set 1 & 2 management process and organizational behaviour

8/14/2019 Set 1 & 2 Management Process and Organizational Behaviour

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MB0022

Management Process and Organizational Behavior

Q.1 Today managers need to perform various functions: Elaborate the

statement.

Ans. Managers create and maintain an internal environment, commonly called the

organization, so that others can work efficiently in it. A managers job consists of

planning, organizing, directing, and controlling the resources of the organization. These

resources include people, jobs or positions, technology, facilities and equipment,

materials and supplies, information, and money. Managers work in a dynamic

environment and must anticipate and adapt to challenges.The manager looks after more than one function. Therefore, managerial practices used

successfully in big firms cannot be blindly used in small-scale units. Basic managerial

functions in large and small business are the same. But the manner in which these

functions should be carried out can be different.

Managing starts with planning. A manager with a definite and well defined plan has

more chances of success than another who tries to start an enterprise without planning.

According to Killen planning is the process of deciding in advance what is to be

donewho is to do ithow it is to be done and when it is to be done. Planning involves

thinking and decision and is, therefore, called a logical process. Planning is a

continuous process as changes in plans have to be made from time to time to take care

of changing environment. Many a times, a vague approach is adapted to planning in a

small firm. There is a false impression that small firms are uncomplicated and do not

require planning. The small-scale manager does not want to engage his employees in

the planning process due to the desire to keep the secrets with him. Personal

accountability for results, lack of expert staff and not having planning skills are other

major obstacles to planning in small firms. The owner or manager of a small enterprise

is too involved in day-to-day operation to try planning

before com encing actual operation. But they need pre-planning mostbecause small

firms have limited resources to conquer their upcoming problem and cannot afford to


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finance losses that can take place while adjusting to unanticipated happenings/changes.

An manager needs an enterprise which can achieve the business objectives. During the

function of organising he leads human resources to successful completion of the

project, arranging the functions and activities into different levels in the organization

structure, thus facilitating the assignments of personnel according to their capabilities,

skills and motivation. According to Peter F. Drucker the process of organizing consists

of three steps - activities analysis, decisions analysis and relation analysis.

(i). Activities Analysis: It consists of the following:

a) Determining the main functions for achieving the objectives of the firm.

b) Various sub-functions in each major function.

c) Amount of work in each major function and its sub-function.

d) The position required to perform the activities.

(ii) Decisions Analysis: It consists of the following:

a) Choosing the basis of departmentalization so that functions could be grouped into

specialized units. Generally, functional departmentation is appropriate for small-scale

units. Customers, Products and territories are other important base of

departmentalization.

b) Choosing the type of organization structure so that departments are incorporated into

a formal structure.(iii) Relations Analysis: The authority, responsibility and accountability of every position

and its relationship with other positions are clearly defined. Various positions are

manned with persons having the necessary education, training, experience and other

qualifications.

To obtain best possible benefit from each employee it is necessary to delegate

functions as far-down in the organization as possible. Owners of small firms are often

reluctant to delegating authority to their employees even though they expect them to do

all functions allocated to them that require authority. For effective completion of tasks, it

is necessary that responsibility accompanies the necessary authority.


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DIRECTING

In directing a manager has to supervise, guide, lead and motivate people so that they

can achieve set targets of performance. In the process of directing his subordinates, a

manager ensures that the employees fulfill their tasks according to the set plans.

Directing is the executive function of management because it is concerned with the

execution of plan and policies. Directing commences organized action and sets the

whole organizational machinery into action. It is, therefore, the life giving function of an

organization. This is the area where the mastery of the art and science of management

is put to test. An managers leadership style determines the work atmosphere and

culture of the organization. Above all, he must motivate employees by setting a good

example, setting practical targets of performance and providing satisfactory monetary

and non- monetary benefits.

In directing a manager has to perform the following tasks:

(a) Issuing orders and instructions

(b) Supervising workers

(c) Motivating i.e. inspiring to work efficiently for set objectives

(d) Communicating with employees regarding plans and their implementation.

(e) Leadership or influencing the actions or employees

CONTROLLING

Controlling is the process of ensuring that the organization is moving in the desired

direction and that progress is being made to wards the achievement of goals.

