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Volume 100 January 2009 www.sensorsportal.com ISSN 1726-5479

Editor-in-Chief: professor Sergey Y. Yurish, phone: +34 696067716, fax: +34 93 4011989, e-mail: [email protected]

Editors for Western Europe Meijer, Gerard C.M., Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands Ferrari, Vittorio, UUnniivveerrssiittáá ddii BBrreesscciiaa,, IIttaaly Editors for North America Datskos, Panos G., OOaakk RRiiddggee NNaattiioonnaall LLaabboorraattoorryy,, UUSSAA Fabien, J. Josse, Marquette University, USA Katz, Evgeny, Clarkson University, USA

Editor South America Costa-Felix, Rodrigo, Inmetro, Brazil Editor for Eastern Europe Sachenko, Anatoly, Ternopil State Economic University, Ukraine Editor for Asia Ohyama, Shinji, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan

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Microsystems, Italy Francis, Laurent, University Catholique de Louvain, Belgium Fu, Weiling, South-Western Hospital, Chongqing, China Gaura, Elena, Coventry University, UK Geng, Yanfeng, China University of Petroleum, China Gole, James, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Gong, Hao, National University of Singapore, Singapore Gonzalez de la Rosa, Juan Jose, University of Cadiz, Spain Granel, Annette, Goteborg University, Sweden Graff, Mason, The University of Texas at Arlington, USA Guan, Shan, Eastman Kodak, USA Guillet, Bruno, University of Caen, France Guo, Zhen, New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA Gupta, Narendra Kumar, Napier University, UK Hadjiloucas, Sillas, The University of Reading, UK Hashsham, Syed, Michigan State University, USA Hernandez, Alvaro, University of Alcala, Spain Hernandez, Wilmar, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Spain Homentcovschi, Dorel, SUNY Binghamton, USA Horstman, Tom, U.S. Automation Group, LLC, USA Hsiai, Tzung (John), University of Southern California, USA Huang, Jeng-Sheng, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan Huang, Star, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan Huang, Wei, PSG Design Center, USA Hui, David, University of New Orleans, USA Jaffrezic-Renault, Nicole, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, France Jaime Calvo-Galleg, Jaime, Universidad de Salamanca, Spain James, Daniel, Griffith University, Australia Janting, Jakob, DELTA Danish Electronics, Denmark Jiang, Liudi, University of Southampton, UK Jiang, Wei, University of Virginia, USA Jiao, Zheng, Shanghai University, China John, Joachim, IMEC, Belgium Kalach, Andrew, Voronezh Institute of Ministry of Interior, Russia Kang, Moonho, Sunmoon University, Korea South Kaniusas, Eugenijus, Vienna University of Technology, Austria Katake, Anup, Texas A&M University, USA Kausel, Wilfried, University of Music, Vienna, Austria Kavasoglu, Nese, Mugla University, Turkey Ke, Cathy, Tyndall National Institute, Ireland Khan, Asif, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India Kim, Min Young, Koh Young Technology, Inc., Korea South Sandacci, Serghei, Sensor Technology Ltd., UK Sapozhnikova, Ksenia, D.I.Mendeleyev Institute for Metrology, Russia

Korea South Kockar, Hakan, Balikesir University, Turkey Kotulska, Malgorzata, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland Kratz, Henrik, Uppsala University, Sweden Kumar, Arun, University of South Florida, USA Kumar, Subodh, National Physical Laboratory, India Kung, Chih-Hsien, Chang-Jung Christian University, Taiwan Lacnjevac, Caslav, University of Belgrade, Serbia Lay-Ekuakille, Aime, University of Lecce, Italy Lee, Jang Myung, Pusan National University, Korea South Lee, Jun Su, Amkor Technology, Inc. South Korea Lei, Hua, National Starch and Chemical Company, USA Li, Genxi, Nanjing University, China Li, Hui, Shanghai Jiaotong University, China Li, Xian-Fang, Central South University, China Liang, Yuanchang, University of Washington, USA Liawruangrath, Saisunee, Chiang Mai University, Thailand Liew, Kim Meow, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Lin, Hermann, National Kaohsiung University, Taiwan Lin, Paul, Cleveland State University, USA Linderholm, Pontus, EPFL - Microsystems Laboratory, Switzerland Liu, Aihua, University of Oklahoma, USA Liu Changgeng, Louisiana State University, USA Liu, Cheng-Hsien, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan Liu, Songqin, Southeast University, China Lodeiro, Carlos, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Portugal Lorenzo, Maria Encarnacio, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain Lukaszewicz, Jerzy Pawel, Nicholas Copernicus University, Poland Ma, Zhanfang, Northeast Normal University, China Majstorovic, Vidosav, University of Belgrade, Serbia Marquez, Alfredo, Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados, Mexico Matay, Ladislav, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia Mathur, Prafull, National Physical Laboratory, India Maurya, D.K., Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Singapore Mekid, Samir, University of Manchester, UK Melnyk, Ivan, Photon Control Inc., Canada Mendes, Paulo, University of Minho, Portugal Mennell, Julie, Northumbria University, UK Mi, Bin, Boston Scientific Corporation, USA Minas, Graca, University of Minho, Portugal Moghavvemi, Mahmoud, University of Malaya, Malaysia Mohammadi, Mohammad-Reza, University of Cambridge, UK Molina Flores, Esteban, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla,

