seminar cooling tower

Water Treatment Water Treatment SeminarSeminar

Cooling Towers & ChillersCooling Towers & Chillers

Presented by International Chemtex P.R.Inc.


Things you will learn in this Things you will learn in this seminarseminar

Properties of WaterProperties of Water Hydrogen BondHydrogen Bond Specific HeatSpecific Heat of Water of Water Water as a Water as a CoolantCoolant Water as a Water as a SolventSolvent



Meaning of pH Meaning of pH What is an What is an acid ?acid ? What is a What is a basebase ? ( Alkalinity)? ( Alkalinity) Effect of pH on Effect of pH on solubilitysolubility



Chiller Plant OperationChiller Plant Operation How Chillers WorkHow Chillers Work How Cooling Towers WorkHow Cooling Towers Work


Things you will learn in this seminarThings you will learn in this seminar Problems associated with Cooling Problems associated with Cooling

WaterWater Scale/ DepositsScale/ Deposits: Causes & Prevention: Causes & Prevention CorrosionCorrosion: Causes & Prevention: Causes & Prevention

Different Types of CorrosionDifferent Types of Corrosion FoulingFouling: Causes & Prevention: Causes & Prevention Microbiological FoulingMicrobiological Fouling: Causes & : Causes &

PreventionPrevention



Overview of Chemical EquipmentOverview of Chemical Equipment Cooling Tower ControllersCooling Tower Controllers Chemical PumpsChemical Pumps Water SoftenersWater Softeners Sand FiltersSand Filters



Chemical SafetyChemical Safety Explanation of MSDSExplanation of MSDS Ten commandments of safe chemical Ten commandments of safe chemical

handlinghandling


Things you will learn in this seminarThings you will learn in this seminar Testing ProceduresTesting Procedures

Conductivity testConductivity test using meter using meter pH testpH test using meter using meter Hardness testHardness test to check softener to check softener Organo testOrgano test to check residual of scale to check residual of scale

inhibitor chemical in the cooling towerinhibitor chemical in the cooling tower Nitrite testNitrite test to check residual of corrosion to check residual of corrosion

inhibitor in the chill loop systeminhibitor in the chill loop system


Let’s get started…Let’s get started…

Properties of WaterProperties of Water

Water has a very Water has a very simple atomic simple atomic structure. It has two structure. It has two hydrogen atoms hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen bonded to one oxygen atom.atom.


Each hydrogen atom has Each hydrogen atom has one one protonproton and one and one electronelectron. . The oxygen atom has 8 The oxygen atom has 8 protons and 8 electrons. protons and 8 electrons. Both hydrogen atoms share Both hydrogen atoms share their electrons with the their electrons with the outer shell of the oxygen. outer shell of the oxygen. Note there are more Note there are more electrons on the oxygen side electrons on the oxygen side of the water moleculeof the water molecule than than on the hydrogen side.on the hydrogen side.


Due to the unique Due to the unique geometry of the geometry of the water molecule, the water molecule, the hydrogen side has a hydrogen side has a slight positive slight positive charge. The oxygen charge. The oxygen side has a slight side has a slight negative charge.negative charge.


This molecular polarity causes water to This molecular polarity causes water to be a powerful be a powerful solventsolvent and is responsible and is responsible for its strong surface tension.for its strong surface tension.


This polarity of This polarity of charge causes charge causes molecules of water molecules of water to be attracted to to be attracted to each other in a each other in a strong molecular strong molecular bond called the bond called the ““hydrogen bondhydrogen bond”.”.

Water molecules can Water molecules can bind together in bind together in chains. chains.


Due to the Due to the hydrogen bond, hydrogen bond, water has a high water has a high ““specific heatspecific heat”.”.

Specific heatSpecific heat is the is the amount of energy amount of energy required to change required to change the temperature of the temperature of a substance.a substance.

Water as ice has a highly organized structure. It takes large amounts of heat to make a phase change to liquid water.


Water in the liquid Water in the liquid form remains as a form remains as a liquid over a wide liquid over a wide temperature range temperature range from 0 C to 100 C.from 0 C to 100 C.

Because water can Because water can absorb so much absorb so much heat and still heat and still remain a liquid, it remain a liquid, it makes a good makes a good ““coolantcoolant”. ”.

As ice is heated and melts to form water, the water mole-cules move apart and become more energetic. But the hydro-gen bond keeps pulling them back together like rubber bands.

Properties of WaterProperties of Water Once enough heat is Once enough heat is

applied, water can applied, water can make another phase make another phase change and turn to change and turn to steam. Notice the steam. Notice the water molecules as water molecules as steam have become steam have become so energetic they so energetic they have broken away have broken away from the hydrogen from the hydrogen bond and now are bond and now are separate atoms.separate atoms.

Water molecules as steam haveenough kinetic energy to breakaway from the hydrogen bondbinding it to other water mole-cules.


Another property Another property of water caused by of water caused by the hydrogen bond the hydrogen bond is the strong is the strong surface tensionsurface tension of of water. water.

Water can overfill Water can overfill a cup because the a cup because the water underneath water underneath pulls down on the pulls down on the surface water.surface water.


The strong The strong surface tension surface tension of water allows of water allows for the for the formation of formation of water droplets water droplets and waves.and waves.


The diagram on the The diagram on the left is that of a salt left is that of a salt molecule. Salt is molecule. Salt is made of sodium & made of sodium & chloride atoms. chloride atoms.


When salt is dropped When salt is dropped into water it dissolves. into water it dissolves. The The positive regionspositive regions of of each water molecule is each water molecule is attracted to theattracted to the negatively chargednegatively charged chloride chloride atoms. atoms. Conversely the Conversely the negative areanegative area of each of each water molecule is water molecule is attracted to attracted to positively positively chargedcharged sodium sodium atoms.atoms.


