles sometimes indistinct); spots extending well down

sides to at least eye level and frequently onto ventral surface of

tail; all fins normally spotted, including the ventral surfaces of the

pectoral fins. Remainder of belly and undersurface of head pale.

SIZEHatches at about 10 cm and attains at least 60 cm. Males are

mature at 48 cm and females at 51 cm.

REMARKSMost abundant inshore along the Northern Territory coast.

Occurs on both sandy and rocky bottoms, often in only a few

metres depth. Little else is known of its biology other than that it

is oviparous.

20°

30°

40°

120° 130° 140° 150°

DISTRIBUTIONConfined to tropical Australia, off northwestern Australia,

between Port Hedland (Western Australia) and Melville Island

(Northern Territory), to a depth of at least 60 m. Records from

Queensland require confirmation.

undersurface of head




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BOREAL SKATE

COLOURUpper surface greyish brown with large, widely spaced, dusky

blotches; snout tip dark; tail with about 6 black saddles.

Undersurface mostly dark greyish brown (rarely uniformly

white); mouth, gill membranes, cloaca and snout frequently pale.

Dorsal fins and claspers uniformly dark.

SIZEAttains at least 107 cm; males mature at about 94 cm. Free-

swimming by 16 cm.

Amblyraja hyperborea (Collett, 1879)

45.1

FIELD CHARACTERSA large skate with a quadrangular disc, a broad snout with a firm

rostral cartilage, no malar thorns, enlarged thorns around the

orbit, along the mid-disc and in the scapular region, a uniformly

smooth undersurface, and a very short tail. The upper disc is

greyish brown with darker blotches.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURESDisc quadrangular, much broader than long; pectoral-fin apex

rather angular; anterior margin of disc double concave (more so

in mature males). Snout moderately elongate and pointed (orbit

about 5–6* in preorbital snout in mature males), supported by a

firm medial cartilage; orbit rather small, 2.15–2.7* in interorbital

space in mature males (larger in juveniles); interorbital space

very broad. Mouth very broad; internasal flap narrow-lobed,

with a dermal fringe. Tail very short (0.65–0.7 times precloacal

length), semi-spherical, broad-based, tapering rapidly; lateral

skin folds feeble anteriorly. Dorsal surfaces of disc and tail, and

pelvic fins, uniformly covered with fine granulations (ventral

surface mostly smooth). Median row of thorns along disc and

tail commencing in nuchal area; thorns broad-based, sharp,

upright, widely spaced (more prominent in juveniles); 2 orbital

thorns, 1 interspiracular thorn; 3 enlarged scapular thorns (about

1–2 eye diameters from midline) on each side; juveniles with

additional smaller thorns in malar and prepelvic regions; alar

thorns retractable; no malar thorns in mature males. Ventral

surface of disc and tail uniformly smooth. Pelvic fins large;

anterior lobe short, about 1.25–1.5 in posterior lobe. Dorsal fins

moderate, raked backward, equal in height, situated close

together or connected; base of upper lobe of caudal fin much

shorter than first dorsal-fin base, usually connected to second

dorsal fin; lower lobe of caudal fin small. Claspers extremely

robust, broad, very depressed.

60°

0°

30°

30°

60°

120° 150° 180° 150° 120° 90° 60° 30° 0° 30°

?

DISTRIBUTIONAntitropical in temperate parts of the Atlantic, Pacific and

possibly also the central eastern Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Moderately common on the lower continental slope off southern

Australia (Tasmania and Victoria) and New Zealand, in 980–

2000 m; elsewhere, recorded to depths of 2500 m.




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S K A T E S 357

REMARKSThis robust deepwater skate is thought to occur worldwide.

However, variable colour forms across its distribution suggest that

more than a single species may be involved. Hence, the identification

of Australian populations as A. hyperborea should be treated as

provisional as the name is based on a North Atlantic species.

LOCAL SYNONYMYAs Raja hyperborea: Last & Stevens, 1994.


two midlateral rows in females; up to 6 orbital thorns, mostly

small. Dorsal surface of disc lacking granulations in juveniles,

denticles present along anterior margin of disc and on snout in

mature males (frequently sparse, widespread over disc in mature

females); alar thorns retractable; malar thorns small, in small

patch beside eye. Ventral surface of disc and tail entirely smooth.