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Italy Mounir, Ben Ali, University of Sousse, Tunisia Mukhopadhyay, Subhas, Massey University, New Zealand Neelamegam, Periasamy, Sastra Deemed University, India Neshkova, Milka, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria Oberhammer, Joachim, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden Ould Lahoucine, Cherif, University of Guelma, Algeria Pamidighanta, Sayanu, Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), India Pan, Jisheng, Institute of Materials Research & Engineering, Singapore Park, Joon-Shik, Korea Electronics Technology Institute, Korea South Penza, Michele, ENEA C.R., Italy Pereira, Jose Miguel, Instituto Politecnico de Setebal, Portugal Petsev, Dimiter, University of New Mexico, USA Pogacnik, Lea, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Post, Michael, National Research Council, Canada Prance, Robert, University of Sussex, UK Prasad, Ambika, Gulbarga University, India Prateepasen, Asa, Kingmoungut's University of Technology, Thailand Pullini, Daniele, Centro Ricerche FIAT, Italy Pumera, Martin, National Institute for Materials Science, Japan Radhakrishnan, S. National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, India Rajanna, K., Indian Institute of Science, India Ramadan, Qasem, Institute of Microelectronics, Singapore Rao, Basuthkar, Tata Inst. of Fundamental Research, India Raoof, Kosai, Joseph Fourier University of Grenoble, France Reig, Candid, University of Valencia, Spain Restivo, Maria Teresa, University of Porto, Portugal Robert, Michel, University Henri Poincare, France Rezazadeh, Ghader, Urmia University, Iran Royo, Santiago, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain Rodriguez, Angel, Universidad Politecnica de Cataluna, Spain Rothberg, Steve, Loughborough University, UK Sadana, Ajit, University of Mississippi, USA Sadeghian Marnani, Hamed, TU Delft, The Netherlands

Saxena, Vibha, Bhbha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India Schneider, John K., Ultra-Scan Corporation, USA Seif, Selemani, Alabama A & M University, USA Seifter, Achim, Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA Sengupta, Deepak, Advance Bio-Photonics, India Shankar, B. Baliga, General Monitors Transnational, USA Shearwood, Christopher, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Shin, Kyuho, Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Korea Shmaliy, Yuriy, Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics,

Ukraine Silva Girao, Pedro, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal Singh, V. R., National Physical Laboratory, India Slomovitz, Daniel, UTE, Uruguay Smith, Martin, Open University, UK Soleymanpour, Ahmad, Damghan Basic Science University, Iran Somani, Prakash R., Centre for Materials for Electronics Technol., India Srinivas, Talabattula, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India Srivastava, Arvind K., Northwestern University, USA Stefan-van Staden, Raluca-Ioana, University of Pretoria, South Africa Sumriddetchka, Sarun, National Electronics and Computer Technology

Center, Thailand Sun, Chengliang, Polytechnic University, Hong-Kong Sun, Dongming, Jilin University, China Sun, Junhua, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, China Sun, Zhiqiang, Central South University, China Suri, C. Raman, Institute of Microbial Technology, India Sysoev, Victor, Saratov State Technical University, Russia Szewczyk, Roman, Industrial Research Institute for Automation and

Measurement, Poland Tan, Ooi Kiang, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Tang, Dianping, Southwest University, China Tang, Jaw-Luen, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan Teker, Kasif, Frostburg State University, USA Thumbavanam Pad, Kartik, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Tian, Gui Yun, University of Newcastle, UK Tsiantos, Vassilios, Technological Educational Institute of Kaval, Greece Tsigara, Anna, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Greece Twomey, Karen, University College Cork, Ireland Valente, Antonio, University, Vila Real, - U.T.A.D., Portugal Vaseashta, Ashok, Marshall University, USA Vazquez, Carmen, Carlos III University in Madrid, Spain Vieira, Manuela, Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa, Portugal Vigna, Benedetto, STMicroelectronics, Italy Vrba, Radimir, Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic Wandelt, Barbara, Technical University of Lodz, Poland Wang, Jiangping, Xi'an Shiyou University, China Wang, Kedong, Beihang University, China Wang, Liang, Advanced Micro Devices, USA Wang, Mi, University of Leeds, UK Wang, Shinn-Fwu, Ching Yun University, Taiwan Wang, Wei-Chih, University of Washington, USA Wang, Wensheng, University of Pennsylvania, USA Watson, Steven, Center for NanoSpace Technologies Inc., USA Weiping, Yan, Dalian University of Technology, China Wells, Stephen, Southern Company Services, USA Wolkenberg, Andrzej, Institute of Electron Technology, Poland Woods, R. Clive, Louisiana State University, USA Wu, DerHo, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology,

Taiwan Wu, Zhaoyang, Hunan University, China Xiu Tao, Ge, Chuzhou University, China Xu, Lisheng, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Xu, Tao, University of California, Irvine, USA Yang, Dongfang, National Research Council, Canada Yang, Wuqiang, The University of Manchester, UK Ymeti, Aurel, University of Twente, Netherland Yong Zhao, Northeastern University, China Yu, Haihu, Wuhan University of Technology, China Yuan, Yong, Massey University, New Zealand Yufera Garcia, Alberto, Seville University, Spain Zagnoni, Michele, University of Southampton, UK Zeni, Luigi, Second University of Naples, Italy Zhong, Haoxiang, Henan Normal University, China Zhang, Minglong, Shanghai University, China Zhang, Qintao, University of California at Berkeley, USA Zhang, Weiping, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China Zhang, Wenming, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China Zhou, Zhi-Gang, Tsinghua University, China Zorzano, Luis, Universidad de La Rioja, Spain Zourob, Mohammed, University of Cambridge, UK

Sensors & Transducers Journal (ISSN 1726-5479) is a peer review international journal published monthly online by International Frequency Sensor Association (IFSA).