Water will dissolve Water will dissolve different minerals, for different minerals, for example calcium. The example calcium. The calcium atom has a calcium atom has a positivepositive charge. The charge. The negative side of each negative side of each water molecule is water molecule is attracted to the attracted to the positively charged positively charged calcium atom.calcium atom.

It takes many water molecules to keep just one calcium molecule in solution. Calcium’s atomic number is 20 butOxygen’s is only 8. So the calcium atom is 2.5 times bigger than the oxygen atom.


Water is called a Water is called a universal solvent, but universal solvent, but each volume of water each volume of water has a has a saturation limitsaturation limit. .

Once any mineral has Once any mineral has reached its reached its saturation limit in a saturation limit in a given volume of given volume of water, no more water, no more mineral can go into mineral can go into solution. solution.

Properties of WaterProperties of Water Once the saturation Once the saturation

limit has been limit has been reached, any reached, any additional mineral additional mineral added to the water added to the water will fall out of will fall out of solution. solution.

In cooling water, In cooling water, calcium will calcium will precipitate to form precipitate to form hard scale deposits in hard scale deposits in chiller tubes and chiller tubes and towers.towers.

Properties of WaterProperties of Water Each mineral has a distinct saturation limit in Each mineral has a distinct saturation limit in

water which depends on certain factors.water which depends on certain factors. Calcium is the main scale forming mineral in Calcium is the main scale forming mineral in

cooling tower waters.cooling tower waters. Calcium’s saturation limit is affected or changed Calcium’s saturation limit is affected or changed

by factors such as the level of calcium hardness, by factors such as the level of calcium hardness, pHpH, , temperature, temperature, and and alkalinityalkalinity of the cooling of the cooling tower water. tower water.

Once the calcium saturation index has been Once the calcium saturation index has been exceeded, then the excess calcium will precipitate exceeded, then the excess calcium will precipitate out of solution and form scale deposits in the heat out of solution and form scale deposits in the heat exchange areas of the chiller system, namely the exchange areas of the chiller system, namely the chiller tubes and the tower fill.chiller tubes and the tower fill.

Meaning of pHMeaning of pH

Water in a pure Water in a pure state has a neutral state has a neutral pHpH. Water changes . Water changes its pH when its pH when substances are substances are dissolved in it. The dissolved in it. The pH scalepH scale is used to is used to measure the measure the acidityacidity or or alkalinityalkalinity of a substance.of a substance.


An An acidacid is any is any chemical compound that, when chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion activity greater than in pure water, i.e. a activity greater than in pure water, i.e. a pH less than less than 7.0. An acid will range from 0 to 7 on the pH scale.7.0. An acid will range from 0 to 7 on the pH scale.

A A basebase can be thought of as the chemical opposite of can be thought of as the chemical opposite of an acid. A base will range from 7 to 14 on the pH scale. an acid. A base will range from 7 to 14 on the pH scale. Bases and acids are opposites because the effect of Bases and acids are opposites because the effect of an acid is to increase the hydrogen ion (Han acid is to increase the hydrogen ion (H33OO++) ) concentration in water, whereas bases reduce this in water, whereas bases reduce this concentration. Bases react with acids to produce water concentration. Bases react with acids to produce water and salts.and salts.


For Example:For Example:

Acid + Base = Water + SaltAcid + Base = Water + Salt ACIDACID: HCl is Hydrochloric Acid: HCl is Hydrochloric Acid BASEBASE: NaOH is Sodium Hydroxide: NaOH is Sodium Hydroxide

When you combine: When you combine: HClHCl++NaOHNaOH = H = H220 + NaCl0 + NaCl

This is Water & SaltThis is Water & Salt

Meaning of PhMeaning of Ph The pH of cooling The pH of cooling

tower water is tower water is important to us important to us because the pH will because the pH will change the change the solubilitysolubility of of calcium in water. calcium in water. Lower the pH and Lower the pH and more calcium can more calcium can stay in solution. If stay in solution. If pH is too alkaline, pH is too alkaline, calcium will fall out calcium will fall out of solution.of solution.

Chiller Plant OperationChiller Plant Operation

Chiller & Cooling Tower work together Chiller & Cooling Tower work together to cool interior of the buildingto cool interior of the building

Chiller Plant OperationChiller Plant Operation Chiller cools chill water Chiller cools chill water

down to 40 degrees, then down to 40 degrees, then circulates chill water to circulates chill water to the building. Return chill the building. Return chill water comes back at 50 water comes back at 50 degrees and causes degrees and causes Freon gas to evaporate.Freon gas to evaporate.

Condenser water cools Condenser water cools down Freon gas.down Freon gas.

Compressor turns Freon Compressor turns Freon gas back to liquid ready gas back to liquid ready to repeat the cycle.to repeat the cycle.

Tower water enters condenser at85 degrees but leaves condenser at 95 degrees and returns to tower.

Chiller Plant OperationChiller Plant Operation Purpose of the cooling Purpose of the cooling

tower is to eject heat tower is to eject heat and and cool down the cool down the condenser watercondenser water by 10 by 10 degrees.degrees.

By cooling the water, By cooling the water, the same water can be the same water can be used again and used again and recycled to the recycled to the condenser. This saves condenser. This saves large amounts of water.large amounts of water.

Chiller Plant OperationChiller Plant Operation Cooling Towers cool Cooling Towers cool

water via the water via the process of process of evaporationevaporation. .

