seminar paper-the speech organs

INTERNACIONALNI UNIVERZITET U NOVOM PAZARU FAKULTET HUMANISTI ČKIH NAUKA

O D S E K Z A F I L O L O G I J U SMER ZA ENGLESKI JEZIK I KNJIŽEVNOST

ZULFIKAR KAMEŠNI ČANIN

SPEECH ORGANS

(Seminarski rad)

Mentor,

Doc.dr Samina Dazdarević

NOVI PAZAR,

2009.

INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF NOVI PAZAR F A C U L T Y O F H U M A N I T I E S D E P A R T M E N T OF F I L O L O G Y ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

ZULFIKAR KAMESNICANIN

SPEECH ORGANS

(Seminar paper)

Supervisor

Doc. dr. Samina Dazdarevic

NOVI PAZAR

2009

Contents

Introduction…………………………………………………................……….............................4

1. Speech organs……………………………………………………………………..…..........5

1.1 Lips…………………....……………………………….……………………………....7

1.2 Teeth……………………....……………………………………………………….......8

1.3 Tongue……………………....………………………………………………………....9

1.4 Alveolar ridge….......……….....………………………………………………….......11

1.5 Velum………........………………………………………………………………...…12

1.6 Hard Palate………........……………………………………………………………...13

1.7 Glottis…………………………………........………………………………………...14

1.8 Uvula…………………………………....…………………………………………....15

Conclusion……………………………………………………………........………....……........16

Bibliography…………………………......……………………………........…………........……17

Introduction

Speech can be described as an act of producing voice through the use of the vocal cords and

vocal apparatus or other means, such as sign language, to create linguistic acts in the form of

language, that communicate information from an initiator to a receipient.

In more colloquial terms, speech can be described in several different ways:

1. A linguistic act designed to convey information.

2. Various types of linguistic acts where the audience consist of more than one individual,

including public speaking, oration, and quotation.

3. The physical act of speaking, primarily through the use of vocal folds to produce voice.

The voice is the oldest and in many way most complicated of the musical(sound)

instruments. The vocal system is the upper part of the respiratory system. It has many parts,

some completely familiar to everyone and someone less, so we will spend more time describing

the less familiar but important components.

1. Speech organs

Speech starts with the lungs, which push air out(exhailing), and pull it in(inhailing). The

original purpose was, of course, to get oxygen and eliminate dioxide. But it is also essential use

for the speech. There are phonemes that are a little more than breathing, for example /h/.

Next we have larynx , or voice box. It sits at juncture of the trachea or windpipe coming up

from the lungs and the esophagus coming up from the stomach. In the larynx, we have an

opening called the glottis, an epiglottis which cover the glottis when we are swallowing, and the

vocal cords- folds. The vocal folds consist of two flaps of mucous membrane stretched across

the glottis. The vocal cords can be tightened and loosened and may vibrate when air is forced

past them, and then creating sound. Some phonemes use that sound, and such phonemes are

termed voiced. Examples include vowel i.e. /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/ and some consonants /m/, /l/

and /r/ for example. Other phonemes do not involve the vocal cords, such as the consonant /h/, /t/

or /s/, and they are called unvoiced.

The area above the glottis is called the pharynx, or upper throat. It can be tightened to make

pharyngeal consonant. English doesn't have any of these. At the top of the throat is the opening

to the nasal passages (called the nasopharynx). When the air is allowed to pass into the nose

while speaking, such sounds are nasal. Examples include /m/, /n/ and/ŋ/.

Much of the actions during speech occurs in the mouth, of course, especially involving the

interaction of the tongue with the roof of the mouth (also called palate). The palate has several

specific areas: at the very back, just before the nasal passage, is that little bag called the uvula.

Its major functions seems to be moisturizing the air and making certain sounds called uvular .

The best known is the kind of /r/ pronounced in the back of the mouth by some French and

German speakers. Uvular, pharyngeal and glottal sounds are often referred to as gutturals.

Next we have the soft palate, called the velum. If you turn your tongue back as far as it will

go and press up, you can feel how soft it is. When you say /k/ or/g/, you are using the velum, so

they are called velar consonants.

Further forward is the hard palate. Quite a few consonants are made using the hard palate,

such /s/, /n/, /l/, and are called palatals. Just behind the teeth is dental ridge or alveolus. Here is

where many of us make our

the teeth and lips. Dental consonants are produced by touching the tongue to the teeth. In

English, there are two sounds pronounced in t

At the lips we can make several sounds as well. The simplest are

holding the lips constrict and then releazing the sound, such as /p/ and /b/, or by keeping them

together and releasing the air through the

the upper teeth with the lower lip, for

Incidentally, we also have two names for the parts of the tongue used with these various parts

of the mouth. The front edge is

The figure below shows a side view of the human head.

