senior scholars interwar europe fall 2019 week 2...• achieved victory against romania in treaty of...

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Fall 2019Prof. Kenneth F. [email protected]

Senior Scholars:Interwar Europe: Working Out Modernity in the Midst of Crisis

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Treaty of Versailles

HISTORY DEPARTMENT HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Territorial settlement– Germany ceded Alsace-Lorraine to France

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Territorial settlement– Germany ceded Alsace-Lorraine to France– Germany renounced gains in Baltic and Ukraine extracted in Treaty of

Brest-Litovsk and Treaty of Bucharest

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace




Brest-Litovsk and Treaty of Bucharest– Germany had to cede towns of Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium and a

small area near Troppau to Czecho-Slovakia

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

HISTORY DEPARTMENT



Brest-Litovsk and Treaty of Bucharest– Germany had to cede towns of Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium and a

small area near Troppau to Czecho-Slovakia– Germany had to cede Baltic port of Memel to League for later

disposition• Seized by Lithuania in 1923

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

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• Territorial settlement– Germany had to cede province of Posen, strip of West Prussia (the

Polish Corridor), and part of southern East Prussia near Soldau to new Polish Republic

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Territorial settlement– Germany had to cede province of Posen, strip of West Prussia (the

Polish Corridor), and part of southern East Prussia near Soldau to new Polish Republic

– Germany had to hold plebiscites in mixed population areas• Schleswig

• East Prussia (Marienwerder and Allenstein)

• Upper Silesia

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

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• Territorial settlement– Port of Danzig and its hinterland to be free city under administration of

League of Nations

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Territorial settlement– Port of Danzig and its hinterland to be free city under administration of

League of Nations– Saarland to be administered by League, under economic control of

France for 15 years• After which, its future to be determined by plebiscite

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace



• Territorial settlement– German territory west of the Rhine to be permanently demilitarized,

with fortifications dismantled– Strip 50 kilometers wide on east bank also demilitarized– Rhineland to remain occupied by Allied troops for 15 years to ensure

German compliance

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Territorial settlement– Germany renounced sovereignty over all its former colonies, converted

into League of Nations mandates under control of Allied powers

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

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• Territorial settlement– Germany lost 25,000 square miles of territory and 7 million people

• 13.5 percent of territory• 10 percent of population

• 15 percent of arable land

• 12 percent of livestock• 48 percent of iron ore

• 15.7 percent of coal

• 63 percent of zinc ore• 19 percent of iron and steel capacity

• 40 percent of blast furnace equipment

• Altogether 15 percent of prewar economic capacity



• Disarmament– By March 31, 1920, military forces could have no more than 100,000

officers and men• 7 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions

– Treaty specified organization of divisions and support units and abolished General Staff

• Limited to three officers’ schools

– Abolished conscription• Enlistments for private soldiers at least 12 years; for officers 25 years

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Disarmament– Germany banned from arms trade– Prohibited from manufacturing or storing:

• Chemical weapons

• Armored cars and tanks

• Military aircraft

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Disarmament– Navy permitted only

• 6 pre-Dreadnought battleships• 6 light cruisers

• 12 destroyers

• 12 torpedo boats• Prohibited from having any submarines

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Disarmament– Total staffing of navy limited to 15,000 total, 1,500 officers

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Disarmament– Germany had to surrender:

• 8 battleships• 8 light cruisers• 42 destroyers

• 50 torpedo boats• On June 21, 1919, German crews in British base of Scapa Flow in the Orkneys

scuttled:– 10 battleships– 5 battlecruisers– 5 cruisers– 32 destroyers

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• Disarmament– Article 198 banned Germany from having an air force

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Reparations– Based on Article 231 War Guilt Clause, Article 232 provided that

Germany would pay reparations as determined by Reparations Commissions, to report by May 1, 1921

– In the meantime, Germany had to deliver:• RM 20 billion

• All merchant shipping

• Build 200,000 tons of merchant ships per year• Under Annex IV, Paragraph 6: stallions, mares, fillies, bulls, milch cows, rams,

sheep, goats “of average health and condition”

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• German delegation had been excluded from Peace Conference– Invited in April and arrived in Versailles on April 29 led by Foreign

Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• German delegation had been excluded from Peace Conference– Invited in April and arrived in Versailles on April 29 led by Foreign

Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau– Received draft Treaty on May 7– Brockdorff-Rantzau replied: “We know the full brunt of hat that

confronts us here. You demand from us to confess we were the only guilty party of war; such a confession in my mouth would be a lie.”