Available in electronic and CD-ROM. Copyright © 2009 by International Frequency Sensor Association. All rights reserved.

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Volume 100 Issue 1 January 2009

www.sensorsportal.com ISSN 1726-5479

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International Frequency Sensor Association (IFSA) Celebrates the 10th Anniversary ............. I Sergey Y. Yurish RReesseeaarrcchh AArrttiicclleess A Log Amplifier Based Linearization Scheme for Thermocouples Nikhil Mondal, A. Abudhahir, Sourav Kanti Jana,Sugata Munshi and D. P. Bhattacharya................ 1 Uncertainty Analysis of Thermocouple Circuits B. Vasuki, M. Umapathy, S. K. Velumani ........................................................................................... 11 Calibration System for Thermocouple Testing Dragan R. Milivojevic, Visa Tasic, Marijana Pavlov, Zoran Andjelkovic ............................................. 16 Embedded Processor Based Automatic Temperature Control of VLSI Chips Narasimha Murthy Yayavaram, Saritha Chappidi, Sukanya Velamakuri ........................................... 27 Field of Temperature Measurement by Virtual Instrumentation Libor Hargaš, Dušan Koniar, Miroslav Hrianka, Jozef Čuntala .......................................................... 45 Analyzing Electroencephalogram Signal Using EEG Lab Mukesh Bhardwaj and Avtar. K. Nadir ............................................................................................... 51 New Aspects in Respiratory Epithelium Diagnostics Using Virtual Instrumentation Dušan Koniar, Libor Hargaš, Miroslav Hrianka, Peter Bánovčin........................................................ 58 A PC-based Technique to Measure the Thermal Conductivity of Solid Materials Alety Sridevireddy, K. Raghavendra Rao........................................................................................... 65 A New Wide Frequency Band Capacitance Transducer with Application to Measuring Metal Fill Time Wael Deabes, Mohamed Abdelrahman, and Periasamy K. Rajan .................................................... 72 A Novel Hall Effect Sensor Using Elaborate Offset Cancellation Method Vlassis N. Petoussis, Panos D. Dimitropoulos and George Stamoulis .............................................. 85 A Review of Material Properties Estimation Using Eddy Current Testing and Capacitor Imaging Mohd. Amri Yunus, S. C. Mukhopadhyay and G. Sen Gupta ............................................................ 92 Surface Plasmon Resonance Based Fiber Optic Sensor with Symmetric and Asymmetric Metallic Coatings: a Comparative Study Smita Singh, Rajneesh K. Verma and B. D. Gupta............................................................................ 116

Increasing of Excursion Range of Absolute Optical Sensors Intended for Positioners Igor Friedland, Ioseph Gurwich, Amit Brandes................................................................................... 125 Field-Effect-Transistor Behavior of a Multiwall Carbon Nano Fiber Directly Grown on Nickel Electrodes L. W. Chang, P. S. Wu, J. T. Lue and Z. P. Chen.............................................................................. 137 Classification of Fiber-Optic Pressure Sensors with Amplitude Modulation of Optical Signal Vladyslav Kondratov, Vitalii Redko..................................................................................................... 146 NNeeww ee--BBooookk Laboratories of Instrumentation for Measurement Maria Teresa Restivo, Fernando Gomes de Almeida, Maria de Fátima Chouzal, Joaquim Gabriel Mendes, António Mendes Lopes ........................................................................................................ 161

Authors are encouraged to submit article in MS Word (doc) and Acrobat (pdf) formats by e-mail: [email protected] Please visit journal’s webpage with preparation instructions: http://www.sensorsportal.com/HTML/DIGEST/Submition.htm

International Frequency Sensor Association (IFSA).

Sensors & Transducers Journal, Vol. 100, Issue 1, January 2009, pp. 146-160

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Classification of Fiber-Optic Pressure Sensors with Amplitude Modulation of Optical Signal

1Vladyslav KONDRATOV, 2Vitalii REDKO

1Department of Physical Fundamentals of Informatics, V. M. Glushkov Cybernetics Institute, 40, Prospect Akademika Glushkova, 03680, Kyiv, Ukraine

Tel.: + 38 (044) 526-24-69 2Project Department, Seim-93 Ltd.,

5a, Novopecherskyi Pereulok, 01042, Kyiv, Ukraine Tel.: +38 (044) 457-23-40

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Received: 29 November 2008 /Accepted: 19 January 2009 /Published: 26 January 2009 Abstract: A classification of amplitude fiber-optic pressure sensors from the point of view of the system-hierarchical approach is proposed in this paper. New attributive features, which characterize and determine individuality and community of sensors are revealed and formulated. A clear and rigorous system of terms and definitions is proposed for designation of different kinds of amplitude fiber-optic pressure sensors. Copyright © 2009 IFSA. Keywords: Classification, Fiber-optic pressure sensor, Amplitude modulation 1. Introduction Efforts aimed at systematization of information about fiber-optic sensors of physical quantities and creating their general classification started as early as 1977-1979. However a comprehensive and universally recognized classification of sensors of this kind has not been created yet. The root cause of this is that each researcher has his own field of scientific interests and, as a rule, specializes in design of sensors to serve a narrow range of application. It inevitably leads to insufficient study of some parts of classification. Distinguishing feature of the proposed classification is its narrow directivity – it embraces the fiber-optic sensors perceiving only one physical quantity (pressure) and having only one kind of modulation (amplitude).