Figure 1. Speech organs

where many of us make our alveolar consonants. At the very outer edge of the mouth we have

consonants are produced by touching the tongue to the teeth. In

English, there are two sounds pronounced in that way, i.e. /ð/ and/θ/.

At the lips we can make several sounds as well. The simplest are bilabial

the lips constrict and then releazing the sound, such as /p/ and /b/, or by keeping them

together and releasing the air through the nose, making the bilabial nasal /m/. We can also use

the upper teeth with the lower lip, for labiodentals sounds i.e. /f/ or /v/.


of the mouth. The front edge is called corona, and the back is called the dorsum

The figure below shows a side view of the human head.

1. Speech organs (source Learning the IPA for English, page 68)

consonants. At the very outer edge of the mouth we have

consonants are produced by touching the tongue to the teeth. In

bilabial sounds, made by

the lips constrict and then releazing the sound, such as /p/ and /b/, or by keeping them

nose, making the bilabial nasal /m/. We can also use


dorsum.

Learning the IPA for English, page 68)

1.1. Lips

‘The lips are important in speech. They can be pressed together(when we produce sound p,

b), brought into contact with the teeth(as in f,v), or rounded to produce the lip-shape for vowels

like u:. Sounds in which the lips are in contact with each other are called bilabial, while those

with lip-to-teeth contact are called labiodental’.

(Peter Roach, (1991), English Phonetic, vii)

‘The skin of the lip with its three to five cellular layers is very thin compared to the typical

face skin with up to 16. With light skin colour, the lip skin contains no melanocite (pigment

cells, which give skin its colour). Because of this, the blood vessels appears through the skin of

the lips and leads to a notable red colouring of the lips. With darker skin colour, this effect is less

noticeable, because in this case the skin of the lips contains more melanin and thus is visually

thicker.’

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip)

‘The lip skin is not hairy and does not have sweet glands or sebaceous glands. Therefore it

doe the lips serve for creating different sound ~ mainly the labial, bilabial and labiodentals

consonant sounds ~ and thus create an important part of the speech apparatus.’

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip)

The lips enable whistling and the performing of wind instruments like the trumpet and flute.

1.2. Teeth

Teeth – singular – tooth are hard structure found in the jaws of many vertebrates. They have

various structure to allow them to fulfill their many different purposes. The primary function of

teeth is to tear and chew food.

'The roots of the teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are covered by a protective structure,

called the enamel, that helps to prevent cavities on the teeth. Adult teeth naturlly darken as the

person matures, the pulp within the tooth shrinks and dentin is deposited in its place.'

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teeth)

The form teeth take and their mode of development in a species is called the species' dention.

“Dentists sometimes refer to the inner surface of teeth as the lingual surface (meaning

towards the tongue), and the outer surface as the labial surface (meaning towards the lips) or

'buccal' (meaning towards the cheek). Other terms are mesial (toward the midline), distal (away

from the midline), occlusal (the top surface), incisal (the cutting surface), gingival (toward the

gumline) and pulpal (toward the centre).”


Teeth are among the most distinctive features of different mammal species, and one that

fossilizes well.

While humans only have two sets of teeth, some animals have many more: Sharks grow a

new set of teeth every two weeks. Some other animals grow just one set. Rodent teeth groe and

wear away continually through the animals gnawing, maintaining constant length.

“Type of teeth:

• Molars are used for grinding up foods

• Carnassials are used for slicing food. In carnivores only.

• Premolars are similar to molars but smaller and sometimes called 'bicuspids'

• Canines are used for tearing up foods and sometimes called 'cuspids'”


1.3 Tongue

'The tongue is, of course, a very important articulator and it can be moved into many

different places and different shapes. It is usual to divide the tongue into different parts, though

there are no clear dividing lines within the tongue. Fig. 2 shows the tongue on a larger scale with

these parts shown: tip, blade, front, back and root. (This use of the words 'front' often seems

rather strange at first)'.

(Peter Roach (1991), English Phonetics and Phonology, v)

Figure 2 Sub-divisions of the tongue

(source Roach Peter (1991), English Phonetic and Phonology)

“The muscles that attach the tongue are the extrinsic muscles of the tongue. Inside the

tongue, there are four pairs of intrinsic muscles that can alter the shape of the tongue for talking

and swallowing. Since it contains no supporting skeletal structures for the muscles, the tongue is

an example of a muscular hydrostat, like an octopus arm.