The answer to a profitable organization is the skill of the owner or manager to control

operations. He has to establish standards of performance, procedures, goals and

budgets. With these guides, he supervises job progress, workers performance and the

financial condition of the business. The controlling function of the owner manager

includes:

Setting of standards: - Control presumes the existence of standards against which

actual results are to be evaluated. Standards can not control on their own but they are

the targets against which actual performance can be measured. Therefore they should

be set clearly and accurately. They should be precise, adequate, and feasible.


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Measurement of actual performance: - The actual performance is measured and

evaluated in comparison with the set standards. Preferably measurement should be

such that variation may be identified in advance of occurrence and prevented by

suitable action. Where work involved is of quantitative nature measurement of

performance is not difficult. But when the work is not quantifiable measurement

becomes difficult. Periodical reports test checks and audits are helpful in precise

measurement of performance Analysis of variances: - Comparison of actual

performance with standards will reveal variation. Variations are analysed to identify their

cause and their impact on the organization. Corrective action can be possible only

where the causes of the problem spots have been identified. Clarification may be called

for sudden variation. Taking corrective action: - Control means action on the basis of

measurement and evaluation of results. Wherever possible self- determining device

should be used for bringing back actual results in line with the standards. Standards

should be revised wherever necessary. Other steps to prevent deviations can be re-

organization, improvements in staffing and directions etc. The real meaning of control

lies in the commencement and follow-up of remedial action. At this stages control unites

with planning.

TIME MANAGEMENTIn managing an enterprise time is of essence especially for a small scale manager who

has to perform the dual role of an manager as well as of a manager in his business. The

manager can bring substantial changes in his firms performance by managing time

more efficiently. Management of time involves the following steps.

(i) Time Analysis: First of all a systematic study is made to find out the proportion of total

time spent by the manager and his workers on different activities.

(ii) Finding Critical Activities: Critical or vital activities should receive greater time.

Activities taking more than the justified time need to be identified. Irrelevant or time

wasting activities should be eliminated.

(iii) Time Allocation: A time schedule should be prepared. Proper time should be

allocated to each activity. The tasks one wants to do but for which he does not have

time should be noted.


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then besides thoose functions are important ther have three management skills are

important also which are technical, human, and conceptual skills.

Technical skills:

ability to understand and use the techniques, knowledge and tools to equipment of a

specific discipline or deparment

Human skills:

interpersonal~enable a manager to work effectively through people

Conceptual skills:

important for top-level managers who must develop long range plans for future gave a

direction to a managers to determine the organisation as unified whole and understand

each part of the overall organisation interacts withe other derparment or parts.

Q.3 What is negotiation? Explain the process of negotiation.

Ans. Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement

upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft

outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative dispute

resolution.

Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal

proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce,parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called negotiation theory.

Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage

buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators, or may work under other

titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers. Negotiation typically manifests itself with

a trained negotiator acting on behalf of a particular organization or position. It can be

compared to mediation where a disinterested third party listens to each sides'

arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties. It is also

related to arbitration which, as with a legal proceeding, both sides make an argument as

to the merits of their "case" and then the arbitrator decides the outcome for both parties.

There are many different ways to segment negotiation to gain a greater understanding

of the essential parts. One view of negotiation involves three basic elements: process,

behavior and substance. The process refers to how the parties negotiate: the context of


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the negotiations, the parties to the negotiations, the tactics used by the parties, and the

sequence and stages in which all of these play out. Behavior refers to the relationships

among these parties, the communication between them and the styles they adopt. The

substance refers to what the parties negotiate over: the agenda, the issues (positions

and - more helpfully - interests), the options, and the agreement(s) reached at the end.

Another view of negotiation comprises 4 elements: strategy, process and tools, and

tactics. Strategy comprises the top level goals - typically including relationship and the

final outcome. Processes and tools include the steps that will be followed and the roles

taken in both preparing for and negotiating with the other parties. Tactics include more

detailed statements and actions and responses to others' statements and actions. Some

add to this persuasion and influence, asserting that these have become integral to

modern day negotiation success, and so should not be omitted.

Skilled negotiators may use a variety of tactics ranging from negotiation hypnosis, to a

straight forward presentation of demands or setting of preconditions to more deceptive

approaches such as cherry picking. Intimidation and salami tactics may also play a part

in swaying the outcome of negotiations.

Another negotiation tactic is bad guy/good guy. Bad guy/good guy tactic is when one

negotiator acts as a bad guy by using anger and threats. The other negotiator acts as a

good guy by being considerate and understanding. The good guy blames the bad guyfor all the difficulties while trying to get concessions and agreement from the opponent.

