sg 4: fit1001 computer systems s1 2006 1 important notice for lecturers this file is provided as an...

SG 4: FIT1001 Computer Systems S1 2006 1

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FIT1001- Computer Systems

Lecture 4

CPU Internal Bus Organisation


Lecture 4: Learning Objectives• Identify that registers, ALU, control unit and buses are components of a simple

central processing unit• Describe how the components are joined by buses to form a datapath• Understand that clock pulses are used to regulate the operational timing of

buses and the components in the datapath• Describe the fetch–decode–execute cycle and explain how this is used to

perform instructions in a simple digital computer program• Demonstrate the operation of a simple computer using a simulator (MARIE)

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Internal CPU Organisation



• SG1 presented a general overview of computer systems

• In SG2 we discussed how data is stored and manipulated by various computer system components

• SG3 described the fundamental components of digital circuits

• Having this background, we can now understand how computer components work, and how they fit together to create useful computer systems



• All computers have a central processing unit– The CPU fetches, decodes, and executes program

instructions

• The two principal parts of the CPU are the: – Datapath

> The datapath consists of an arithmetic-logic unit and storage units (registers) that are interconnected by a data bus that is also connected to main memory

– Control unit> Various CPU components perform sequenced operations

according to signals provided by its control unit


Internal CPU Organisation - CPU

• Registers – Hold data that can be readily accessed by the CPU– They can be implemented using D flip-flops

> A 32-bit register requires 32 D flip-flops

• The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) – Carries out logical and arithmetic operations as directed by

the control unit– Often affects the status register (eg., overflow, carries etc)– Operations are controlled by the control unit

• The control unit (CU)– Policeman or traffic manager– Determines which actions to carry out according to the values

in a program counter register and a status register


Internal CPU Organisation - CPU

• The CPU shares data with other system components by way of a data bus

– Set of wires that act as a shared but common data path– Connect multiple subsystems within the system– Consists of multiple lines which allow parallel movement of

bits– At any one time, only one device may use the bus

> Can result in a bottleneck

– The speed of the bus is affected by its length / number of devices sharing it

– Devices can be divided into two categories> Master: a device that initiates an action

> Salve: a device that responds to an action


Internal CPU Organisation - Buses

• Two types of buses are commonly found – Point-to-point: a bus that connect

two specific components

– Multipoint> Because a multipoint bus is a shared resource, access to it is

controlled through protocols, which are built into the hardware



• Buses consist of:– Data lines: convey bits from one device to another– Control lines: determine the direction of data flow and when

each device can access the bus– Address lines: determine the location of the source or

destination of the data



• Typical bus transactions– Sending an address (for a read or write)– Transferring data from memory to a register– Transferring data from a register to memory– I/O reads and writes from peripheral devices

• Computers have a hierarchy of buses– Not uncommon to have two buses or more in the same

system– In PC’s

> Main internal bus called the system bus– Connects CPU, memory and all other internal components

> External buses– Connect external devices, peripherals, expansion slots and I/O

ports



> Local buses– Connect a peripheral device directly to the CPU– High speed– Limited number of similar devices can be connected

• To use a bus– A device must reserve it (can only be a bus master)

> Bus master: a device that is allowed to initiate a transfer

> Bus slaves: a device that responds to a bus master request

> Eg., a basic system may only allow the CPU to be bus master

• In cases where more than one device can be the bus master

– Concurrent bus master requests must be arbitrated– Arbitration schemes must provide priority to certain master

devices / ensure lower priority devices are not starved



– Arbitration schemes fall into four categories:

– Distributed using self-detection: Devices decide which gets the bus among themselves.

– Distributed using collision-detection: Any device can try to use the bus. If its data collides with the data of another device, it tries again.

– Daisy chain: Permissions are passed from the highest-priority device to the lowest.

– Centralized parallel: Each device is directly connected to an arbitration circuit.