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2. Purpose of Research Purpose of research consists in presenting the profound classification of amplitude fiber-optic pressure sensors (FOPS) to scientists and experts in the field of metrology and fiber-optic instrument-making.

3. Choice of Approach to Creating of Classification and Formulation of Classification Attributive Features

The essence of the most often used approach is that each attributive feature (laid as a basis of classification) forms a separate “branch”, which ramifies from trunk of classification tree [1-5]. This approach is sufficiently easy since author has no need in keeping to rigorous hierarchy of classification attributive features. The drawback of classifications that were created upon the basis of this approach is that they do not answer the question: “Is there any interrelation between heterogeneous properties of sensor?” Classification of fiber-optic sensors can be built on the principle of longitude-latitude grid [6]. In that case each “meridian” and “parallel” is associated with a certain classification attributive feature or property that is distinguished by this attributive feature. The essence of such approach consists in integration of heterogeneous properties of sensor to dyads, their sequential consideration and determination of the impossible, already realized or possible combinations of properties. The drawback of such approach is that it fails to reveal cause-effect bonds between heterogeneous properties of sensor. Further evolution of this approach resulted in creation of classification of fiber-optic sensors described in [7]. Authors of the mentioned work proposed to use Cartesian coordinate system as a special framework of classification. Each coordinate axes is associated with one of attributive features. Properties distinguished by attributive features are laid off on corresponding axes. Difference between this and previous approach consists in that triads and not dyads of heterogeneous properties of sensor are considered. In this connection it is reasonable to use the third approach in search of “blank spots” (uncreated technical decisions of sensors). However in authors’ opinion the system-hierarchical approach allows to generalize and systematize the knowledge about FOPSs in the best way. The essence of this approach consists in construction of rigorous hierarchical system of attributive features. Each level in this system is tightly interrelated with previous and subsequent levels. The second stage in creation of classification is formulation of the attributive features that characterize and determine the individuality and community of FOPSs. Analysis of a number of publications showed that the following attributive features should be used for construction of classification of amplitude FOPSs (Fig. 1): 1) Body of information received by means of sensor; 2) Kind of perceived and transduced pressure; 3) Type of sensing element; 4) Directivity of optical channel; 5) Optical phenomenon assumed as a basis for principle of operation of sensor; 6) Cause-effect bond causing power modulation of radiant flux; 7) Place, where power modulation of radiant flux is realized; 8) Number of points in space where sensor allows to perceive pressure; 9) Method of disposition of sensing element in space;


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Fig. 1. Classification of amplitude fiber-optic pressure sensors.


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10) Geometrical parameters of sensing element; 11) Character of operation of sensor in time; 12) Physical nature of output signals; 13) Number of light-sensitive areas in optical receiver; 14) Functional area of fiber-optic cable as a part of sensor; 15) Type of the applied optical fibers; 16) Character of optical radiation used in sensor operation. 4. Classification of Amplitude FOPSs from the Point of View

of the System-hierarchical Approach Let’s consider the system of attributive features of amplitude FOPSs (see Fig. 1). Depending on body of information received by means of a sensor FOPSs are divided into two kinds. Sensors of the first kind guarantee receiving of information about measured quantity (pressure). Sensors of the second kind (they are known as informative-redundant sensors) guarantee receiving of informative redundancy [8-10]. The term “informative redundancy” designates body of information about the measured quantity and parameters of sensor’s transfer function (in particular conversion transconductance and zero offset). Informative-redundant FOPSs are specially engineered for realization of redundant measurements methods [11]. These methods guarantee: 1) elimination of influence of nominal values of sensor transfer function parameters; 2) automatic correction of systematic errors caused by deviations of parameters of sensor’s transfer function from their nominal values; 3) linearization of transfer function of sensor. Depending on the kind of perceived and transduced pressure the variety of amplitude FOPSs is divided into [12]: absolute pressure sensors perceiving and transducing pressure which is reckoned from the absolute zero; gage pressure sensors intended for perception and transduction of difference between absolute pressure that is bigger than absolute pressure of environment and absolute pressure of environment; vacuum gage pressure sensors used for perception and transduction of pressure of rarefied gas; atmospheric pressure sensors employed for perception and transduction of pressure of near-Earth atmosphere; differential pressure sensors used in cases when it is necessary to perceive and transduce difference of two pressures. Two kinds of sensors are differentiated according to type of sensing element (SE): FOPSs where radiant flux is conveyed to and from SE and FOPSs where SE generates radiant flux [4]. It is significant that sensors of the first kind either have embedded optical emission source (OES) or are linked to external OES. Sensors of the second kind require no OES because SE performs its function. Before considering division of FOPSs with regard to the following attributive feature it is necessary to give definition to such terms as “optical path” and “optical channel”. Optical path is a route of radiant flux. Optical channel (OC) is a totality of optically transparent media through which the optical path runs. Depending on directivity of OC it is necessary to distinguish sensors with unidirectional and bidirectional OC. FOPS with unidirectional OC is a sensor where radiant flux is transmitted through OC in one definite direction. FOPS with bidirectional OC is a sensor where counterdirectional radiant fluxes are transmitted through OC. Seven kinds of FOPSs can be differentiated with regard to optical phenomenon assumed as a basis for principle of operation of sensor. Such FOPSs operate basing upon the following phenomena:


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reflection, interruption, refraction, absorption, divergence, frustration of total internal reflection and mechanoluminescence. All FOPSs are divided into eleven kinds depending on cause-effect bond causing power modulation of radiant flux. Let’s give their short description. Principle of operation of reflectometric FOPSs (they are called in some papers by a term – “reflective FOPSs”) is based upon reflection of radiant flux. Power modulation of latter is achieved through change (under the influence of pressure) of relational attitude position of end surfaces of optical fibers (OF) and reflecting surface located across the route of radiant flux [13-17]. As an example, the construction of reflectometric FOPS with elliptical shaped membrane [17] is shown in Fig. 2. The sensor functions in the following way: radiant flux radiates from end surface of transmitting OF 6, gets to reflecting surface of membrane 4, and is reflected from it and thus forms illuminated zone at the plane of end surface of receiving OF 10. Flexure of membrane 4 under the influence of pressure results in changes of dimensions and attitude position of illuminated zone. Simultaneously the irradiance of this zone is changed. These processes cause change of power of radiant flux, which is received by end surface of receiving OF 10.

Fig. 2. Construction of reflectometric FOPS: 1 – cover with acoustic holes; 2 – frame; 3, 13 – fiber-optic cables; 4 – elliptical shaped membrane with internal

reflecting surface; 5, 11 – jackets; 6 – transmitting OF; 7, 9 – cylindrical capillaries; 8 – hole with plug fitting for adjustment of pressure in cavity under membrane; 10 – receiving OF; 12 – corrugated hangers.

Divergence of radiant flux is assumed as a basis for operation of divergentometric FOPSs. Power modulation of radiant flux is realized due to change (under the influence of pressure) of relational attitude position of end surfaces of transmitting and receiving OFs [2, 3, 18]. FOPS with movable transmitting and receiving OFs [18], whose construction is shown in Fig. 3, represents divergentometric FOPSs. Sensor functions in the following way: radiant flux radiates from end surface of transmitting OF 4 and gets to end surface of receiving OF 13. Flexure of membranes 8 and 9 under the influence of pressure result in mutual shift of end surfaces of the mentioned OFs. This process causes change of power of radiant flux, which is received by end surface of receiving OF 13. The phenomenon of interruption of radiant flux is used when creating resectometric FOPSs (they are called in some papers by a term – “FOPSs with shutter modulator”). Characteristic feature of this FOPSs is that power modulation of radiant flux occurs owing to cutting off a part of it by element (or


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set of elements), which is made of optically non-transparent material, changing its attitude position under the influence of pressure [19-22].

Fig. 3. Construction of divergentometric FOPS with movable transmitting and receiving OFs: 1, 16 – fiber-optic cables; 2, 15 – jackets; 3, 14 – ferrules; 4 – transmitting OF; 5, 12 – clamps;

6, 11 – translatable rods; 7, 10 – holders; 8, 9 – membranes; 13 – receiving OF. For example, paper [22] describes FOPS with two diffraction gratings 10 and 14 (see Fig. 4). The immovable grating 14 is attached to flat gasket 13 and the movable grating 10 is attached to membrane 9. When positions of grooves of diffraction gratings 10 and 14 are coincident, OC has the maximum transmission capacity. When misalignment of grooves is equal to half-period, transmission capacity of OC is minimal.

Fig. 4. Construction of resectometric FOPS with set of diffraction gratings: 1, 24 – fiber-optic cables; 2, 23 – jackets; 3, 22 – sealant; 4 – transmitting OF; 5, 20 – caps with access holes; 6, 19 – ferrules; 7, 18 – cylindrical capillaries; 8 – coupling; 9 – membrane; 10, 14 – diffraction gratings with

translatable rods; 11 – ring gasket; 12 – decollimating lens; 13 – flat gasket; 15 – restrictive cylinder; 16 – collimating lens; 17 – frame; 21 – receiving OF.

Refraction of radiant flux is assumed as a basis for principle of operation of deviatometric FOPSs. Power modulation of radiant flux is achieved by its deviation from the initial trajectory when passing through refracting optical element (or set of elements). Consequently it changes its attitude position under the influence of pressure [2, 23]. The FOPS with movable spherical lens [23], whose construction is shown in Fig. 5, represents deviatometric FOPSs. Sensor functions in the following way. Initially, when optical centers of


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transmitting OF 4, spherical lens 13 and receiving OF 19 are laid at one optical axis, OC has the maximum transmission capacity. When misalignment of optical centers occurs (as a result of displacement of spherical lens 13 under the influence of pressure), reduction of transmission capacity of OC takes place. Characteristic feature of absorptiometric FOPSs (they are called in some papers by a term – “FOPSs with absorbing modulator”) is that one section of their OC is an optical element (in general case – medium) having property to absorb the radiant flux. Power modulation of the latter is realized either by changing (under the influence of pressure) the absorption coefficient of optical element material or the attitude position of this optical element [24, 25]. Constructions of absorptiometric FOPSs are similar to constructions of deviatometric FOPSs. For example, if we substitute a spherical lens 13 (see Fig. 5) for absorbing optical filter, we will get construction of absorptiometric FOPS.