This is a unique combination framework that puts together the best of many other

approaches to negotiation. It is particularly suited to more complex, higher-value and

slower negotiations.

Prepare: Know what you want. Understand them.

Open: Put your case. Hear theirs.

Argue: Support your case. Expose theirs.

Explore: Seek understanding and possibility.

Signal: Indicate your readiness to work together.

Package: Assemble potential trades.

Close: Reach final agreement.

Sustain: Make sure what is agreed happens.


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There are deliberately a larger number of stages in this process as it is designed to

break down important activities during negotiation, particularly towards the end. It is an

easy trap to try to jump to the end with a solution that is inadequate and unacceptable.

Note also that in practice, you may find variations on these, for example there may be

loops back to previous stages, stages overlapping, stages running parallel and even out

of order.

The bottom line is to use what works. This process is intended to help you negotiate,

but do not use it blindly. It is not magic and is not a substitute for thinking. If something

does not seem to be working, try to figure out why and either fix the problem or try

something else. Although there are commonalities across negotiations, each one is

different and the greatest skill is to be able to read the situation in the moment and

adapt as appropriate.

Q.4 Explain Classical Conditioning Theory?

Ans. Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning that was first demonstrated

by Ivan Pavlov. The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves

presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The

neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response

from the organism under investigation. Pavlov referred to this as a conditioned stimulus

(CS). Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate,

often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the unconditioned stimulus (US) and

unconditioned response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired,

eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a

behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this the conditioned response (CR).

Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural structures and

functions that underlie learning and memory include fear conditioning, eyeblinkconditioning, and the foot contraction conditioning of Hermissenda crassicornis.


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Types

Forward conditioning

Diagram representing forward conditioning

Diagram representing forward conditioning.

The time interval increases from left to right. During forward conditioning the onset of

the CS precedes the onset of the US. Two common forms of forward conditioning are

delay and trace conditioning.

Delay Conditioning

In delay conditioning the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the

US

Trace conditioning

During trace conditioning the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS is presented, a

period of time is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the

US is presented. The stimulus free period is called the trace interval. It may also becalled the "conditioning interval"

Simultaneous conditioning

During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminate at the

same time.

Backward conditioning

Backward conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows an

unconditioned stimulus. Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the conditioned

stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response tends to be

inhibitory. This is because the conditioned stimulus serves as a signal that the

unconditioned stimulus has ended, rather than a reliable method of predicting the future

occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.

The onset of the US precedes the onset of the CS. Rather than being a reliable
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Delay_trace_conditioning.jpg


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predictor of an impending US (such as in Forward Conditioning), the CS actually serves

as a signal that the US has ended. As a result, the CR is said to be inhibitory.

Temporal conditioning

The US is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon

correct timing of the interval between US presentations. The background, or context,

can serve as the CS in this example.

Unpaired conditioning

The CS and US are not presented together. Usually they are presented as independent

trials that are separated by a variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is

used to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization.

CS-alone extinction

Main article: Extinction (psychology)

The CS is presented in the absence of the US. This procedure is usually done after the

CR has been acquired through Forward conditioning training. Eventually, the CR

frequency is reduced to pre-training levels.

Q.5 How are culture and society responsible to built value system?

Ans. A value system is a set of consistent ethic values (more specifically the personal

and cultural values) and measures used for the purpose of ethical or ideologicalintegrity. A well defined value system is a moral code. The values identify those objects,

conditions or characteristics that members of the society consider important; that is,

valuable. One or more people can hold a value system. Likewise, a value system can

apply to either one person or many. Groups, societies, or cultures have values that are

largely shared by their members. The values identify those objects, conditions or

characteristics that members of the society consider important; that is, valuable. A

personal value system is held by and applied to one individual only.

A communal or cultural value system is held by and applied to a

community/group/society. Some communal value systems are reflected in the form of

legal codes or law.


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The values of a society can often be identified by noting which people receive honor or

respect. Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more general and

abstract than norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values

identify what should be judged as good or evil. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a

norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn

are normative behaviors at a funeral. They reflect the values of respect and support of

friends and family. Different cultures reflect different values. "Over the last three

decades, traditional-age college students have shown an increased interest in personal

well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others. Values seemed to have

changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of college students. Members take part in a

culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the

normative values sanctioned in the culture. This reflects an individual's ability to

synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they

belong to. If a group member expresses a value that is in serious conflict with the

group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging

conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of its members. For example,

imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that have been established as

law.