Internal CPU Organisation - Clocks

• Every computer contains at least one clock that synchronizes the activities of its components

– A fixed number of clock cycles are required to carry out each data movement or computational operation

– The clock frequency determines the speed of all operations> Measured in megaHertz or gigaHertz

• Clock cycle time is the reciprocal of clock frequency

– An 800 MHz clock has a cycle time of 1.25 ns> 1/800,000,000 = 0.00000000125 = 1.25 * 10-9

– Most machines are synchronous > Controlled by a master clock signal

> Register must wait for the clock to tick before loading new data



• Clock speed should not be confused with CPU performance

– The CPU time required to run a program is given by the general performance equation:

•

– We see that we can improve CPU throughput when we reduce the number of instructions in a program, reduce the number of cycles per instruction, or reduce the number of nanoseconds per clock cycle



– Eg., Two machines with the same clock speed may not execute instructions in the same number of cycles

> Multiply operation – On Intel 286 takes 20 clock cycles– On Intel Pentium take 1 clock cycle

> Implies that the Pentium is 20 time faster (if both used the same internal clock)

– In general> Multiplication requires more times than addition

> Floating point operations require more cycles than integers

> Accessing memory takes longer than accessing registers

• Generally the term clock refers to the master / system clock

– Buses can have their own clocks which are usually slower


Internal CPU Organisation – I/O Subsystem

• A computer communicates with the outside world through its input/output (I/O) subsystem

– I/O devices connect to the CPU through various interfaces– Input devices: keyboards, mice, scanners, touch screens etc– Output devices: monitors, printers, speakers etc

• These devices are not connected to the CPU directly

– Interface for data transfers> Converts the system bus signals to and from formats acceptable

to the given device

– CPU communicates via input/output registers> Two methods: memory-mapped I/O / instruction-based I/O


Internal CPU Organisation – I/O Subsystem

– Memory-mapped> I/O device behaves like main memory from the CPU’s point of

view

> Fast in terms of speed

> Uses memory space

– Instruction-based> The CPU has specialised instructions that perform the input /

output

> Requires specific I/O instructions which can only be used by the CPU


Internal CPU Organisation - Memory

• Memory– Consists of a linear array of addressable storage cells that

are similar to registers

– A memory address is always represented by an unsigned integer

– Can be byte-addressable or word-addressable> Byte-addressable: each byte has a unique address

> Word-addressable: A series of bytes are addresses, eg., 2 bytes– Byte with lowest address determines the word address



• Memory is constructed of RAM chips– Referred to in terms of length width– Eg., A memory word size of a machine is 16 bits

> A 4M 16 RAM chip gives us 4 megabytes of 16-bit memory locations

– 4M = 22 * 220 = 222 = 4,194,304 unique locations (each word is 16 bits)– Memory locations will range from 0 – 4,194,303 in unsigned integers

– 2N addressable units of memory will require N bits to address each byte

> Thus, the memory bus of this system requires at least 22 address lines

> The address lines “count” from 0 to 222 - 1 in binary– Each line is either “on” or “off” indicating the location of the desired

memory element



• Physical memory usually consists of more than one RAM chip

– Chips are combined into a single memory module– Eg., You want to build 32K x 16 memory and all you have is

2K x 8 RAM chips:

> Each row address 2K words but requires two chips to handle the full width of 16



• A single shared memory module causes sequentialization of access

– Memory interleaving helps this by splitting memory across multiple memory modules

> Low-order interleaving: the low order bits of the address specify which memory bank contains the address of interest

– Places consecutive words of memory in different memory modules– Eg., 32 addresses:



> High-order interleaving: the high order address bits specify which memory bank contains the address of interest

– Distributes the addresses so each module contains consecutive addresses

– Eg., 32 addresses:


Internal CPU Organisation - Interrupts

• Interrupts– The normal execution of a program is altered when an event

of higher-priority occurs– The CPU is alerted to such an event through an interrupt– Interrupts can be triggered by:

> I/O requests

> Arithmetic errors (such as division by zero)

> When an invalid instruction is encountered

– Each interrupt is associated with a procedure that directs the actions of the CPU when an interrupt occurs

– Interrupts can be initiated by the user or the system– Interrupts can be of two types:

> Maskable (disabled or ignored)

> Non-maskable (high-priority interrupts that cannot be ignored

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MARIE


MARIE - Introduction

• We can now bring together many of the ideas that we have discussed to this point using a very simple model computer

• Our model computer, the Machine Architecture that is Really Intuitive and Easy (MARIE) was designed to illustrate basic computer system concepts

• While this system is too simple to do anything useful in the real world, a deep understanding of its functions will enable you to comprehend system architectures that are much more complex



• The MARIE architecture has the following characteristics:

– Binary, two's complement data representation– Stored program, fixed word length data and instructions– 4K words of word-addressable main memory– 16-bit data words– 16-bit instructions, 4 for the opcode and 12 for the address– A 16-bit arithmetic logic unit (ALU)– Seven registers for control and data movement



• MARIE has seven registers:– Accumulator (AC)