Fig. 5. Construction of deviatometric FOPS with spherical lens: 1, 22 – fiber-optic cables; 2, 21 – jackets; 3, 20 – sealant; 4 – transmitting OF; 5, 18 – caps

with access holes; 6, 17 – ferrules; 7, 16 – cylindrical capillaries; 8 – coupling; 9 – membrane; 10 – casing with translatable rod; 11 – ring gasket; 12 – flat gasket; 13 – short-focus spherical lens; 14 –

restrictive cylinder; 15 – frame; 19 – receiving OF. It is necessary to mark that one general term – “attenuator FOPSs” was used for designation of resectometric, deviatometric and absorptiometric FOPSs [5]. In our opinion, this term is not quite apt as it only points out that optical attenuation is introduced into OC of such sensors under the influence of pressure, whereas this assertion is true for all amplitude FOPSs without exception. Terms “resectometric FOPS”, “deviatometric FOPS” and “absorptiometric FOPS” are more informative since they reflect specific features of introduction of optical attenuation into OC of sensor. In tunneling FOPSs power modulation of radiant flux occurs due to approachment (under the influence of pressure) of the two media, through one of which the radiant flux propagates, at a distance commensurable with wavelength [26-28]. One of the possible constructions of tunneling FOPS is shown in Fig. 6. Sensor consists of OF 5 and flat plate 9 attached to membrane 8 [28]. One part of OF 5 does not have reflecting cladding and is coiled in a flat spiral and is located beneath flat plate 9. The latter is fashioned from material having refractive index higher than that of OF core material. When flat plate 9 approaches OF 5 under the


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influence of pressure, part of radiant flux “flows” from the OF 5 to flat plate 9. It is characteristic of FOPSs with variable area of optical contact that power modulation of radiant flux is a result of the change (under the influence of pressure) of area of optical contact between two media through one of which radiant flux propagates [29, 30]. As an example, one of the possible constructions of FOPS with variable area of optical contact is shown in Fig. 7. Sensor functions in the following way: when pressure is applied to membrane 2, optical element 3 (made of silicon rubber) touches face of prism 7 (made of glass) and zone of optical contact arises [30]. Since frustration of total internal reflection takes place in this zone, part of radiant flux passing through transmitting OF 9, prism 7 and receiving OF 10 “flows” into optical element 3. As area of zone of optical contact increases, power of radiant flux getting into end surface of OF 10 decreases.

Fig. 6. Construction of tunneling FOPS: 1 – fiber-optic cable; 2 – jacket; 3 – ferrule; 4 – frame; 5 – OF, part of which is coiled in a flat spiral;

6, 10 – adjusting screws; 7 – hole with plug fitting for adjustment of pressure in cavity under membrane; 8 – membrane; 9 – flat plate; 11 – rigid circular backing plate; 12 – clamp.

Fig. 7. Construction of FOPS with variable area of optical contact: 1 – coupling; 2 – membrane; 3 – optical element in the form of spherical segment; 4 – holder;

5 – ring gasket; 6 – frame; 7 – prism; 8 – sealant; 9 – transmitting OF; 10 – receiving OF; 11 – ferrule with access holes; 12 – jacket; 13 – fiber-optic cable.

Principle of operation of refractometric FOPSs is based upon changing (under the influence of pressure) either the refractive index of the OF cladding material or of the medium surrounding OF [31, 32]. In FOPSs founded on bended OFs (they are called in some papers by a term – “macrobend FOPSs”)


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power modulation of radiant flux is caused by change of bending radius of OF depending upon the applied pressure [18, 33]. FOPSs founded on microbending OFs (they are called in some papers by a term – “microbend FOPSs”) are characterized by the fact that power modulation of radiant flux takes place when it propagates through OF that undergoes a number of microbendings under the influence of pressure. Radius of each microbending is commensurable with diameter of the applied OF [34, 35]. Fig. 8 illustrates the process of introduction of microbending losses by means of a set of cylindrical pins 2 and 4. The latter are squeezed by deformers 1 made in a form of two cogged plates. One of deformers is immovable, another one moves with membrane 3. Microbending OF 5 is surrounded by flexible substance 6 having a higher refractive index than reflecting cladding of OF. The fragment of construction of FOPS, in which a set of cylindrical pins 2 and 4 is used for introducing of microbending losses, is shown in Fig. 8. Cylindrical pins 2 and 4 are squeezed by deformers 1 made in a form of two cogged plates. One of deformers is immovable, another one moves with membrane 3. It necessary to mark that microbending OF 5 is surrounded by flexible substance 6 having a higher refractive index than reflecting cladding of OF. Principle of operation of mechanoluminescent FOPSs is based upon interaction between luminescent centers and the electric field of mobile charged dislocations occurring in process of plastic deformation (caused by the influence of pressure) of crystalline solid (SE of sensor). It results in excitation (ionization) of luminescent centers with further radiation transitions of these centers [36, 37].

Fig. 8. Part of construction of FOPS founded on microbending OF: 1 – deformers; 2, 4 – cylindrical pins; 3 – membrane with solid center; 5 – microbending OF;

6 – flexible substance.