Q.6 Write short notes on

o Locus of control

o Machiavellianism

Ans. (1) Locus of Control: It is a term in psychology which refers to a person's belief

about what causes the good or bad results in his or her life, either in general or in a

specific area such as health or academics. Locus of control refers to the extent to which

individuals believe that they can control events that affect them. Individuals with a high

internal locus of control believe that events result primarily from their own behavior and

actions. Those with a high external locus of control believe that powerful others, fate, or

chance primarily determine events. Those with a high internal locus of control have

better control of their behavior, tend to exhibit more political behaviors, and are more


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likely to attempt to influence other people than those with a high external locus of

control; they are more likely to assume that their efforts will be successful. They are

more active in seeking information and knowledge concerning their situation.

One's "locus" (Latin for "place" or "location") can either be internal (meaning the person

believes that they control their life) or external (meaning they believe that their

environment, some higher power, or other people control their decisions and their life).

(2) Machiavellianism: Machiavellianism has tremendous influence on modern business

communities, especially in the U.S.A. and European countries. Businessmen today, it is

said, prefer to follow the directions of pragmatism and expediency rather than the

dictates of individual conscience. In principles and practices, Indian management by

and large follows the Western line. Therefore, the question arises whether

Machiavellian influences are perceptibly high on Indian managers. This question is

more relevant in the light of a few surveys conducted on the ethical attitudes of Indian

managers. These identified a clear contrast between their expressed behaviour and

wanted attitudes. The present study on the attitudes of managers from the major cities

of India concludes that Niccolo Machiavelli inspires and influences Indian managers, but

has not become the final determinant in their decision-making.

Machiavellianism is also a term that some social and personality psychologists use todescribe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain.

Machiavellianism is one of the three personality traits referred to as the dark triad, along

with narcissism and psychopathy. Some psychologists consider Machiavellianism to be

essentially a subclinical form of psychopathy.


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MB0022

Management Process and Organizational Behavior

Q.1 Halo effect and selective perception are the shortcuts in judging others

Explain.

Ans. The halo effect refers to a cognitive bias whereby the perception of a particular

trait is influenced by the perception of the former traits in a sequence of interpretations.

Edward L. Thorndike was the first to support the halo effect with empirical research. In a

psychology study published in 1920, Thorndike asked commanding officers to rate their

soldiers; Thorndike found high cross-correlation between all positive and all negative

traits. People seem not to think of other individuals in mixed terms; instead we seem tosee each person as roughly good or roughly bad across all categories of measurement.

A study by Solomon Asch suggests that attractiveness is a central trait, so we presume

all the other traits of an attractive person are just as attractive and sought after. The

halo effect is involved in Harold Kelley's implicit personality theory, where the first traits

we recognize in other people influence our interpretation and perception of later ones

because of our expectations. Attractive people are often judged as having a more

desirable personality and more skills than someone of average appearance. Thus, we

see that celebrities are used to endorse products that they have no actual expertise in

evaluating, and with which they may not even have any prior affiliation. The term is

commonly used in human resources recruitment. It refers to the risk of an interviewer

noticing a positive trait in an interviewee and as a result, paying less attention to their

negative traits (or vice versa).

The halo effect has to do with judging or evaluating a person, place, or event by a single

trait or experience. This overall impression can be good or bad but will prejudice our

further involvement with the stimulus. Each of us can remember making a snap

judgment about someone based on a first impression. Often we try to perceive further

interaction with the individual based on this first impression, regardless of whether it

was positive or negative. If this impression is incorrect, it often takes considerable

pressure to concede this fact and break the halo effect. Examples are plentiful in


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business. A plush office convinces us someone is an important person in the

organization and must be taken seriously. A sloppily typed letter by our new secretary

proves to us the individual is going to be an unsatisfactory employee. The halo effect

often shows up most conspicuously on performance appraisals where our overall good

or bad opinion of the workers interferes with our ability to evaluate weaknesses or

strengths accurately on individual job functions.