– May 12, Reichsministerpräsident Scheidemann denounced the treaty as a “murderous plan”

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Brockdorff-Rantzau tried to moderate,but received a second draft on June 16 essentially unchanged– Gave Germans 5 days (extended to 7) to accept or face new military

action• Scheidemann cabinet resigned on June 19 rather than sign• New cabinet led by Gustav Bauer of SPD with Hermann

Müller of SPD as Foreign Minister, entered office on June 21

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• National Assembly voted 237 to 138 with 5 abstentions (421 total delegates) to accept.

• Müller and Colonial Minister Johannes Bell signed in Versailles on June 28, 1919, in Hall of Mirrors of Palace of Versailles

• National Assembly ratified treaty 209 to 116 on July 9, 1919

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• Response in Germany from all parties and classes was negative– Treaty of Versailles perceived as unfair– Deviated from Fourteen Points– Dictated, not fairly negotiated– Shaped all politics of Weimar Republic

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace


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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Making the Peace

• Three steps:– Consider other four peace treaties concluded at Paris Peace Conference– Consider problems of nationalism, especially in central and eastern

Europe– Consider effects of war elsewhere in the world

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Making the Peace – Austria

• Peace with Austria – Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye– Austro-Hungarian army had long wobbled– Czech troops began to surrender en masse as early as September 1915– Czech Legion– October 1918, army began to collapse

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• October 21, 1918, German-speaking delegates of Austrian Imperial Council convened as “provisional national assembly of German-Austria”– October 30, elected Social Democrat Karl Renner State Chancellor of

German-Austria

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• November 3, signed Armistice of Villa Giusti with Allies– November 11, Kaiser Karl I abdicated– November 12, Provisional Assembly declared German-Austria a

democratic republic and part of the German Reich– New states of Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats,

and Slovenes had been declared– Italy had occupied South Tyrol and Trentino– Yugoslavia had invaded Duchy of Carinthia

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• February 16, 1919, Germans in Austria elected Austrian Constitutional Assembly– Elected Karl Renner as Chancellor– Banished House of Habsburg– Authorized Renner to go to Paris to negotiate peace

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Austria excluded from negotiations• Treaty presented as ultimatum• Signed in Palace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 10,

1919

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

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• Territorial Settlement

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Austrian Republic– Archduchies of Upper and Lower Austria– Duchies of Styria and Carinthia– Former Archbishopric of Salzburg– Northern half of Tyrol– Voraarlberg– Burgenland from Hungary– Southern Carinthia to be decided by plebiscite– Required to recognize independence of Hungary, Czecho-Slovakia,

Poland, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• From Cisleithanian Austria, new state lost:– Bohemian Crown

• Bohemia• Moravia

• Remnant of Silesia

– Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria– Bukovina– Southern half of Tyrol to Brenner, and Trentino; part of Carinthia,

Austrian Littoral– Former Kingdom of Dalmatia, Duchy of Carniola, Lower Styria

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Article 177 required Austria to accept responsibility for causing war along with other Central Powers

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Article 88 required Austria to refrain from directly or indirectly compromising its independence– No union (Anschluß) with Germany

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Conscription abolished• Army limited to 30,000 volunteers

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Austrian Republic had population of 6 million– 2 million in Vienna– No longer capital empire of 55 million– Extreme dislocation


Making the Peace – Hungary

• Hungarian government terminated union with Austria on October 31, 1918– Officially dissolved Austro-Hungarian Empire, ending history that

dates to the Battle of Mohacs in 1526

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Ceasefire lines of November-December 1918 excluded most pre-1914 Hungarian territory– Romania controlled Transylvania– Czech Legion occupied Slovakia– Serbs occupied Croatia, Banat, and Slavonia– Italy occupied Fiume (Rijeka)

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Hungary spent most of 1919 convulsed in revolution and war– Hungarian Soviet Republic March 21, 1919

• Béla Kun

– Promised to restore 1914 borders, so fought wars with Romania, Yugoslavia, and Czecho-Slovakia

– Soviet Republic collapsed on August 6, 1919, when Romanian army occupied Budapest

– Entente restored Hungarian state and installed Admiral Horthy in November 1919

– Invited representatives to Paris on December 1, 1919, having already set Hungarian borders

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Signed Treaty of Trianon June 4, 1920– Confirmed territorial losses– Large Hungarian minorities in successor states– 3.3 million Magyars, 31 percent of total, left outside of Hungary– Post-Treaty Hungarian population only 7.6 million, only 36 percent of

pre-war 20.9 million– Massive resentment and irredentism– Tremendous economic disruption– Disarmament clauses

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


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Making the Peace – Bulgaria

• Bulgaria entered war on side of Central Powers to regain land lost in Second Balkan War of 1913

• Achieved victory against Romania in Treaty of Bucharest in 1918

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Allies made peace with Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, November 27, 1919– Ceded Western Thrace– Ceded Southern Dobrudja– Ceded territories to Yugoslavia in Serbia and Macedonia– Had to recognize Yugoslavia