For example in FOPS [37], whose construction is shown in Fig. 9, the influence of pressure upon SE 4 (made of zinc-sulfide luminophor that is doped by manganese or copper) results in generation of optical radiation pulse. The latter is received by end surfaces of receiving OFs 8. Depending on the place, where power modulation of radiant flux is realized, it is necessary to differentiate FOPSs where modulation is realized: 1) in the section of optical channel consisting of one or several optical fibers; 2) in the section of optical channel being another medium (for example liquid, gas or crystal); 3) outside optical channel.


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Fig. 9. Construction of mechanoluminescent FOPS: 1 – coupling-concentrator; 2 – ring gasket; 3 – screwed cap; 4 – luminophor; 5 – frame;

6 – dowels; 7 – ferrule; 8 – fiber-optic bundle consisting of receiving OFs; 9 – jacket; 10 – fiber-optic cable.

It is necessary to mark that among tunneling FOPSs there are sensors from the first and second groups. For example, papers [38, 39] describe sensor made in form of two single-mode OFs, one of which is connected to OES. Distance between the cores of OFs is commensurable with wavelength. When pressure is applied, cores of OFs approach each other and part of radiant flux “flows” from the first OF to the second one. There are three variants of sensor embodiment: 1) the first OF is connected to optical receiver (OR); 2) the second OF is connected to OR; 3) both OFs are connected to separate ORs. In the first case, sensor should be referred to the first group of FOPSs since information about the perceived pressure is carried by radiant flux passing through first OF. In other words, the first OF should be regarded as a section of OC, and the second OF – only as auxiliary element diverting part of radiant flux. In the second and third cases the functional area of second OF is changed as the informative radiant flux (having passed through the medium dividing the two OFs) propagates through it. Then it is necessary to regard the second OF along with intermediate medium as a section of OC. So sensor in second and third cases should be referred to FOPSs of the second group. It is necessary to mark that subdivision of FOPSs into “intrinsic” and “extrinsic” is proposed in a number of works [2, 4, 40]. In authors’ opinion such subdivision is subjective because none of these works formulated a clear and definite attributive feature according to which FOPS are subdivided. According to a number of points in space where sensor allows to perceive pressure amplitude FOPSs can be subdivided into single-point, quasi-distributed and distributed ones [41]. Single-point FOPSs perceive pressure in one given point of space. Quasi-distributed FOPSs perceive pressure in a limited number of points of the given space region. Distributed FOPSs perceive pressure in an unlimited number of points of the given region of space. Overwhelming majority of reflectometric, divergentometric, resectometric, deviatometric, absorptiometric and mechanoluminescent FOPSs and also FOPSs with variable area of optical contact belong to group of single-point sensors. Refractometric and tunneling FOPSs and also FOPSs founded on bended and microbending OFs mainly are produced as quasi-distributed. Distributed sensors are represented by FOPSs founded on microbending OFs and mechanoluminescent FOPSs. Depending on the method of disposition of SE in space the distributed and quasi-distributed FOPSs are subdivided into distributed (quasi-distributed) along the length and throughout the area. The first type of FOPSs is intended for perception and transduction of pressure distributed along a narrow but lengthy section. Such sensors are applied for monitoring the technical conditions of engineering


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structures. The second type of FOPSs is intended for perception and transduction of pressure distributed throughout a section having the commensurable length and width. These sensors are used to represent the process of contact interaction between complex contour dynamic objects and SE. According to geometrical parameters of SE can be distinguish FOPSs with lengthy and zonal SE. Length and width of zonal SE are commensurable quantities, whereas length of lengthy SE greatly exceeds width (in some instances – a few thousand times). FOPS founded on microbending OF, which is made in form of two metallic profiled plates each of them having radial grooves and OF placed between them in the form of flat spiral, can present the example of single-point sensors with lengthy SE. The already mentioned tunneling FOPS [28] (see Fig. 6) can be another example of single-point sensors with lengthy SE. In both cases SE (OF performs its function) is made lengthy in order to increase modulation percentage of optical signal, but sensor perceives pressure only in a single point of space. FOPSs founded on microbending OF [35] represent quasi-distributed sensors with lengthy SE. In this case sensor includes OF and several deformers which are distributed along its length. One should note that depending on method of disposition of OF in space the sensor can be quasi-distributed either along the length or throughout the area. Quasi-distributed FOPSs can also have a zonal SE. For example, paper [37] describes a mechanoluminescent sensor with SE in a form of membrane one side of which is coated by a thin layer of luminophor. Number of points in space where sensor perceives pressure depends on number of OFs used for conveying of radiant flux from modulation zone. FOPSs founded on microbending OF [42] can present the example of distributed sensors with lengthy SE. In such sensors SE is made in the form of a fiber-optic cable with complex internal structure (see Fig. 10). Distinguishing feature of the sensor is that microbending losses are introduced not by means of external deformers (profiled plates, cylindrical pins etc.) but with the help of two additional coating layers of fiber-optic cable. First coating layer is constructed of a hard, optically lossy material, preferably having a higher refractive index than cladding of OF. Second coating layer is constructed of a compliant material in which a large number of fine hard granular particles have been uniformly distributed.

Fig. 10. Cross-sectional view of SE of distributed FOPS founded on microbending OF: 1 – core of OF; 2 – cladding of OF; 3 – first coating layer; 4 – second coating layer.