Selective Perception: Selective perception may refer to any number of cognitive

biases in psychology related to the way expectations affect perception. For instance,

several studies have shown that students who were told they were consuming alcoholic

beverages (which in fact were non-alcoholic) perceived themselves as being "drunk",

exhibited fewer physiological symptoms of social stress, and drove a simulated car

similarly to other subjects who had actually consumed alcohol. The result is somewhat

similar to the placebo effect. In one classic study on this subject related to the hostile

media effect (which is itself an excellent example of selective perception), viewers

watched a filmstrip of a particularly violent Princeton-Dartmouth American football

game. Princeton viewers reported seeing nearly twice as many rule infractions

committed by the Dartmouth team than did Dartmouth viewers. One Dartmouth alumnus

did not see any infractions committed by the Dartmouth side and erroneously assumed

he had been sent only part of the film, sending word requesting the rest. Selectiveperception is also an issue for advertisers, as consumers may engage with some ads

and not others based on their pre-existing beliefs about the brand. Seymour Smith, a

prominent advertising researcher, found evidence for selective perception in advertising

research in the early 1960s, and he defined it to be a procedure by which people let in,

or screen out, advertising material they have an opportunity to see or hear. They do so

because of their attitudes, beliefs, usage preferences and habits, conditioning, etc.

People who like, buy, or are considering buying a brand are more likely to notice

advertising than are those who are neutral toward the brand. This fact has

repercussions within the field of advertising research because any post-advertising

analysis that examines the differences in attitudes or buying behavior among those

aware versus those unaware of advertising is flawed unless pre-existing differences are

controlled for. Advertising research methods that utilize a longitudinal design are


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arguably better equipped to control for selective perception.

Selective perception is the personal filtering of what we see and hear so as to suit our

own needs. Much of this process is psychological and often unconscious. Have you

ever been accused of only hearing what you want to hear. In fact, that is quite true. We

simply are bombarded with too much stimuli every day to pay equal attention to

everything so we pick and choose according to our own needs.

For instance

Selective Perception in Public Assessment of the Press and the Presidential Scandal

Job the press

has done

covering

allegations

Total

%

Republicans

%

Independents

%

Democrats

%%

Excellent/Good 46 61 46 35

Only fair/Poor 51 35 52 61

Don't

Know/Refused

3 4 2 4

Total 100 100 100 100

Question: How good a job are news organizations doing at reporting about the

allegations against?

President Clinton . . . an excellent job, a good job, only a fair job or a poor job?

Source: "Popular Policies and Unpopular Press Lift Clinton Ratings," Pew Research

Center for the People & the Press, News Release dated 2/6/98, p. 4.


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Q.2 Explain Emotional Intelligence.

Ans. Emotional Intelligence (EI) describes the ability, capacity, skill or, in the case of thetrait EI model, a self-perceived ability, to identify, assesses, and manage the emotionsof one's self, of others, and of groups. Different models have been proposed for thedefinition of EI and disagreement exists as to how the term should be used. Despite

these disagreements, which are often highly technical, the ability EI and trait EI models(but not the mixed models) enjoy support in the literature and have successfulapplications in different domains. Substantial disagreement exists regarding thedefinition of EI, with respect to both terminology and operationalizations. There hasbeen much confusion regarding the exact meaning of this construct. The definitions areso varied, and the field is growing so rapidly, that researchers are constantly amendingeven their own definitions of the construct. At the present time, there are three mainmodels of EI:Ability EI modelsMixed models of EITrait EI model

The ability-based modelSalovey and Mayer's conception of EI strives to define EI within the confines of thestandard criteria for a new intelligence. Following their continuing research, their initialdefinition of EI was revised to: "The ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion tofacilitate thought, understand emotions and to regulate emotions to promote personalgrowth."The ability based model views emotions as useful sources of information that help oneto make sense of and navigate the social environment. The model proposes thatindividuals vary in their ability to process information of an emotional nature and in theirability to relate emotional processing to a wider cognition. This ability is seen to manifestitself in certain adaptive behaviors. The model proposes that EI includes 4 types of

abilities:Perceiving emotions the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures,voices, and cultural artifacts- including the ability to identify ones own emotions.Perceiving emotions represents a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes allother processing of emotional information possible.Using emotions the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitiveactivities, such as thinking and problem solving. The emotionally intelligent person cancapitalize fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand.Understanding emotions the ability to comprehend emotion language and toappreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For example, understandingemotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions,

and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time.Managing emotions the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others.Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negativeones, and manage them to achieve intended goals.The ability-based model has been criticized in the research for lacking face andpredictive validity in the workplace. EI is too broadly defined and the definitions areunstable.One of the arguments against the theoretical soundness of the concept suggests that