The tower water is broken The tower water is broken up into droplets and air is up into droplets and air is passed through the falling passed through the falling water. Every minute 1% of water. Every minute 1% of the tower water the tower water evaporates but the other evaporates but the other 99% is cooled down by 10 99% is cooled down by 10 degrees and is recycled to degrees and is recycled to cool the condenser. This cool the condenser. This process repeats process repeats constantly.constantly.

Chiller Plant OperationChiller Plant Operation

Notice the Notice the condensation of the condensation of the evaporating tower evaporating tower water. The water. The evaporation process evaporation process cools down the cools down the remaining tower remaining tower water but water but leaves leaves mineral impurities mineral impurities behindbehind..These mineral impurities in water takes us to our next subject,

Problems in Tower Water; the reason we need water treatment.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water

There are four main problems which There are four main problems which occur in cooling tower water :occur in cooling tower water :

ScaleScale CorrosionCorrosion FoulingFouling Microbiological FoulingMicrobiological Fouling


The The first problemfirst problem in tower water is: in tower water is:

ScaleScale

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water As we have seen, As we have seen,

water is a good water is a good solvent. Tower solvent. Tower makeup water has makeup water has mineral impurities in mineral impurities in it like, it like, calciumcalcium, , magnesiummagnesium && silicasilica..

These minerals left These minerals left unchecked can cause unchecked can cause scale depositsscale deposits to to form on condenser form on condenser tubes.tubes.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water ScaleScale will form on chiller will form on chiller

tubes if mineral saturation tubes if mineral saturation level is exceeded and scale level is exceeded and scale inhibitor residual falls too inhibitor residual falls too low in the tower water. low in the tower water.

Scale on tubes will increase Scale on tubes will increase energy costs by 10% to energy costs by 10% to 30% depending on 30% depending on thickness.thickness.

Preventing scale is one of Preventing scale is one of the main objectives of the the main objectives of the water treatment program.water treatment program.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water The dissolved solids in The dissolved solids in

tower water if left to tower water if left to concentrate to high levels concentrate to high levels will also form will also form scale scale depositsdeposits in the cooling in the cooling tower fill and in the tower fill and in the louvers.louvers.

This may require expensive This may require expensive down time cleanouts.down time cleanouts.


ScaleScale is prevented by: is prevented by:

The proper amount of The proper amount of bleed offbleed off

And the addition of chemical And the addition of chemical scale inhibitors scale inhibitors to the tower to the tower water which prevent scale water which prevent scale formation.formation.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water Proper amount of Proper amount of bleed offbleed off

limits the concentration of limits the concentration of mineral solids mineral solids

Tower water is bled to drain Tower water is bled to drain

before the saturation limit on before the saturation limit on the scale forming mineral is the scale forming mineral is exceededexceeded

The exiting bleed off water The exiting bleed off water contains a high level of contains a high level of dissolved solids ( minerals) dissolved solids ( minerals) and is replaced with fresh and is replaced with fresh water which has a lower level water which has a lower level of solidsof solids


BBleed offleed off alone can not alone can not prevent scaleprevent scale

Scale inhibitorsScale inhibitors must be must be added to the tower added to the tower water and maintained water and maintained within desired ranges at within desired ranges at all timesall times

Bleed off and injection Bleed off and injection of chemicals is done of chemicals is done automatically with automatically with proper chemical proper chemical equipmentequipment


The chemical The chemical scale inhibitorsscale inhibitors we use we use to treat the tower water have two to treat the tower water have two main properties:main properties:

Crystal DistortionCrystal Distortion

DispersancyDispersancy


Crystal DistortionCrystal Distortion Polymers distort the crystal growth of the scale by disrupting Polymers distort the crystal growth of the scale by disrupting

the crystalline lattice which causes the hard dense adherent the crystalline lattice which causes the hard dense adherent nature of scales. With the inclusion of a relatively large, nature of scales. With the inclusion of a relatively large, irregularly shaped polymer in the crystalline lattice, scale irregularly shaped polymer in the crystalline lattice, scale does not develop or adhere to surfaces where it could cause does not develop or adhere to surfaces where it could cause heat transfer problems.heat transfer problems.


This is an electron This is an electron microscope photo of microscope photo of calcium carbonate calcium carbonate crystals.crystals.

Note the regular Note the regular structure of the structure of the crystal, almost like crystal, almost like building blocks.building blocks.


Once the water is Once the water is treated with treated with polymers, which polymers, which distort the crystalline distort the crystalline structure, the structure, the calcium can no calcium can no longer adhere and longer adhere and build up scale build up scale deposits.deposits.


DispersancyDispersancy Polymers are used for dispersing particles so they do

not tend to settle. Anionic polymers are effective dispersants because they will increase the negative charges of particles causing the particles to repel each other and more easily keep them in suspension so they can be removed by normal bleed off.


The The second problemsecond problem in tower water in tower water is: is:

CorrosionCorrosion


CorrosionCorrosion can be can be caused by many caused by many factors.factors.

If If acidacid is added to is added to tower water to help tower water to help maintain calcium maintain calcium hardness in solution, hardness in solution, an overfeed of an overfeed of acidacid can cause severe can cause severe corrosioncorrosion in the in the condenser. condenser.