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

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• Consequences– Nationalists called it Second National Catastrophe– Source of irredentism– Settled neither territorial nor self-determination aspects of complex

demography of Balkans


Making the Peace – Turkey

• Delay in reaching first treaty with Ottoman Empire stemmed from waiting for outcome of Turkish national movement

• Treaty of Sèvres signed only August 10, 1920

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• Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 annulled German concessions in Ottoman Empire

• France, Britain, and Italy on June 28 also signed “Tripartite Agreement” confirming Britain’s oil and commercial concessions in Ottoman Empire– Turned former German enterprises in Ottoman Empire, including

railways, over to Tripartite Corporation owned by the three powers

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• Neither U.S. nor Russia party to Treaty of Sèvres– U.S. insisted only on creation of Armenian Republic

• But U.S. refused League of Nations Mandate• Wanted nothing to do with partition of Ottoman Empire

– Russia had signed Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and settled its Caucasus border with Ottoman Empire

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Treaty of Sèvres far more severe than Versailles, Saint-Germain, or Trianon– Confirmed independence of Kingdom of Hejaz– Ceded Thrace and islands of Marmara to Greece– Created large “Wilsonian Armenia” including Trabzon– Created large British Mandate of Iraq

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Treaty of Sèvres– Created British Mandate in Palestine– Article 95: The High Contracting Parties agree to entrust, by

application of the provisions of Article 22, the administration of Palestine, to a Mandatory to be selected by the said Powers. The Mandatory will be responsible for putting into effect the declaration originally made on November 2, 1917, by the British Government, and adopted by the other Allied Powers, in favor of the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Treaty of Sèvres– Created French Mandate in Lebanon– Created French Mandate in Syria– Created “zones of influence” in Anatolia

• French Zone in southeast including Cilicia

• Greek Zone around Smyrna• Italian Zone in southern and west-central Anatolia, including Antalya and Konya

• Kurdistan region for referendum (including Mosul Province)

• Zone of Straits to be internationalized

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• Treaty of Sèvres– Allies to control Ottoman Empire’s finances– Military limitations– Tribunal for war crimes and “massacres”

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• More precise determinations left for subsequent conferences• San Remo Conference, April 19-26, distributed “Class A”

Mandates

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• While Treaty of Sèvres was under discussion, Turkish national movement under Mustafa Kamal Pasha split with monarchy– Set up Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara in April 1920– Grand Vizier Tewfik Pasha sought to convene Turkish Senate to ratify

Treaty of Sèvres, which required Mustafa Kemal– Mustafa Kemal instead launched military attack, and Turkish

government informed Entente that Treaty of Sèvres could not be ratified

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Mustafa Kemal and Turkish nationalists faced war in east and west– Fought British, French, Greeks, Italians– Fought Bolsheviks

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Treaty of Moscow, March 16, 1921– Bolsheviks

• Accord of Ankara– France

• Treaty of Alexandropol and Treaty of Kars– Armenia

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Treaty of Lausanne, July 24, 1923– Turkey gave up all claims to rest of Ottoman Empire– Independence of Turkish Republic recognized

• Minority rights for Greeks Orthodox minority

– Set borders of Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Negotiating Peace

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Proclaimed Turkish Republic October 29, 1923– Abolished Sultanate November 1, 1922– Abolished Caliphate March 3, 1924

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Making the Peace -- Turkey

• Three Pashas of Young Turks who had ruled Turkey since 1911– Enver Pasha– Djemal (Cemal) Pasha– Talaat Pasha

• All targeted by Armenian vengeance group, Operation Nemesis

• All fled in late 1918• All convicted by Turkish courts martial in 1919 and sentenced

to death


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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Enver Pasha– Pan-Turanism (Pan-Turkism)– Fled to Soviet Union– Sent to combat Basmachi Revolt in Turkestan– Defected to the Muslim and Turkic Basmachi– Died at Dushanbe in August 1922

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Djemal (Cemal) Pasha– Fled to Switzerland, then to Afghanistan– Training Afghan army– Visited Tiflis (Tbilisi) in Soviet Georgia to negotiate with Soviets on

behalf of Afghan government– Assassinated there by Operation Nemesis on July 21, 1922

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Talaat Pasha– As Minister of Interior, prime planner and executor of Armenian

Genocide

HISTORY DEPARTMENT



• Talaat Pasha– Fled to Berlin and lived openly in Hardenbergstrasse in Charlottenburg– Assassinated with single bullet on March 15, 1921, by Soghomon

Tehlirian, an operative of Operation Nemesis

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HISTORY DEPARTMENT


• Talaat Pasha– Tehlirian acquitted after 2-day trial June 2-3, 1921– Ground of temporary insanity caused by trauma experienced during the

Genocide

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

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senior scholars interwar europe fall 2019 week 2...• achieved victory against romania in treaty of...

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