> A 16-bit register that holds data values

> General purpose register that holds data for the CPU to process

– Memory address register (MAR) > 12-bit register that holds a memory address

> Holds the memory address of the data being referenced

– Memory buffer register (MBR) > 16-bit register that holds the data after its retrieval from, or

before its placement in memory

– Program counter (PC) > 12-bit register that holds the memory address of the next

program instruction to be executed



– Instruction register (IR) > Holds a copy of an instruction immediately preceding its

execution (so the next instruction basically)

– Input register (InREG) > 8-bit register that holds data that was read from an input device

– Output register (OutREG) > 8-bit register that holds data that is ready for writing to the output

device

– Hidden register> A Status Flag is present but is not displayed



• The MARIE architecture:



• Bus connections– The registers are interconnected, and

connected with main memory through a common data bus

– Each device on the bus is identified by a unique number that is set on the control lines whenever that device is required to carry out an operation

– Separate connections are also provided:> Between the AC and MBR , the ALU and

the AC and MBR– This permits data transfer between

these devices without use of the main data bus


MARIE - ISA

• Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)– Specifies the format of a machines instructions– Specifies the primitive operations that the machine can

perform– The ISA is an interface between a computer’s hardware and

its software– Some ISAs include hundreds of different instructions for

processing data and controlling program execution> The MARIE ISA consists of only thirteen instructions

– Format of a MARIE instruction:


MARIE - ISA

– ISAs generally consist of instructions for:> Processing / moving data

> Controlling the execution sequence of a programs

– The fundamental MARIE instructions are:


MARIE - ISA

– Bit pattern for a LOAD instruction as it would appear in the IR:

> We see that the opcode is 1, which is LOAD

> The memory address from which to load the data is 3

– Each of the instructions actually consists of a sequence of smaller instructions called microoperations

> Eg., The LOAD instruction at a component level– 1. The address from the instruction is loaded into MAR– 2. Data in memory at the specified location is loaded into MBR– 3. MBR loaded into the AC


MARIE - ISA

– The exact sequence of microoperations can be specified using register transfer language (RTL)

> In the MARIE RTL: – M[X] is used to indicate the actual data value stored in memory

location X is used to indicate the transfer of bytes to a register or memory

location

> Transfers from one register to another always involves transfers onto and of the bus

– Omitted for clarity but need to be aware

> The RTL for the LOAD instruction is:

MAR XMBR M[MAR], AC MBR


MARIE - ISA

– The RTL for the ADD instruction is:

MAR XMBR M[MAR]AC AC + MBR


MARIE - ISA

– The SKIPCOND instructions jumps to the next instruction according to the value of the AC

> The RTL for the this instruction is the most complex in the instruction set

If IR[11 - 10] = 00 thenIf AC < 0 then PC PC + 1

else If IR[11 - 10] = 01 thenIf AC = 0 then PC PC + 1

else If IR[11 - 10] = 11 thenIf AC > 0 then PC PC + 1

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Instruction Processing



• The fetch-decode-execute cycle is the series of steps

– A computer carries this cycle out when it runs a program until all the code is processed

– Steps:> 1. Fetch an instruction from memory and place it into the IR

> 2. Once in the IR it is decoded to determine what needs to be done next

> 3. If a memory value (operand) is involved in the operation, it is retrieved and placed into the MBR

> 4. With everything in place, the instruction is executed



• Interrupts and I/O– Recall that MARIE has two registers to handle input / output– The timing used by these registers is important

> Each character must be loaded into the input register

> If the processor is fast, input slow, the same character may be read multiple times

– Solved by interrupt-driven I/O

– When the CPU executes an input / output instruction> Relevant I/O device notified, CPU continues with other work

> I/O device sends an interrupt to the CPU which processes it

> CPU returns to fetch-decode-execute

> This process requires:– 1. An interrupt to indicate the I/O is complete– 2. Means for the CPU to detour from fetch-decode-execute cycle



– Many computers check at the start of a cycle for a pending interrupt

– The I/O device will send an interrupt to the status register> CPU will execute an interrupt routine that is determined by the

type of interrupt– External interrupt such as Ctrl-C– Internal interrupts such as overflow / divide by zero– Software interrupts



– Processing an interrupt > Interrupt routine is processed via the fetch-decode-execute

cycle

> Once the interrupt routine is complete the CPU switches back to the program it was running before

> The CPU must return to the exact point in the previous program– Therefore contents of registers and status conditions mush be

saved


Instruction Processing - A Simple Program

• Consider the simple MARIE program given below– A set of mnemonic instructions stored at addresses 100 - 106