Acid FeedAcid Feed Primer: Primer:

Adding acid to the tower water lowers the pH Adding acid to the tower water lowers the pH and increases the solubility of some scale and increases the solubility of some scale forming minerals. For example adding forming minerals. For example adding sulfuricsulfuric acid changes acid changes calcium carbonatecalcium carbonate ( the ( the main scale forming mineral present in tower main scale forming mineral present in tower water) to water) to calcium sulfate,calcium sulfate, which has a much which has a much higher solubility index than than calcium higher solubility index than than calcium carbonate. An overfeed of acid can result in carbonate. An overfeed of acid can result in severe corrosion even catastrophic system severe corrosion even catastrophic system failure.failure.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water To avoid the potential for To avoid the potential for

this type of this type of corrosion,corrosion, we we recommend recommend notnot to use an to use an acid feed to control scale acid feed to control scale forming impurities.forming impurities.

In high hardness waters In high hardness waters where acid feed is where acid feed is necessary, we prefer to use necessary, we prefer to use a water softener and a high a water softener and a high quality quality polymerpolymer scale &scale & corrosion inhibitor corrosion inhibitor chemicalchemical..


There are other types of There are other types of corrosioncorrosion that that can occur in tower systems. Some can occur in tower systems. Some examples are:examples are: General CorrosionGeneral Corrosion White Rust White Rust on new galvanized cooling on new galvanized cooling

towerstowers M.I.C.M.I.C. - Microbiologically Induced Corrosion - Microbiologically Induced Corrosion ErosionErosion Galvanic AttackGalvanic Attack CavitationCavitation


Corrosion may be prevented or Corrosion may be prevented or mitigated by the proper addition of mitigated by the proper addition of corrosion inhibitors and biocide corrosion inhibitors and biocide chemicals.chemicals.

However; However; some types of corrosion can some types of corrosion can not be prevented by chemicalsnot be prevented by chemicals. They . They must be remedied by mechanical or must be remedied by mechanical or other means.other means.


Generalized corrosionGeneralized corrosion is caused by oxygen is caused by oxygen in the water attacking the metal.in the water attacking the metal.

This type of corrosion is reduced or This type of corrosion is reduced or mitigated by adding corrosion inhibitors to mitigated by adding corrosion inhibitors to the tower water.the tower water.

The inhibitor works by laying down a thin The inhibitor works by laying down a thin protective film on the protective film on the wettedwetted metal metal surfaces in the tower water piping system. surfaces in the tower water piping system. This film inhibits the oxygen from reaching This film inhibits the oxygen from reaching the metal.the metal.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water The rate of The rate of generalized generalized

corrosioncorrosion can be can be monitored by using monitored by using corrosion couponscorrosion coupons

Metal coupons of steel Metal coupons of steel and copper are inserted and copper are inserted into the water stream into the water stream for 60 to 90 daysfor 60 to 90 days

They are then removed They are then removed and analyzed for metal and analyzed for metal loss.loss.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water No corrosion inhibitor No corrosion inhibitor

will completely stop all will completely stop all corrosion. The idea is to corrosion. The idea is to reduce the rate of reduce the rate of corrosion to acceptable corrosion to acceptable limits.limits.

Acceptable limit for mild Acceptable limit for mild steel is 2 mils per yr. steel is 2 mils per yr. Limit for copper is 0.2 Limit for copper is 0.2 mils per yearmils per year

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water White Rust White Rust is a type of is a type of

corrosion that can corrosion that can occur in new galvanized occur in new galvanized towers. towers.

White RustWhite Rust refers to refers to the premature, rapid the premature, rapid loss of galvanized loss of galvanized coating on cooling coating on cooling tower metal surfaces. tower metal surfaces.

White RustWhite Rust is evidenced is evidenced by a white, waxy by a white, waxy buildup on the surface buildup on the surface of the galvanized metal.of the galvanized metal.


Once the Once the galvanized galvanized coating has been coating has been removed, the removed, the underlying underlying steel/iron steel/iron rapidly corrodesrapidly corrodes

Problem in Tower WaterProblem in Tower Water

Why Why White RustWhite Rust occurs is a little occurs is a little complicated, but there are 3 main reasons:complicated, but there are 3 main reasons: The imperfect manufacture of the galvanized The imperfect manufacture of the galvanized

coating of the tower metalcoating of the tower metal Lack of passivation when tower first started upLack of passivation when tower first started up Running tower with high alkalinity levels in Running tower with high alkalinity levels in

tower watertower water Please refer to Chemtex Technical Topic on Please refer to Chemtex Technical Topic on

White RustWhite Rust for a more in depth analysis for a more in depth analysis


The next type of corrosion to discuss is:The next type of corrosion to discuss is:

M.I.C. - Microbiological Induced M.I.C. - Microbiological Induced CorrosionCorrosion

M.I.C. is caused by bacteria, M.I.C. is caused by bacteria, mostly by: mostly by:

SRB- SRB- Sulfate Reducing BacteriaSulfate Reducing Bacteria

IRB - IRB - Iron Reducing BacteriaIron Reducing Bacteria

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water SRBSRB - - Sulfate Reducing Sulfate Reducing

BacteriaBacteria are anaerobic are anaerobic (oxygen free) class of (oxygen free) class of bacteria that can thrive bacteria that can thrive under deposits of dirt under deposits of dirt and silt in basin of and silt in basin of towers.towers.

SRBSRB form nodules that form nodules that cause pitting. This cause pitting. This bacteria can actually bacteria can actually eat through the basin of eat through the basin of the tower and/or piping the tower and/or piping and cause leaks.and cause leaks.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water SRBSRB - - Sulfate Reducing Sulfate Reducing

BacteriaBacteria are usually are usually found in low flow areas found in low flow areas of the tower system, of the tower system, like in the tower basin.like in the tower basin.

Nodules are formed Nodules are formed underunder dirt or other dirt or other aerobicaerobic bacteria debris. bacteria debris. These nodules start a These nodules start a reaction that leads to reaction that leads to pitting.pitting.