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the constant changing and broadening of its definition- which has come to encompassmany unrelated elements had rendered it an unintelligible concept.Arguing that EI is an invalid concept, Locke (2005) asked: "What is the common orintegrating element in a concept that includes: introspection about emotions, Emotionalexpression, non-verbal communication with others, empathy, self-regulation, planning,

creative thinking and the direction of attention?" He answered by saying: "There isnone." Commenting on the multiple factors that have been included in the definition,Locke asked rhetorically: "What does EI not include?"Other critics mention that without some stabilization of the concepts and themeasurement instruments, meta-analyses are difficult to implement, and the theorycoherence is likely to be adversely impacted by this instability.EI cannot be recognized as a form of intelligenceGoleman's early work has been criticized for assuming from the beginning that EI is atype of intelligence. Eysenck (2000) writes that Goleman's description of EI containsassumptions about intelligence in general, and that it even runs contrary to whatresearchers have come to expect when studying types of intelligence:

"Goleman exemplifies more clearly than most the fundamental absurdity of the tendencyto class almost any type of behaviour asintelligence... If these five 'abilities' define'emotional intelligence', we would expect some evidence that they are highly correlated;Goleman admits that they might be quite uncorrelated, and in any case if we cannotmeasure them, how do we know they are related? So the whole theory is built onquicksand: there is no sound scientific basis".Similarly, Locke (2005) claims that the concept of EI is in itself a misinterpretation of theintelligence construct, and he offers an alternative interpretation: it is not another form ortype of intelligence, but intelligencethe ability to grasp abstractions--applied to aparticular life domain: emotions. He suggests the concept should be re-labeled andreferred to as a skill.

The essence of this criticism is that scientific inquiry depends on valid and consistentconstruct utilization, and that in advance of the introduction of the term EI, psychologistshad established theoretical distinctions between factors such as abilities andachievements, skills and habits, attitudes and values, and personality traits andemotional states. The term EI is viewed by some as having merged and conflatedaccepted concepts and definitions.EI has no substantial predictive valueLandy (2005) has claimed that the few incremental validity studies conducted on EIhave demonstrated that it adds little or nothing to the explanation or prediction of somecommon outcomes (most notably academic and work success). Landy proposes thatthe reason some studies have found a small increase in predictive validity is in fact amethodological fallacy incomplete consideration of alternative explanations:"EI is compared and contrasted with a measure of abstract intelligence but not with apersonality measure, or with a personality measure but not with a measure of academicintelligence." Landy (2005)In accordance with this suggestion, other researchers have raised concerns about theextent to which self-report EI measures correlate with established personalitydimensions. Generally, self-report EI measures and personality measures have beensaid to converge because they both purport to measure traits, and because they are


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both measured in the self-report form. Specifically, there appear to be two dimensionsof the Big Five that stand out as most related to self-report EI neuroticism andextraversion. In particular, neuroticism has been said to relate to negative emotionalityand anxiety. Intuitively, individuals scoring high on neuroticism are likely to score low onself-report EI measures. The interpretations of the correlations between EI

questionnaires and personality have been varied, with the trait EI view that re-intrpretsEI as a collection of personality traits being prominent in the scientific literature

Q.3 A group formation passes through various stages: Explain the various

stages of group formation.

Ans. The formation of some groups can be represented as a spiral; other groups form

with sudden movements forward and then have periods with no change. Whatever

variant of formation each group exhibits, they suggest that all groups pass through six

sequential stages of development. These stages may be longer or shorter for eachgroup, or for individual members of the group, but all groups will need to experience

them. They are forming, storming, norming, performing, mourning and retiring.

The terms are pretty self explanatory. When a group is forming, participants can feel

anxious not knowing how the group will work or what exactly will be required of them.

Storming, as the word suggests, is when things may get stormy. Conflict can emerge,

individual differences are expressed and the leader's role may be challenged. The value

and the feasibility of the task may also be challenged. After the storm comes the calm of

norming, where the group starts to function harmoniously and where participants co-

operate and mutual support develops. This enables the performing stage to occur

where the work really takes off and the group accepts a structure and method for

achieving the common task. When the group retires or adjourns, much learning

happens through informal chat and feedback about the group performance. Tuckman

and Jenson recognise that when groups dismantle themselves and the loose ends are

all tied up, participants often go through a stage of mourning or grieving.

