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Bottled water, quality and

safety considerationsProf Lise KorstenDepartment of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Institute for

Food Nutrition and Well-Being, University of Pretoria

[email protected] and

& ILSI Water and Sanitation Expert Group
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Contents

o Background to bottled water

o Regulating bottled water

o Bottled water: mark scheme

oMicrobiology of bottled water


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Global Profile of Bottled WaterContext Globally 1.1 billion people lack access to clean drinking water. Health and Wellness drives bottled water growth.

Global overview Global bottled water industry expected (2012) = $69 billion Over past five yeas an annual growth rate of 10% Biggest growing markets India / China Italians (2000)= 160 lpp; (2005) = 190 l pp

Major Players Nestle Waters largest seller in the world Now 4 major groups control 30% of market USA 1992 had 700 brands now 2012 > 1000

Worldwatch Institute, 2007


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Euromonitor International


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Bottled water: Regulation Bottled water is considered a food

Flavoured water falls outside this scopenowsoft drink (flavoured beverage).

Bottled water not measured against tap water

standards,

But against standards drafted by the CodexAlimentarius Commission with drinking water

guidelines by the World Health Organization(WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 3rdedition).

Adoption of term packaged water instead ofbottled water


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Bottle Water: Microbial standards

SA case study; Regulated by DoHFoodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act no 54 of 1972,

Regulations governing microbiological standards for foodstuffsand related matters No 692 of 1997

Escherichia coli = 0/250ml

Non-faecal coliforms = 0/250ml

Faecal streptococci = 0/250ml

Clostridium perfringens = 0/250ml Pseudomonas aeruginosa = 0/250ml

Total viable count =


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Regulation: EUBottled water MicroS.I. 79/2005 - European Communities (Natural Mineral Waters, Spring Waters andOther Waters in Bottles Or Containers) Regulations 2005.

Direct bottling at source No disinfection to remove microbes allowed

Std:E. coli/ coliforms/ P. aeruginosa faecalstreptococci = 0 in 250ml

Sulfate-reducing endospore-forming anearobes (i.e.Clostridium perfringes - ubiquitous in aquatic

sediments) = 0 in 50ml


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Bottled water categories

Based on Codex - bottled water legislation defines three classes ofwater:

In SA the following categories has been adopted:o Natural water - sourced from an underground aquifer and

packaged at source.

No treatment of the water is allowed, except fordecantation or filtration to separate the water fromunstable constituents and the addition or removal ofcarbon dioxide.

Natural mineral water and natural spring water fall into thisclass.


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Bottled water category 2 Waters defined by origin = Bottled water

originating from an underground or surface watersystem, which flows naturally from its source, e.g.

artesian water including rain, glacier, mist, andspring water.

As a general rule, this water shall be subjected to various

treatments, provided that the treatments and theprocesses used to achieved them do not alter orcompromise the chemical, radiological andmicrobiological safety of the water.


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Bottled water category 3 Prepared waterthat includes municipal, surface or

ground water that has been purified by treatmentssuch as reverse osmosis that change the chemicalcomposition of the water.

In the case of municipal water, for instance, previously addedchemicals such as fluoride and impurities are removed andminerals are added.

Other components can be added to deliver a balancedmineral composition and as such it results in prepared waterthat complies with all the provisions under the generalrequirements for bottled waters.


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Bottled water markscheme

SABS Mark scheme for bottledwater is a voluntary markscheme that bottlers can becertified to compliance once

the plant has been inspectedand they comply with the markscheme.

SA national standards:

SANS 1657:2007: Bottled water ofsubterranean origin for treatment,testing, bottling, packaging andlabelling.

SANS 1862: 2003: Packaged waterother than natural mineral water

SANBWA 10


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Drinking Waterassociated outbreaks

CDC reported 780 disease outbreaks associated withthe consumption of contaminated drinking waters(1971 to 2006), affected 577,094 persons

Drinking water-related illness in the USA has beenestimated at 19 million/year

Spain (19992006) - 413 outbreaks recorded thatinvolved 23,642 cases

Milwaukee (USA) Cryptosporidium outbreak affected >400,000 people in 1993


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Bottle waterassociated outbreaks

Cholera

Bottled water in Portugal (1974)o Hospitlized cases 2467 + 48 deaths

o Linked to bottling source + spa (Vibrio cholera)

o Limestone aquifer contaminated by broken sewers from nearby village

Mariannes Island 1994 due to in plant contamination

Other bottled water examples:

Typhoid fever and travellers outbreak 993

Fungal spoilage of mineral water Argentina

Cholera in drinking water: 52 countries (90% Africa)Case study in SA 2001: 106 389 cholera cases and 229 lives lost


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Microbiology of bottled

water Microorganisms come from source Spring water contains autochtonous* organisms.