These are active These are active SRBSRB nodules in the cooling nodules in the cooling tower basin.tower basin.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water IRBIRB - - Iron Reducing Iron Reducing

BacteriaBacteria are aerobic are aerobic ( need oxygen) class of ( need oxygen) class of bacteria which feed on bacteria which feed on iron.iron.

IRB IRB removes iron from removes iron from the water and/or the the water and/or the piping and deposits it piping and deposits it into sticky secretions.into sticky secretions.

IRBIRB can cause pitting can cause pitting and plugging. IRB can and plugging. IRB can form tubercules inside form tubercules inside piping reducing water piping reducing water flow. flow.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water ErosionErosion

Sometimes in the tower, corrosion of the Sometimes in the tower, corrosion of the metal is caused by metal is caused by erosionerosion. If sand or dirt . If sand or dirt particles are present in the air around the particles are present in the air around the tower, the movement of air thru the tower tower, the movement of air thru the tower can scratch the surface metal, removing can scratch the surface metal, removing the protective galvanizing thus opening the protective galvanizing thus opening up the underlying steel/iron for rapid up the underlying steel/iron for rapid corrosion.corrosion.

Please note the corrosion inhibitor can Please note the corrosion inhibitor can only work on fully wetted surfaces. In the only work on fully wetted surfaces. In the tower the corrosion inhibitor can not tower the corrosion inhibitor can not protect any metal protect any metal aboveabove the water line. the water line.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water It should be obvious that It should be obvious that erosionerosion

corrosion occurring in the tower cannot corrosion occurring in the tower cannot be prevented by chemicals. Unfortunately be prevented by chemicals. Unfortunately the addition of the proper chemicals and the addition of the proper chemicals and good control of the chemistry will not good control of the chemistry will not prevent some types of corrosion.prevent some types of corrosion.

Don’t fall into the “Flag Pole Syndrome”…Don’t fall into the “Flag Pole Syndrome”… If the flag pole in front of the building If the flag pole in front of the building

falls down, call the water treater cause it falls down, call the water treater cause it must be his fault :)must be his fault :)


Galvanic attackGalvanic attack is type of corrosion is type of corrosion which can occur in cooling tower piping which can occur in cooling tower piping systems.systems.

If two dissimilar metals are connected in If two dissimilar metals are connected in the presence of an electrolyte (water), the presence of an electrolyte (water), they act as a short circuited galvanic they act as a short circuited galvanic cell and corrosion will occur.cell and corrosion will occur.

The farther apart the metals are on the The farther apart the metals are on the galvanic series the greater potential for galvanic series the greater potential for corrosion.corrosion.


The The anodeanode (negative)(negative) metal is metal is giving up ions to giving up ions to the the cathodecathode (positive)(positive) metal. metal.

The results is The results is corrosion and corrosion and pitting in the pitting in the anode metal.anode metal.


The higher the dissolved solids level in the The higher the dissolved solids level in the water, the higher the potential for corrosionwater, the higher the potential for corrosion


Corrosion starts when two dissimilar metals such as Corrosion starts when two dissimilar metals such as galvanized pipe (anode) is joined to a metal like copper galvanized pipe (anode) is joined to a metal like copper (cathode) in an electrolyte (water).(cathode) in an electrolyte (water).

Corrosion can occur at the anode metal causing pitting.Corrosion can occur at the anode metal causing pitting.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water On the galvanic series, On the galvanic series,

copper is on the cathodic copper is on the cathodic end of the range and end of the range and zinc (galvanized) is zinc (galvanized) is close to the top of the close to the top of the anodic range.anodic range.

When these two metals When these two metals are joined together, are joined together, there exists a high there exists a high potential for potential for galvanic galvanic corrosioncorrosion..

These photos show These photos show galvanic corrosiongalvanic corrosion when a galvanized when a galvanized pipe is attached to a pipe is attached to a copper pipe.copper pipe.

If a small section of If a small section of galvanized pipe is galvanized pipe is connected to a large connected to a large section of copper section of copper pipe, then the pipe, then the cathodic area will cathodic area will begin to corrode.begin to corrode.


Galvanic corrosionGalvanic corrosion can can notnot be prevented be prevented by chemical treatment.by chemical treatment.

Mechanical measures need implementing Mechanical measures need implementing to prevent galvanic attack.to prevent galvanic attack. Avoid installing dissimilar metalsAvoid installing dissimilar metals Insert di-electric couplings between metalsInsert di-electric couplings between metals Reduce conductivity of the electrolyteReduce conductivity of the electrolyte

Pure water will poorly conduct an electrical current

Problems with Tower Problems with Tower WaterWater

Cavitation Cavitation is another type of corrosion is another type of corrosion which can occur in cooling tower water which can occur in cooling tower water piping systems.piping systems.

Cavitation occurs when gas bubbles Cavitation occurs when gas bubbles trapped in the circulating water enter an trapped in the circulating water enter an elbow or make a turn and the pressure in elbow or make a turn and the pressure in the water changes rapidly. The gas bubbles the water changes rapidly. The gas bubbles can expand making microscopic gouges in can expand making microscopic gouges in the metal.the metal.

Over time these gouges, erode away the Over time these gouges, erode away the metal.metal.

This is called This is called Cavitation-ErosionCavitation-Erosion..


The drawing shows The drawing shows the turbulence of the turbulence of the gas bubbles the gas bubbles expanding & expanding & making gouges in making gouges in the metal.the metal.

These two photos These two photos show the show the cavitation-cavitation-erosionerosion or or impingement in the impingement in the elbow of pipes.elbow of pipes.