This model is useful to know, so that when your group appears to be going nowhere or

perhaps members are arguing so much that no work can be started, you understand

that this is normal! Most groups go through these phases. Understanding this pattern

empowers you to work towards moving the group onto the next phase


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Activity for individual reflection or as a group discussion following any group activity.

May be used following W1 DGB (Developing Effective Group Behaviour Exercise)

Think of a group that you have recently been involved with. Considering each stage of

its development, can you recall any evidence of these stages?

A Forming

What was the task?

Did you all share the same expectations of the task?

Did you all have the same attitude to working in a group?

Did you feel any anxiety at the outset of the activity?

B Storming

Was there any conflict in the group?

Did you all agree on the means of carrying out the task?

Did you have a leader and was his/her authority challenged?

Did any group members withdraw from the group?

C Norming

Did you move on to agree methods of working?

Did you have a common goal?

Did you cooperate with each other?

Did you work out how to proceed at all? (If not, you were probably still storming.)D Performing

Did everyone take on a functional role to achieve the task?

Did you work constructively and efficiently?

Did the group's activity focus on fulfilling the task?

Did you experience a sense of achievement?

E Retiring/Adjourning

Did you stop abruptly and all go your separate ways or did you finish the task and then

go off together and socialize?

Did you talk about the group and your experience of it?

What sort of issues did you discuss or think about after the group activity?

Was it more or less acceptable to give and receive feedback in a relaxed atmosphere

when adjourning?


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F Mourning/Grieving

Have you experienced the mourning stage following the completion of a show or

project?

Have you ever felt empty or sad when a group activity has finished

Why might some people feel the mourning stage more acutely than others?

How do you deal with your own feelings after the project or show?

Q.4 Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants,

either by self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is to control over the

behavior of others: Explain what are the various bases of Power?Ans. Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either

by self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of

others. Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. These

sources are called position power and personal power, respectively. Personal power

resides in the individual and is independent of that individual's position.

Three bases of personal power are:

1. Expertise,

2. Rational persuasion,

3. Reference.

Expert power is the ability to control another person's behavior by virtue of possessing

knowledge, experience, or judgment that the other person lacks, but needs. A

subordinate obeys a supervisor possessing expert power because the boss ordinarily

knows more about what is to be done or how it is to be done than does the subordinate.

Expert power is relative, not absolute.

However the table may turn in case the subordinate has superior knowledge or skills

than his/ her boss. In this age of technology driven environments, the second

proposition holds true in many occasions where the boss is dependent heavily on the

juniors for technologically oriented support.

Rational persuasion is the ability to control another's behavior, since, through the


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individual's efforts; the person accepts the desirability of an offered goal and a viable

way of achieving it. Rational persuasion involves both explaining the desirability of

expected outcomes and showing how specific actions will achieve these outcomes.

Referent power is the ability to control another's behavior because the person wants to

identify with the power source. In this case, a subordinate obeys the boss because he

or she wants to behave, perceive, or believe as the boss does. This obedience may

occur, for example, because the subordinate likes the boss personally and therefore

tries to do things the way the boss wants them done. In a sense, the subordinate

attempts to avoid doing anything that would interfere with the pleasing boss-subordinate

relationship. Followership is not based on what the subordinate will get for specific

actions or specific levels of performance, but on what the individual represents-a path

toward lucrative future prospects.

Charismatic Power is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual's

personality and interpersonal style. Others follow because they can articulate attractive

visions, take personal risks, demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc.

Q.5 Explain Organizational Development process

Ans. Organization development (OD) is a planned, top-down, organization-wide effort to

increase the organization's effectiveness and health. OD is achieved throughinterventions in the organization's "processes," using behavioural science knowledge.

According to Warren Bennis, OD is a complex strategy intended to change the beliefs,

attitudes, values, and structure of organizations so that they can better adapt to new

technologies, markets, and challenges. OD is not "anything done to better an

organization"; it is a particular kind of change process designed to bring about a

particular kind of end result. OD involves organizational reflection, system improvement,

planning, and self-analysis. The term "Organization Development" is often used

interchangeably with Organizational effectiveness, especially when used as the name of

a department or a part of the Human Resources function within an organization.

Organization Development is a growing field that is responsive to many new

approaches including Positive Adult Development.