Pelvic fins large; anterior lobe short, about 1.45–1.65 in posterior

lobe. Dorsal fins moderately large, broadly rounded, first slightly

larger than second, usually slightly separated; upper lobe of

caudal fin minute, connected to second dorsal fin; lower lobe of

caudal fin rudimentary. Claspers short, rather bulbous. Tooth

rows in lower jaw 32–38. Pectoral-fin radials 70–74. Trunk centra

26–29, predorsal centra 62–67.

COLOURUpper surface pale yellowish brown, covered with dense pattern

of fine white spots (sometimes plain); lacking well-developed

reticulations and fine black spots (except sometimes in

interorbital area). Ventral surface whitish; snout tip distinctly

greyish or black; pores lacking dark borders. Dorsal fins and

claspers similar to body colour.

SIZETo about 33 cm; males mature at about 29 cm.

PYGMY THORNBACK SKATEDentiraja flindersi Last & Gledhill, 2008

45.2

ALTERNATIVE NAMEThornback Skate.

FIELD CHARACTERSA very small skate with a circular to heart-shaped disc, a short

snout with a firm rostral cartilage, a very wide interorbital space

(2.15–2.6 in preorbital snout), small malar thorns, nuchal thorns

(usually), no denticles on the ventral surface, and a very short,

broad and extremely depressed tail. The undersurface is mostly

pale with a prominent dark snout tip and no dark-edged pores.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURESDisc subcircular to broadly heart-shaped, broader than long;

pectoral-fin apex broadly rounded; anterior margin of disc slightly

concave (weakly double concave in mature males). Snout short

(orbit 2.95–4.05 in preorbital snout), bluntly pointed, supported

by a firm medial cartilage; orbit rather small, 1.30–1.85 in

interorbital space. Mouth very broad; internasal flap narrow-

lobed with dermal fringe. Tail very short (0.75–0.9 times

precloacal length), very broad and depressed; lateral skin folds

very well developed. Up to 4 nuchal thorns (occasionally absent);

median thorns mostly minute and blunt; median row variable,

rarely beginning in advance of cloaca, but extending onto tail; tail

with additional lateral rows in mature males, often additional

region of nostrils and mouth

tooth of upper jaw

nostrils




S T I N G A R E E S 403

YELLOW SHOVELNOSE STINGAREETrygonoptera galba Last & Yearsley, 2008

49.1

FIELD CHARACTERSA small to medium-sized, yellowish brown stingaree with a

relatively acute snout, moderate spiracles, broad lobes on the

posterolateral border of the nostrils, a skirt-shaped internasal

flap, usually more than 8 papillae on the floor of the mouth, and

no dorsal fin or tail folds.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURESDisc not especially broad, subcircular to rhomboidal, wider than

long; broadest about an eye diameter behind level of spiracles;

anterior profile obtuse. Snout fleshy, tip not extended. Eye of

moderate size (24–26% preocular snout length), anterior edge of

spiracular cavity beside mid-eye. Posterior margin of spiracle

usually angular. Mouth small; 9–10 papillae on floor; lower jaw

papillate. Internasal flap skirt-shaped, posterior angle not

extended into distinct lobe; fringe prominent. Posterolateral

border of nostril forming a broad, flattened, fleshy lobe. Disc

upper surface smooth. Tail slightly depressed to rounded in

cross-section; of moderate length (71–87% disc length); no

lateral cutaneous tail folds or dorsal fin; caudal fin lanceolate.

COLOURDorsal surface uniform yellowish brown. Caudal fin pale greyish

to greyish brown in adults. Ventral surface white or pale

yellowish brown; sometimes with slightly darker greyish brown

lateral margins on disc.

SIZEProbably born at about 16 cm and reaches at least 39 cm. Males

mature at about 33–36 cm.

REMARKSA common ray found on sandy substrates on the mid and outer

continental shelf off Perth may be this species. It is closely related

to two other forms referred to here as shovelnose stingarees.

40°

30°

20°

110° 120° 130°

?

DISTRIBUTIONContinental shelf from off Shark Bay to the Abrolhos Islands

(Western Australia), but probably south to at least Perth, in

100–210 m.

teeth from near symphysis(upper and lower jaw) region of nostrils and mouth

nostrils




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594

Plate 41 – Other Sharks

35.22 Galeocerdo cuvier (Tiger Shark) male; 32.1 Pseudotriakis microdon (False Catshark) female; 15.2 Squatina australis (Australian

Angelshark) female.

35.22

32.1

15.2




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