The damage is done The damage is done after the elbow in the after the elbow in the area where the gas area where the gas expands rapidly after expands rapidly after making the curve.making the curve.

This type of corrosion This type of corrosion can only be prevented can only be prevented by mechanical means by mechanical means and not by chemicals.and not by chemicals.


Cavitation-erosionCavitation-erosion can occur inside can occur inside chiller tubes where chiller tubes where baffle supports hold baffle supports hold the tubes. the tubes.

If support pinches the If support pinches the tubes, gas bubbles in tubes, gas bubbles in water can expand to water can expand to create turbulence and create turbulence and gouge metal inside gouge metal inside chiller tubes. chiller tubes.


VibrationVibration at the at the baffle support area baffle support area can also lead to can also lead to metal fatigue and metal fatigue and corrosion resulting corrosion resulting in leaks in the in leaks in the chiller tubes.chiller tubes.

Not all types of Not all types of corrosion can be corrosion can be prevented by prevented by chemicals.chemicals.


Corrosion Section SummaryCorrosion Section Summary We have reviewed some of the more We have reviewed some of the more

common corrosion problems to occur in common corrosion problems to occur in cooling systems.cooling systems.

However, be aware there are other types However, be aware there are other types of corrosion which can occur. Time does of corrosion which can occur. Time does not permit us to mention them all.not permit us to mention them all.

When corrosion does occur, the relative When corrosion does occur, the relative data needs to be collected, studied and data needs to be collected, studied and analyzed before causes and cures can be analyzed before causes and cures can be assigned.assigned.


The The third problemthird problem in tower water in tower water is:is:

FoulingFouling


Fouling is caused by dirt and other Fouling is caused by dirt and other suspended solidssuspended solids in the cooling in the cooling tower water accumulating in the tower water accumulating in the tower basin and migrating to the tower basin and migrating to the chiller tubes.chiller tubes.


This photo shows This photo shows the accumulation of the accumulation of sludge buildup in sludge buildup in the tower basin.the tower basin.

This dirt/mud/silt This dirt/mud/silt buildup is called buildup is called foulingfouling and has and has several sources.several sources.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water Sources of Fouling are:Sources of Fouling are:

Suspended solids (dirt) in tower water makeupSuspended solids (dirt) in tower water makeup. . Sometimes, the makeup water ( especially after a heavy Sometimes, the makeup water ( especially after a heavy rain) comes with a high amount of suspended solids ( dirt).rain) comes with a high amount of suspended solids ( dirt).

Air borne dirtAir borne dirt entering the tower. Cooling towers act like entering the tower. Cooling towers act like air washers; any dirt in the air gets sucked into the tower air washers; any dirt in the air gets sucked into the tower and can settle out in the basin of the tower. Some of this and can settle out in the basin of the tower. Some of this dirt can travel to the chiller causing fouling inside dirt can travel to the chiller causing fouling inside condenser tubes.condenser tubes.

Accumulations of Accumulations of dead algae & bacteriadead algae & bacteria in tower basin and in tower basin and piping. piping.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water Suspended SolidsSuspended Solids are different than are different than dissolved solidsdissolved solids. The dissolved solids in . The dissolved solids in

tower water which concern us are the scale forming minerals like calcium. tower water which concern us are the scale forming minerals like calcium. Dissolved solidsDissolved solids are at the molecular level and must be treated with are at the molecular level and must be treated with chemicals.chemicals.

Suspended solidsSuspended solids are the dirt and silt in the tower water you can see with are the dirt and silt in the tower water you can see with your eye. Suspended solids are many thousands of time larger than your eye. Suspended solids are many thousands of time larger than dissolved solids.dissolved solids.

Some success can be achieved using chemicals like anionic dispersants to Some success can be achieved using chemicals like anionic dispersants to remove suspended solids from the tower water system. At times it is remove suspended solids from the tower water system. At times it is necessary to remove the suspended solids from the tower water by necessary to remove the suspended solids from the tower water by mechanical means, by filtering the water via a mechanical means, by filtering the water via a sand filtersand filter. Sand filters will . Sand filters will be discussed in the “Equipment Overview” section later in this presentation.be discussed in the “Equipment Overview” section later in this presentation.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water The The fourth problemfourth problem in tower water in tower water

is:is:

Microbiological FoulingMicrobiological Fouling


Microbiological foulingMicrobiological fouling refers to refers to fouling that occurs when algae, fouling that occurs when algae, bacteria and fungus grows out of bacteria and fungus grows out of control in cooling tower systems.control in cooling tower systems.

This type of fouling can plug This type of fouling can plug strainers, which reduces water flow strainers, which reduces water flow to chillers.to chillers.


AlgaeAlgae && bacteriabacteria can can grow unchecked in grow unchecked in tower water and tower water and cause cause foulingfouling in the in the tower basin and inside tower basin and inside the condenser tubes. the condenser tubes.

Fouled tubes Fouled tubes increases energy increases energy consumption & can consumption & can cause unscheduled cause unscheduled shutdowns.shutdowns.

Problems with Tower Problems with Tower WaterWater

To prevent To prevent microbiological microbiological foulingfouling of the tower and chiller of the tower and chiller tubes a good dual tubes a good dual biocide feedbiocide feed program program must be used at all must be used at all times. times.

Tower should be Tower should be visually inspected visually inspected weekly and bacteria weekly and bacteria dip slides run to insure dip slides run to insure bacteria counts are bacteria counts are under control.under control.


Discussion of BiocidesDiscussion of Biocides::

Biocides are the chemicals that kill and Biocides are the chemicals that kill and control the growth of control the growth of algaealgae, , bacteriabacteria and and fungusfungus in open cooling tower water in open cooling tower water systems.systems.