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At the core of OD is the concept of organization, defined as two or more people working

together toward one or more shared goal(s). Development in this context is the notion

that an organization may become more effective over time at achieving its goals.

OD is a long range effort to improve organization's problem solving and renewal

processes, particularly through more effective and collaborative management of

organizational culture, often with the assistance of a change agent or catalyst and the

use of the theory and technology of applied behavioral science.

Organization development is a "contractual relationship between a change agent and a

sponsoring organization entered into for the purpose of using applied behavioral

science in a systems context to improve organizational performance and the capacity of

the organization to improve itself".[citation needed]

Organizational development is an ongoing, systematic process to implement effective

change in an organization. Organizational development is known as both a field of

applied behavioral science focused on understanding and managing organizational

change and as a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and

draws on sociology, psychology, and theories of motivation, learning, and personality.

Q6 .Write short note on Stress Management

Ans. Stress management is the amelioration of stress, especially chronic stress.Transactional model Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman suggested in 1984 that

stress can be thought of as resulting from an imbalance between demands and

resources or as occurring when pressure exceeds one's perceived ability to cope.

Stress management was developed and premised on the idea that stress is not a direct

response to a stressor but rather one's resources and ability to cope mediate the stress

response and are amenable to change, thus allowing stress to be controllable.

In order to develop an effective stress management programme it is first necessary to

identify the factors that are central to a person controlling his/her stress, and to identify

the intervention methods which effectively target these factors. Lazarus and Folkman's

interpretation of stress focuses on the transaction between people and their external

environment (known as the Transactional Model). The model conceptualizes stress as a

result of how a stressor is appraised and how a person appraises his/her resources to


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cope with the stressor. The model breaks the stressor-stress link by proposing that if

stressors are perceived as positive or challenging rather than a threat, and if the

stressed person is confident that he/she possesses adequate rather than deficient

coping strategies, stress may not necessarily follow the presence of a potential stressor.

The model proposes that stress can be reduced by helping stressed people change

their perceptions of stressors, providing them with strategies to help them cope and

improving their confidence in their ability to do so.

Health realization/innate health model

The health realization/innate health model of stress is also founded on the idea that

stress does not necessarily follow the presence of a potential stressor. Instead of

focusing on the individual's appraisal of so-called stressors in relation to his or her own

coping skills (as the transactional model does), the health realization model focuses on

the nature of thought, stating that it is ultimately a person's thought processes that

determine the response to potentially stressful external circumstances. In this model,

stress results from appraising oneself and one's circumstances through a mental filter of

insecurity and negativity, whereas a feeling of well-being results from approaching the

world with a "quiet mind," "inner wisdom," and "common sense".

This model proposes that helping stressed individuals understand the nature of

thought--especially providing them with the ability to recognize when they are in the gripof insecure thinking, disengage from it, and access natural positive feelings--will reduce

their stress.

Techniques of stress management

There are several ways of coping with stress. Some techniques of time management

may help a person to control stress. In the face of high demands, effective stress

management involves learning to set limits and to say "No" to some demands that

others make. The following techniques have been recently dubbed Destressitizers by

The Journal of the Canadian Medical Association. A destressitizer is any process by

which an individual can relieve stress. Techniques of stress management will vary

according to the theoretical paradigm adhered to, but may include some of the

following:


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Autogenic training

Cognitive therapy

Conflict resolution

Exercise Getting a hobby

Meditation

Deep breathing

Nootropics

Relaxation techniques

Artistic Expression

Fractional relaxation

Progressive relaxation

Spas

Stress balls

Natural medicine

Clinically validated alternative treatments

Time management

Listening to certain types of relaxing music, particularly:

New Age music

Classical music

Psychedelic music

Measuring stress

Levels of stress can be measured. One way is through the use of the Holmes and Rahe

Stress Scale to rate stressful life events. Changes in blood pressure and galvanic skin

response can also be measured to test stress levels, and changes in stress levels. A

digital thermometer can be used to evaluate changes in skin temperature, which can

indicate activation of the fight or flight response drawing blood away from the

extremities.

Stress management has physiological and immune benefit effects.[9]


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Effectiveness of stress management

Positive outcomes are observed using a combination of non-drug interventions:

treatment of anger or hostility,

autogenic training

talking therapy (around relationship or existential issues)

biofeedback

cognitive therapy for anxiety or clinical depression

set 1 & 2 management process and organizational behaviour

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