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April 19, 2023April 19, 2023 Comparative PoliticsComparative Politics 11

““Non-Democratic” Non-Democratic” Systems: Authoritarian, Systems: Authoritarian,

Totalitarian, etc.Totalitarian, etc.Frank H. BrooksFrank H. Brooks


Focus of AnalysisFocus of Analysis

Non-Democratic SystemsNon-Democratic Systems Defined by what they are Defined by what they are notnot Democracy as ideal, typical, goal?Democracy as ideal, typical, goal?

Authoritarian v. TotalitarianAuthoritarian v. Totalitarian Typology focused on ideology, leadership, etc. (techniques of rule)Typology focused on ideology, leadership, etc. (techniques of rule) Rooted in 20Rooted in 20thth century, especially Cold War century, especially Cold War Refinements in typologiesRefinements in typologies

Transitions Transitions toto democracy or democracy or from from authoritarianismauthoritarianism Democratization and “Third Wave” of democracyDemocratization and “Third Wave” of democracy Look at paths (obstacles, constraints, preconditions)Look at paths (obstacles, constraints, preconditions) Gray areas: hybrid regimes, electoral authoritarian systemsGray areas: hybrid regimes, electoral authoritarian systems

Sources of AuthoritarianismSources of Authoritarianism Why do countries become (or persist as) authoritarian?Why do countries become (or persist as) authoritarian? Converse: what are possibilities for shedding non-democratic Converse: what are possibilities for shedding non-democratic

systems?systems?


Theoretical QuestionsTheoretical Questions

Contrasting democracy and authoritarian systemsContrasting democracy and authoritarian systems If democracy is “better” than authoritarianism, why are If democracy is “better” than authoritarianism, why are

there so many more non-democratic systems?there so many more non-democratic systems? Why do non-democratic systems persist (and re-emerge)?Why do non-democratic systems persist (and re-emerge)?

Which needs the most explanation?Which needs the most explanation? Democracy: relatively uncommon; how has it emerged?Democracy: relatively uncommon; how has it emerged? Authoritarian systems: the majority; how do they actually Authoritarian systems: the majority; how do they actually

rule?rule? Aristotle v. MachiavelliAristotle v. Machiavelli

Aristotle: tyranny is a deviant systemAristotle: tyranny is a deviant system Machiavelli: authority and control are essential (but rulers Machiavelli: authority and control are essential (but rulers

cannot ignore the wishes of the ruled)cannot ignore the wishes of the ruled)


AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism

Authoritarianism definedAuthoritarianism defined ““political regime in which a small group of political regime in which a small group of

individuals exercises power over the state individuals exercises power over the state without being constitutionally responsible to without being constitutionally responsible to the public” (O’Neill, pp. 110-111)the public” (O’Neill, pp. 110-111)

Characteristics of ruleCharacteristics of rule Emphasis on controlEmphasis on control Not necessarily arbitrary or unlimitedNot necessarily arbitrary or unlimited Ideology may be usedIdeology may be used Practically, much variation in techniques, Practically, much variation in techniques,

relations to society, etc.relations to society, etc.


TotalitarianismTotalitarianism

Totalitarianism definedTotalitarianism defined ““a highly centralized regime that possesses some form of a highly centralized regime that possesses some form of

strong ideology that seeks to transform and absorb strong ideology that seeks to transform and absorb fundamental aspects of state, society, and the economy” fundamental aspects of state, society, and the economy” (O’Neill, p. 112)(O’Neill, p. 112)

Characteristics (differences from authoritarianism)Characteristics (differences from authoritarianism) Ideology central to rule (legitimacy, control)Ideology central to rule (legitimacy, control) No pluralism; recruitment centralNo pluralism; recruitment central Genetic tendency towards violence and terrorGenetic tendency towards violence and terror

How useful a concept?How useful a concept? Was politicized during Cold WarWas politicized during Cold War Few examples now (e.g. North Korea)Few examples now (e.g. North Korea) Significant as “heritage,” e.g. for “post-totalitarian Significant as “heritage,” e.g. for “post-totalitarian

regimes”regimes”


New (and Old) TypesNew (and Old) Types

Linz & StepanLinz & Stepan Democracies still a relatively small groupDemocracies still a relatively small group Number of totalitarian systems in declineNumber of totalitarian systems in decline Most systems fall by default into “authoritarian” categoryMost systems fall by default into “authoritarian” category Need to elaborate further typesNeed to elaborate further types

Post-TotalitarianismPost-Totalitarianism Was totalitarian; not (yet) democraticWas totalitarian; not (yet) democratic Regime shaped by totalitarian past (path-dependent analysis)Regime shaped by totalitarian past (path-dependent analysis) ““Early,” “frozen” and “mature”Early,” “frozen” and “mature”

““Sultanism”Sultanism” Highly personalized rule (extreme patrimonialism)Highly personalized rule (extreme patrimonialism) Private and public fusedPrivate and public fused Ideology idiosyncratic if presentIdeology idiosyncratic if present Examples: Haiti under Duvaliers, Romania under CeaucescuExamples: Haiti under Duvaliers, Romania under Ceaucescu


Types of Authoritarian Rule ITypes of Authoritarian Rule I

Personal rulePersonal rule Charismatic or traditional authorityCharismatic or traditional authority Patrimonialism (sultanism as extreme)Patrimonialism (sultanism as extreme) Examples: Mobutu, King Fahd, Shah Reza PahlaviExamples: Mobutu, King Fahd, Shah Reza Pahlavi