Biocides are usually slug fed to the tower. Biocides are usually slug fed to the tower. There are different classes of biocides. There are different classes of biocides.

Some are oxiziders, like chlorine, and are Some are oxiziders, like chlorine, and are slightly corrosive to use. While others are slightly corrosive to use. While others are non-oxiziders and are non-corrosive.non-oxiziders and are non-corrosive.


Discussion of Biocides continuedDiscussion of Biocides continued::

Different biocides have different Different biocides have different mechanisms or ways to kill the mechanisms or ways to kill the organisms.organisms.

Oxidizing biocidesOxidizing biocides strip or burn thorough strip or burn thorough the cell wall thus the cell wall thus exploding the bacteriaexploding the bacteria..

Non-oxidizing biocidesNon-oxidizing biocides control organic control organic growth by preventing the bacteria from growth by preventing the bacteria from absorbing food or reproducingabsorbing food or reproducing..



Some biocides, due to the way they work, Some biocides, due to the way they work, are excellent at killing algae but only are excellent at killing algae but only average in killing bacteria.average in killing bacteria.

Conversely, other biocides are great at Conversely, other biocides are great at killing bacteria but only average to poor killing bacteria but only average to poor at killing algae.at killing algae.

Some biocides do not work well in high Some biocides do not work well in high hardness or high alkaline waters. hardness or high alkaline waters.



The proper selection of biocides will The proper selection of biocides will depend on several factors such as what depend on several factors such as what type of organism you are trying to kill and type of organism you are trying to kill and control and what is the chemical qualities control and what is the chemical qualities of the tower water you are treating.of the tower water you are treating.

It is important to use dual alternating It is important to use dual alternating biocides to insure no organism develops biocides to insure no organism develops an immunity to a single biocide used an immunity to a single biocide used constantly. constantly.

Problems in Tower WaterProblems in Tower Water Improper water Improper water

treatment and/or lack of treatment and/or lack of control will result in control will result in fouled chiller tubes and fouled chiller tubes and dirty towers costing dirty towers costing thousands of dollars in thousands of dollars in excess energy and clean excess energy and clean out expenses.out expenses.

A good, well controlled, A good, well controlled, water treatment program water treatment program will prevent these will prevent these problems from occurring. problems from occurring.

Chemical Equipment Chemical Equipment OverviewOverview

Chemical Equipment Review Chemical Equipment Review

1. Cooling1. Cooling Tower Tower ControllersControllers

2. Chemical Feed Pumps2. Chemical Feed Pumps 3. Water Softeners3. Water Softeners 4. Sand Filters4. Sand Filters


Photo shows a Photo shows a typical chemical typical chemical equipment equipment installation.installation.

It consists of:It consists of: tower bleed tower bleed

controllercontroller & solenoid & solenoid valve for bleed offvalve for bleed off

one scale inhibitor one scale inhibitor pumppump

two biocide pumps two biocide pumps for dual biocide feedfor dual biocide feed

QuickTime™ and a decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

Schematic of Chemical Equipment Installation


The main purpose of the The main purpose of the bleed controllerbleed controller is to is to monitor via a electronic monitor via a electronic sensor, the conductivity sensor, the conductivity of the tower water.of the tower water.

Once the Once the conductivity set conductivity set pointpoint has been reached, has been reached, the controller sends a the controller sends a signal to the bleed signal to the bleed solenoid valve to open.solenoid valve to open.

Tower water is bled to Tower water is bled to drain replaced with fresh drain replaced with fresh makeup water.makeup water.


The The tower controllertower controller also also controls the operation of controls the operation of the three chemical pumps.the three chemical pumps.

The The scale inhibitor pumpscale inhibitor pump is programmed to come on is programmed to come on once every 30 minutes for once every 30 minutes for a few minutes to inject the a few minutes to inject the scale inhibitor chemical.scale inhibitor chemical.

Each Each biocide pumpbiocide pump only only comes on once a week for comes on once a week for a preset time to slug feed a preset time to slug feed a dose of biocide to the a dose of biocide to the tower.tower.


All settings on the All settings on the controller are controller are programmed by the programmed by the Chemtex technician.Chemtex technician.

All functions work All functions work automatically without the automatically without the need for the plant’s need for the plant’s personnel to do anything.personnel to do anything.

However, from time to However, from time to time the controller may time the controller may lose some calibration on lose some calibration on the conductivity reading. the conductivity reading. If & when this happens, If & when this happens, the Chemtex technician the Chemtex technician will re-calibrate the will re-calibrate the controller. controller.


Water SoftenerWater Softener.. The purpose of the The purpose of the

softener is to softener is to remove the calcium remove the calcium & magnesium & magnesium hardness from the hardness from the tower makeup tower makeup water.water.


A water softener consists A water softener consists of a of a mineral tankmineral tank that that holds the holds the resinresin and a and a brine tankbrine tank that stores the that stores the saltsalt..

It also has a control valve It also has a control valve and a timer that initiates and a timer that initiates and controls and controls regeneration.regeneration.

Once the resin bed is Once the resin bed is exhausted, the exhausted, the regeneration cycle starts.regeneration cycle starts.

Chemical Equipment OverviewChemical Equipment Overview

When softener tank is When softener tank is online, hard water online, hard water enters the softener enters the softener and passes down and passes down through the resin bed.through the resin bed.

Ion exchange takes Ion exchange takes place with the place with the calcium & magnesium calcium & magnesium ionsions sticking to the sticking to the resin and releasing resin and releasing sodium ionssodium ions in their in their place.place.


Calcium & magnesium are Calcium & magnesium are scale formingscale forming ions.ions.