The dorsum (top side) of the tongue can be divided into two parts, an oral part that lies

mostly in the mouth, and a pharyngeal part (posterior third of the tongue), which faces backward

to the oropharynx. The two parts are separated by a V-shape groove, the sulcus terminalis (or

terminal sulcus).

The dorsal side of the anterior two-thirds (oral part) of the tongue is covered with small

bumpy projections called pappilae. There are four types of pappilae: filiform (thread-shape),

fungiform (mushroom-shape), foliate (leaf-shape), and vallate (ringed-circle). All papillae except

the filiform have taste buds on their surface. At the back of the oral part of the tongue there are 3

to 14 vallate papillae arranged in a V-shape in front of the sulcus terminalis.

There are no lingual papillae on the underside of the tongue. It is covered with a smooth

muscous membrane, with a fold (the lingual frenulum) in the center.”

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue)

The tongue is the strongest muscle in the human body proportional to the size.

1.4. Alveolar ridge

“An alveolar ridge is one of the two

teeth and the hard palate or on the bottom of the mouth behind the lower teeth.

The alveolar ridges are so named because they

Many languages have consonants

(without touching) the upper alveolar ridge.”

“Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior

alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the

teeth. Alveolar consonants may be articulated with the tip of the tongue (so

consonants), as in English, or with the flat of the tongue just above the tip (the blade of the

tongue; called laminal consonants

often mistakenly called dental

teeth. However, it is the rearmost point of contact that defines the place of articulation; thi

where the oral cavity ends, and it is the resonant space of the oral cavity that gives consonants

and vowels their characteristic timbre.”

Figure 3 Side-view of the human head, the alveolar ridge consist of 4 and 5 number

(sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_ridge

.4. Alveolar ridge

is one of the two jaw either on the roof of the mouth

or on the bottom of the mouth behind the lower teeth.

The alveolar ridges are so named because they contain the sockets (alveoli) of the teeth.

consonants that articulated with the tongue on (touching) or close to

(without touching) the upper alveolar ridge.”

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_ridge

are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior

, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets) of the superior

teeth. Alveolar consonants may be articulated with the tip of the tongue (so

), as in English, or with the flat of the tongue just above the tip (the blade of the

laminal consonants), as in French and Spanish. The laminal alveolar articulation is

dental, because the tip of the tongue can be seen

teeth. However, it is the rearmost point of contact that defines the place of articulation; thi


and vowels their characteristic timbre.”

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant

view of the human head, the alveolar ridge consist of 4 and 5 number

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_ridge)

mouth between the upper

or on the bottom of the mouth behind the lower teeth.

contain the sockets (alveoli) of the teeth.

that articulated with the tongue on (touching) or close to

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_ridge)

are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior

(the sockets) of the superior

teeth. Alveolar consonants may be articulated with the tip of the tongue (so-called apical

), as in English, or with the flat of the tongue just above the tip (the blade of the

), as in French and Spanish. The laminal alveolar articulation is

, because the tip of the tongue can be seen near or touching the

teeth. However, it is the rearmost point of contact that defines the place of articulation; this is


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant)

view of the human head, the alveolar ridge consist of 4 and 5 number

)

1.5. The Velum

“The velum, derived from Latin velum, meaning a 'sail', 'curtain', 'awning' or 'veil', has

several quite separate meanings in biology:

• the locomotory and feeding organ provided with cilia found in the larval stage called

the veliger or 'velum-bearing' stage of bivalves, such as mussels and oysters; or a

delicate membrane found on certain Protists

• the circular membrane round the cap of a sea jelly, or medusa

• the veil-like membrane of immature mushrooms extending from the margin of the cap

to the stem and is torn by growth, revealing the gills of a mature sporophore; in a

mature mushroom the remains of the velum may form an annulus or ring around the

stem, familiar from common button mushrooms, and sometimes on the margin of the

cap

• the soft palate behind the hard palate

• velum is also a common misspelling of velum, a type of parchment used in

manuscripts and books.”

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velum)

Figure 3. Tonsils diagram

(source http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tonsils_diagram.jpg)

1.6. Hard palate

The hard palate is a thin horizontal bony plate of the skull, located in the roof of the

mouth. It spans the arch formed by the upper teeth. It forms a partition between nasal passages

and the mouth. This partition is continued deeper into the mouth by a fleshy extensions called the

soft palate.

The interaction between the tongue and the hard palate is essential in the formation of certain

speech sounds, notably /t/, /g/ and /k/.