*Indigenous filling the ecological niches.

Potential pathogens indicate contamination at source or duringbottling process.

Examples: Pseudomonads, Acinetobacter, Achromobacter,

Flavobacterium.

Opportunistic pseudomonads may be of concern.

Burkholderia cepacia & Stenotrophomonas maltophilia grow on

minute quantities of organic matter.


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PseudomonasPrevalence Most often isolated from water bodies

Common in groundwater

Most NB Mineral water microflora

o 80% of unidentified isolates (1350 stains) identified as new spp(i.e. RFLP) (Loy et al., 2005)

o Fluorescent Pseudomonas (normal soil + subsurfaceenvironments)

o Non-fluorescent Pseudomonas


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PseudomonasRisk? Not associated with public health issues

P. aeruginosa (clinical relevant strains not normal

component of natural mineral water)

o Considered contaminant during bottling

o Known resistance to chemical disinfectants

o Antibiotic resistance concern (water & clinical strains(2 studies

from bottled water)o Impact on immunocompromised people?


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Aeromonas General known as an Autochthonous microbe

in water

Some spp. associated with diarrhoea

Reported examples:o A. fluvialis, A. rivuli - common in fresh water

o A. tecta - tap water

New clinical spp:

o A. tecta, A. taiwanensis, A. saranelli, A. aquariorumo Cause extra intestinal infections

NB Biofilm development indicator

Persistence in water system related to organic

content


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AeromonasBottled water:

A. hydrophila - isolated in 4/6 studies

Persistencecontradictory data:

o 8d persistence then cell death (Hunter, 1990)o 70 d persistence (Figueras & Borrogo, 2010)

Normal bottle water microbes inhibitAeromonas

Regulation example Netherlands (Figueras & Borrogo, 2010)

o Finished water max. std: 20 CFU/100mL

o Drinking water 200 CFU/100mL


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Mycobacteria Drinking water supply microbe

Biofilm NB bacterium

Emerging pathogen of increasing importance

Aetiological agents of waterborne diseases

M. tuberculosis, M. bovis


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Other Microbes Caulobacter scavengers in low nutrient environments

o Groundwater expected as dominant sp given oligotrophic conditions

o Dominant in one case study of bottled and source (spring) water

As prevalent as Pseudomonaso

Acinetobacter(common inhabitants of water) hospital outbreakso Alaligenes

Sometimes dominantshallow aquiferso Cytophage, Flavobacterium, Flexibacter

Burkholderia - source water

Other Gram - : Comamonas, Ralstonia etc

Groundwater- Bacillus

Other Gram +: Staphylococcus, Micrococcuso Isolated at bottling point

o Linked with manual bottling

Ch ll f h b l


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Challenges for the bottlewater sector

Cost: bottle vs soft drinks vs tap watero Bottled water, costs up to 1,900 times more than tap water (2011, Bottle

Water Scorecard),

Continued industry growth: population explosion,

water quality & quantity challenges, global warmingimpact.

Environmental impact: Plastic bottles and wastage

Carbon footprint: Energy required to transport bottled

water from source, global distribution, exports. Consumer abuse: environmental exposure, storage

conditions, sell by date

1 800

Children


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Acknowledgements:

ILSI Water and Sanitation Expert Group and ILSI (SA)


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References Loy, A., Beisker, W & Meier, H., 2005. Diversity of

Bacteria growing in natural mineral water afterbottling. Applied and Environmental Microbiology,3624-3632.

Leclerc, H & Moreau, A. 2002. Microbiological safetyof natural mineral water. FEMS Micro Reviews. 26:207-222.

Hunter, P.R., 1993. The Microbiology of bottled

mineral water. J Appl. Bact. 74: 345-352.

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