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Authors of the paper [37] propose another approach in creating distributed FOPS with lengthy SE. According to their idea SE of such sensor should be made in the form of OF fashioned of material containing luminophor. It also will allow to make OF being sensitive to influence of pressure along the full length of it. Depending on character of operation of sensor in time FOPSs are divided into continuous operation sensors and threshold operation sensors (the latter are called in some papers by a nonmetrological term – “pressure alarm”). Continuous operation FOPSs generate the output signal carrying information about current value of pressure. In contrast to them threshold operation FOPSs begin or finish generation of output signal when pressure amounts to a value predetermined with required accuracy. FOPSs with output signals of optical and electrical nature are discerned according to physical nature of output signals [4, 12]. The first group of sensors serves as a foundation for creation of fiber-optic data gathering systems, where optical signal stands for carrier of measuring information. Sensors of second group are intended for application in such data gathering systems, where electrical signal is a carrier of measuring information. Optic-electronic transducer with embedded OES and OR is the obligatory component of such sensors [8, 10, 43]. Depending on number of light-sensitive areas in OR sensors having output signals of electrical nature are subdivided into FOPSs with one-, two- and multi-element ORs. One-element ORs are employed in single-point sensors. Two-element ORs are used in sensors with two channels to reduce error cased by non-identity of the channels. Multi-element ORs have their use in sensors with zonal SE. For example, when multi-element ORs are used in mechanoluminescent sensors, it is possible to determine dimensions and position of radiating section of SE, power of radiant flux coming from it, as well as the sequence of activation processes of individual section of SE [37]. Depending on functional area of fiber-optic cable as a part of sensor it is necessary to differentiate FOPSs with fiber-optic cable used as communication line and FOPSs with fiber-optic cable used for connection to communication line. It is necessary to mark that assembling, testing and running of sensors of the second type become appreciably complicated if the length of fiber-optic cable amounts to (200 … 1000) m. Therefore, the second variant of sensor embodiment, when fiber-optic cable of a limited length (no more than 10 m) is used, seems more rational. FOPSs founded on single-mode and multi-mode OFs can be distinguished according to type of the applied OFs. Multi-mode OFs are characterized by diameter of core (50 … 280) µm and a great (about 1 %) relative difference between the refractive indexes of material of core and cladding. It gives them the advantage of high efficiency of fitting to OES and relative simplicity of connecting with the same type of OFs. Single-mode OFs have a diameter of core not more than 10 µm and a relative difference between refractive indexes of material of core and cladding about 0.3 %. Consequently, single-mode OFs are used with OESs that only have a narrow directional diagram [41]. It is necessary to mark that single-mode OFs are rarely used in amplitude FOPSs since their use leads to increase of the ready product price and in most cases gives no significant improvement to metrological characteristics of the product. The already mentioned FOPS [38, 39] made in form of two single-mode OFs with the distance between cores commensurable with wavelength can be given as one of the exceptions. As compared with its analogue, the FOPS [44] made on foundation of multi-mode OFs, this sensor is characterized by a multiplied coefficient of transmission of radiant flux between OFs. Depending on character of optical radiation used in sensor operation FOPSs operating on coherent and incoherent optical radiation are differentiated. Sensors of the first type are built on foundation of single-mode OF and sensors of the second type – on foundation of multi-mode OFs. Application of


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coherent optical radiation in sensors founded on multi-mode OFs is undesirable since it leads to rising of noise level and, accordingly, to increase of sensitivity threshold of FOPS. The reason for this is formation of a speckle pattern (extremely sensitive to external factors) at the end surface of OF as result of modal interference, when a coherent optical radiation passes through multi-mode OF. As a result the additional (the so-called “mode”) noise appears. 5. Conclusions Sixteen attributive features, which characterize and determine the individuality and community of sensors, are revealed and formulated as a result of analysis and generalization of information about amplitude fiber-optic pressure sensors. A profound and complete system of classification of amplitude fiber-optic pressure sensors is created on the basis of these attributive features. Interrelations between heterogeneous properties of sensor are shown. In particular, the interrelation between such attributive features as “a number of points in space, where sensor allows to perceive pressure”, “method of disposition of sensing element in space” and “geometrical parameters of sensing element” is revealed. It is established that the presence of lengthy or zonal sensing element is a necessary but not sufficient condition for ascription of sensor to a class of distributed or quasi-distributed sensors. The sufficient condition consists in ability of sensor to percept pressure in a limited or unlimited number of points in space. For the first time a clear and rigorous system of terms and definitions is proposed for designation of different kinds of amplitude fiber-optic pressure sensors. This system allows us to give a full and detailed description of each sensor taken separately. Application of term “optical channel” and introduction of attributive feature “place, where power modulation of radiant flux is realized” makes it possible to reject subjective division of sensors into “intrinsic” and “extrinsic”. Overall proposed classification of amplitude fiber-optic pressure sensors reflects the already known and new approaches to their creation. References [1]. S. K. Yao, C. K. Asawa, Fiber Optical Intensity Sensors, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in

Communications, Vol. SAC-1, No. 3, 1983, pp. 562–575. [2]. R. S. Medlock, Fibre optic intensity modulated sensors, In Optical Fiber Sensors: Proceedings of the

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[3]. H. M. Hashemian, C .L. Black, J. P. Farmer, Assessment of fiber optic pressure sensors, NUREG/CR-6312, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC, Apr. 1995, pp. 25–53.

[4]. IEC 61757-1. Fibre optic sensors – Part 1: Generic specification: 1998. [5]. E. A. Badeeva, V. A. Mescheryakov, T. I. Murashkina, Classification of peak optical converters, Sensors

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