“In the birth defect called cleft palate, the left and right portions of this plate are not joined,

forming a gap between the mouth and nasal passage (a related defect affecting the face is cleft

lip). Cleft palate has a several impact upon the ability to nurse and speak but is now cured

through reconstructive surgical procedures at an early age.”

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate)

Figure 3 The position of the hard palate

(source http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/medart/students/2004/AYB/ayb.html)

1.7. Glottis

The space between the

resulting vibration produces a 'buzzing' quality to the speech, called

Sounds production involving only the glottis is called

fricative spelt 'h'. In many accent o

is used as a variant allophone

/p/); in some languages, this sound is a phoneme of its own.

“Skilled players of the Australia

the full range of timbres available on the instrument. The vibration produced is an essential

component of voiced consonants

between them causing no vibration, as in the production of voiceless consonants.”

• voiced consonants include: /w/, /v/, /z/, /

• voiceless consonants include; /h/, /m/, /f/, /s/, /

The space between the vocal cords is called the glottis. As the vocal cords vibrate, the

resulting vibration produces a 'buzzing' quality to the speech, called voice or

Sounds production involving only the glottis is called glottal. English has a

spelt 'h'. In many accent of English the glottal stop (made by pressing the folds together)

allophone of the phoneme /t/ (and in some dialects, occasionally of /k/ and

/p/); in some languages, this sound is a phoneme of its own.

“Skilled players of the Australian didgeridoo restrict their glottal opening in order to produce


consonants as well as vowels. If the vocal folds are drawn apart, air flows


(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glo

voiced consonants include: /w/, /v/, /z/, //, /d /, /ð/, /b/, /d/ and /g/

voiceless consonants include; /h/, /m/, /f/, /s/, /∫/, /t∫/, /θ/, /p/, /t/ and /k/.

Figure 4 Glottis position

(sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottis

. As the vocal cords vibrate, the

or voicing.

. English has a voiceless glottal

(made by pressing the folds together)

of the phoneme /t/ (and in some dialects, occasionally of /k/ and

restrict their glottal opening in order to produce


. If the vocal folds are drawn apart, air flows


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottis)

/, /ð/, /b/, /d/ and /g/

θ/, /p/, /t/ and /k/.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottis)

1.8 Uvula

The uvula is a small cone-shaped mass of tissue hanging down from the soft palate, near

the back of the throat. The word is derived from the diminutive of uva, the Latin word for 'grape',

due to the uvula's grape-like shape.

“The uvula plays the important role in the creation of the sound of the human voice. It

functions in tandem with the back of the throat, the palate, and air coming up from the lungs to

create a number of guttural and other sounds. Consonants pronounced with the uvula are not

found in English; however, languages as Arabic, French, German, Hebrew and Ubykh use uvular

consonants, to varying degrees. Certain African languages use the uvula to produce click

consonants, as well. To an extent, Spanish hi also uses uvular consonants, when pronouncing the

'j' or soft 'g' sound. That sound is frequently pronounced as 'kh' or the guttural 'h' heard in Arabic.

The uvula also contributes to snoring or heavy breathing during sleep; having an elongated

uvula can cause vibrations which lead to the snoring. In some cases this can lead to sleep apnea,

which may be treated by removal of the uvula or part of the uvula if necessary.”

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uvula)

Figure 5 The uvula

(sourcehttp://www.ski-epic.com/snoring/surgery.html)

Conclusion

To write on the speech organs is a very exciting and interesting experience in one hand, and

a very hard and responsible task in the other hand. As we can see from the chapters given above,

we may conclude that the speech organs are very complex part of the human body, and like that

deserve a more seriously work and exploration. Exactly phonetics, as a scientific study of speech

sound, gives us so many answers about the speech organs, in the same way leaves enough space

for exploration. In this seminar paper we are trying to give our modest contribution in that

purpose.

At last we may conclude that the speech organs are one of the essential things for the

communications among people. There are many reasons that we should be able to explore organs

of speech at the scientific side and to develop a method to solve the problem about the speech

organs disease.

Bibliography 1. Vidović V., Engleski glasovi, naglasak, ritam, intonacija. Naučna Knjiga, Beograd, 1979 2. Gimson's Pronounciation of English 5-th edition, 1994 3. Roach P. English Phonetics and Phonology 2-nd, 1991 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/speech_organs 5. http://www.ski-epic.com/snoring/surgery.html 6. http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/astephen/Glottis.html 7. http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/medart/students/2004/AYB/ayb.html 8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tonsilis_diagram.jpg 9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uvula 10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate 11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velum 12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant 13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_ridge 14. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue 15. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teeth 16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip 17. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottis

seminar paper-the speech organs

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