(hex):



• Let’s look at what happens inside the computer when the program runs

– This is the LOAD 104 instruction:



– The second instruction is ADD 105:



– The third instruction is STORE 106:

– The fourth instruction is a HALT> The binary contents at location 106 changes to:

– 00000000000011002 (000C16, 1210)

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Assemblers


Assemblers

• Mnemonic instructions such as LOAD 104 – Easy for humans to write and understand– Impossible for computers to understand

• Assemblers – Translate instructions that are comprehensible to humans

into the machine language that is comprehensible to computers

– Convert assembly language (mnemonic) in machine language (strings of binary values)

– Assembler reads a source file (assembly) and produces an object file (machine code)


Assemblers

– Applying names or lables to assembly> Substituting alphanumeric names for opcodes makes

programming easier

> Labels can also be given to particular memory addresses

> Labels are nice for programmers but more work is now required by the assembler


Assemblers

– Assemblers create an object program file from mnemonic source code in two passes

> Reads entire program twice

> First pass: the assembler builds a set of correspondences called a symbol table / begins to translate the instructions

– For our program the first pass creates:

Symbol Table Instructions


Assemblers

> Second pass: the assembler uses the symbol table to fill in the addresses and create the corresponding machine language instruction

– It would know that X is located at address 104– For our program the second pass creates:


Assemblers

> Assembler directives – Instructions that are not be converted – Assists in specifying values

» In MARIE DEC = decimal, HEX = hexadecimal – For our program we have included two directives DEC and HEX

that specify the radix of the constants

– Comment delimiter» In MARIE = / (so all text after / is ignored by the assembler

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Extending Instruction Set


Extending Our Instruction Set

• Add some more instruction to make programming in MARIE easier

– Together with the 9 original instructions we now have 13 in the MARIE instruction set



• Indirect addressing– So far we have only used direct addressing mode

> This means that the address of the operand is explicitly stated in the instruction

– Often useful to employ a indirect addressing> Where the address of the address of the operand is given in the

instruction

> If you have ever used pointers in a program, you are already familiar with indirect addressing

> Instead of using the value found at location X as the actual address, use the value found in X as a pointer to a new memory location that contains the data we wish to use in the instruction

– Eg., Instruction AddI 400 means go to location 400, and if the value is say 240, go to location 240 and get the operand



– The following RTL tells us what is happening at the register level for AddI:

MAR XMBR M[MAR]MAR MBR MBR M[MAR]AC AC + MBR



• Another programming tool is the use of subroutines

– The jump-and-store instruction, JNS, gives us limited subroutine functionality

– The details of the JNS instruction are given by the following RTL:

MBR PCMAR XM[MAR] MBRMBR X AC 1 AC AC + MBRAC PC



• The CLEAR instruction– All it does is set the contents of the accumulator to all zeroes– RTL for CLEAR:

AC 0

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Decoding – Hardwired vs Microprogrammed


Decoding

• A computer’s control unit keeps things synchronised

– Makes sure that bits flow to the correct components as the components are needed

– Must be control signals to trigger events– When an Add is performed we assume that the addition takes

place because the control signal for the ALU are set to Add– Question:

> How do these control lines actually become asserted?– There are two general ways in which a control unit can be

implemented: » Microprogrammed control: a small program is placed into read-

only memory in the microcontroller» Hardwired: controllers implement this program using digital logic

components


Decoding

• Hardwired– Physically connect all of the control lines to the actual

machine instruction> Instructions are divided into fields and different bits are

combined with various digital logic components (which drive the control line)

– The control unit is implemented using hardware

> The digital circuit uses inputs to generate the control signal to drive various components

– Advantage: very fast– Disadvantage: instruction set and digital

logic locked


Decoding

• Microprogrammed– Uses software for control– All machine instructions fed through the microprogram to

convert instruction into the correct control signal– Microprogram: stored in firmware (ROM, PROM or EPROM)

> Also known as the control store

> Converts machine instructions (binary) into control signals

– One subroutine for eachmachine instruction

– Advantage: very flexible – Disadvantage: additional

layer of interpretation


Next Week

• Study Guide 5– Introduction to Instruction Set Architecture

sg 4: fit1001 computer systems s1 2006 1 important notice for lecturers this file is provided as an...

Documents

fit1001 computer systems

computer components

fit1001 computer systems

data slide

system bus

bus master bus master

internal cpu organisation

cpu shares data