Military ruleMilitary rule Typically overthrows popular ruleTypically overthrows popular rule Restricts political and civil activityRestricts political and civil activity ““Bureaucratic authoritarianism”Bureaucratic authoritarianism” Examples: Pinochet, Thai coupExamples: Pinochet, Thai coup


Types of Authoritarian Rule Types of Authoritarian Rule IIII

One-party ruleOne-party rule Focus on popular mobilization; cellsFocus on popular mobilization; cells Examples: PRI in Mexico prior to 2000, ZANU-PF in Examples: PRI in Mexico prior to 2000, ZANU-PF in

ZimbabweZimbabwe TheocracyTheocracy

Fusion of religious and political authorityFusion of religious and political authority Sacred texts are source of legitimacySacred texts are source of legitimacy Best example is Islamic Republic of IranBest example is Islamic Republic of Iran

illiberal regimesilliberal regimes Have elections, parties, etc.Have elections, parties, etc. but key political and civil rights missing, compromised, but key political and civil rights missing, compromised,

or not institutionalizedor not institutionalized Diamond: not liberal democraciesDiamond: not liberal democracies


Sources of Non-democratic Sources of Non-democratic RuleRule

EconomicEconomic Poverty (wealth and significant middle class undermine Poverty (wealth and significant middle class undermine

authoritarian rule)authoritarian rule) Economic crisisEconomic crisis

SocietalSocietal Political culture (roots in society and family structure)Political culture (roots in society and family structure) Religion, culture, civilizationReligion, culture, civilization

LeadershipLeadership Economic and societal are “institutional”Economic and societal are “institutional” May describe “preconditions” for such ruleMay describe “preconditions” for such rule Leaders may be “intervening variables”Leaders may be “intervening variables”

Consider also international contextConsider also international context External pressures for military rule (perceived? Created?)External pressures for military rule (perceived? Created?) External support for non-democratic ruleExternal support for non-democratic rule


Techniques of Authoritarian Techniques of Authoritarian RuleRule

Coercion and violenceCoercion and violence Terror, purges, secret jailsTerror, purges, secret jails

SurveillanceSurveillance KGB, Stasi, SavakKGB, Stasi, Savak

Co-optationCo-optation CorporatismCorporatism ClientelismClientelism

Personality cultsPersonality cults


Cult of PersonalityCult of Personality


Diamond’s “Hybrid Diamond’s “Hybrid Regimes”Regimes”

Two forms of democracyTwo forms of democracy Liberal democracyLiberal democracy Electoral democracyElectoral democracy

One unambiguous authoritarian regime: “politically closed One unambiguous authoritarian regime: “politically closed authoritarian” authoritarian”

Three hybridsThree hybrids Electoral authoritarianElectoral authoritarian Hegemonic electoral authoritarianHegemonic electoral authoritarian AmbiguousAmbiguous

Measured basically by Measured basically by Freedom House scores Measure civil liberties and political rightsMeasure civil liberties and political rights F.H. distinguishes between “free,” “partly free” and “not free”F.H. distinguishes between “free,” “partly free” and “not free” ““free” = liberal democracyfree” = liberal democracy ““partly free” = electoral democracy, ambiguouspartly free” = electoral democracy, ambiguous ““not free” – all others (Diamond has more distinctions)not free” – all others (Diamond has more distinctions)

http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=211&year=2005


Islam and Authoritarian RuleIslam and Authoritarian Rule

Few “Islamic countries” (especially in Middle East) are Few “Islamic countries” (especially in Middle East) are democraciesdemocracies Several monarchies and a theocracySeveral monarchies and a theocracy One-party rule is commonOne-party rule is common Exceptions: Turkey, Indonesia, Pakistan (sometimes)Exceptions: Turkey, Indonesia, Pakistan (sometimes)

Culturalist explanations:Culturalist explanations: Islam more authoritarianIslam more authoritarian Islamic countries less secularIslamic countries less secular Islamic countries more prone to political violenceIslamic countries more prone to political violence

Fish: best explanation is female subordinationFish: best explanation is female subordination Measured by literacy, proportion of political offices held, sex Measured by literacy, proportion of political offices held, sex

ratio imbalancesratio imbalances What’s the connection? – social and familial hierarchy What’s the connection? – social and familial hierarchy

undermines democracy, differences in male and female undermines democracy, differences in male and female political behaviorpolitical behavior

Burma

Military junta deposed Ne Win in 1988 Now called State Peace and Development Council

Multiparty elections 1990 opposition party led by Aung San Suu Kyi not allowed to take control She won Nobel Peace Prize, still under house arrest

Ongoing issues Ethnic rebel movements, especially Karen (near Thailand) Junta moved capital inland in 2005

Protests in 2007 Led by Buddhist monksin August 2007 suppressed Sept. 2007

Cyclone hit May 2008 80,000 killed Elections to approve new constitution held anyway New parliamentary elections scheduled for 2010

Sudan

Ongoing civil wars between North and South Often portrayed as white v. black Better seen as Muslim v. Christian/animist Peace agreement signed in 2005 More recently (2003), Darfur conflict

Government North (National Congress Party): came to power in 1988 in

coup; al-Bashir in charge since 1999 Power-sharing agreement with (Southern) Sudan People’s

Liberation Movement Elections scheduled for 2009

President of Sudan (Omar al-Bashir) just indicted by International Criminal Court for war crimes and crimes against humanity related to the Darfur conflict

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