The sodium ion isThe sodium ion is non scalingnon scaling.. Sodium will Sodium will stay in solution hundreds of times more stay in solution hundreds of times more than calcium.than calcium.

Replacing the calcium and magnesium ions Replacing the calcium and magnesium ions for sodium makes the water for sodium makes the water soft ( non soft ( non scaling).scaling).


The softener ion The softener ion exchange exchange resinresin looks like tiny looks like tiny beads.beads.

Once all the resin Once all the resin beads are beads are saturated with saturated with calcium, the resin calcium, the resin bed must be bed must be recharged with saltrecharged with salt

Salt is Salt is NaClNaCl ((sodiumsodium chloride). chloride).


Recharging the resin bed with salt is Recharging the resin bed with salt is called called regenerationregeneration..

During regeneration the control valve During regeneration the control valve passes the softener through 4 stages.passes the softener through 4 stages.

During regeneration, salt ( During regeneration, salt ( sodiumsodium) is ) is passed across the resin. Ion exchange passed across the resin. Ion exchange takes place again.takes place again.

Now the Now the sodiumsodium sticks to the resin and sticks to the resin and the the calciumcalcium && magnesiummagnesium are released are released and flushed and flushed to the drainto the drain..


The four stages of regeneration The four stages of regeneration are: are:

1.1. BackwashBackwash

2. Brine Draw2. Brine Draw

3. Slow Rinse3. Slow Rinse

4. Fast Rinse4. Fast Rinse


Before regeneration Before regeneration starts the softener is in starts the softener is in the normal the normal service service mode.mode.

The The hard waterhard water enters enters from the top passes from the top passes down through the resin. down through the resin.

Ion exchange takes Ion exchange takes place. place.

Soft waterSoft water exits exits softener and goes out softener and goes out to to serviceservice..


During the During the first stagefirst stage of regeneration the of regeneration the softener enters the softener enters the backwashbackwash mode. mode.

The water enters from The water enters from the bottom passes the bottom passes upup through the resin then through the resin then out to out to draindrain..

Backwash removes the Backwash removes the dirt from the resin.dirt from the resin.


During the During the second second stagestage of regeneration of regeneration the softener enters the the softener enters the brine drawbrine draw mode. mode.

The salt water enters The salt water enters from the brine tank and from the brine tank and passes down through passes down through the resin then out to the resin then out to draindrain..

Brine draw releases the Brine draw releases the calciumcalcium && magnesiummagnesium from the resin and from the resin and flushes it to drain.flushes it to drain.


In the In the third stagethird stage of of regeneration, once regeneration, once the brine tank is the brine tank is empty, the softener empty, the softener goes into the goes into the slow slow rinserinse mode. mode.

During slow rinse the During slow rinse the excess salt water is excess salt water is slowly rinsed or slowly rinsed or purged from the purged from the mineral tank and mineral tank and flushed to the flushed to the draindrain..


In the In the fourth stagefourth stage of of regeneration, the regeneration, the softener goes into the softener goes into the fast rinsefast rinse mode. mode.

During fast rinse water During fast rinse water is rapidly passed across is rapidly passed across the resin to remove any the resin to remove any last salt left in mineral last salt left in mineral tank from the brine tank from the brine draw.draw.

After fast rinse, the After fast rinse, the softener is returned to softener is returned to service or placed in service or placed in standby ( if a twin unit).standby ( if a twin unit).


In a In a twin alternating water softener systems,twin alternating water softener systems, one one tank is in service and one tank is on standby. tank is in service and one tank is on standby. When the unit online goes into regeneration, it When the unit online goes into regeneration, it goes offline and the standby unit goes into goes offline and the standby unit goes into service. service. Thus soft water always goes out to the Thus soft water always goes out to the systemsystem..

In a In a single tank unitsingle tank unit, when the mineral tank goes , when the mineral tank goes into regeneration there are two options:into regeneration there are two options:

Hard Water BypassHard Water Bypass- While the unit is in regeneration, - While the unit is in regeneration, hard waterhard water by-passes the softener and goes out to the by-passes the softener and goes out to the system.system.

NO Hard Water BypassNO Hard Water Bypass- While the softener is in - While the softener is in regeneration, NO water goes out to the system.regeneration, NO water goes out to the system.


Sand FilterSand Filter

While the sand filter is not a piece of While the sand filter is not a piece of chemical treatment equipment, it does chemical treatment equipment, it does help us achieve the goals of the water help us achieve the goals of the water treatment program.treatment program.

Sand filters by eliminating the sludge Sand filters by eliminating the sludge buildup in the tower basin, buildup in the tower basin, prevents prevents foulingfouling. .


When a sand filter is installed on a tower there is When a sand filter is installed on a tower there is little or no buildup of dirt in the tower basin. little or no buildup of dirt in the tower basin. This makes the biocide/ chemical program more This makes the biocide/ chemical program more efficient.efficient.

Less biocide/ chemicals are usedLess biocide/ chemicals are used. When a tower . When a tower is fouled with sludge deposits, this layer of dirt is fouled with sludge deposits, this layer of dirt gives a place for the bacteria to hide and gives a place for the bacteria to hide and prevents the biocide/ chemicals from penetrating prevents the biocide/ chemicals from penetrating down through the dirt and completing killing all down through the dirt and completing killing all the algae and bacteria. The remaining bacteria the algae and bacteria. The remaining bacteria quickly re-infect the tower water system.quickly re-infect the tower water system.

Chemical Chemical EquipmentEquipment OverviewOverview

These are photos of typical sand filters These are photos of typical sand filters installed on cooling towersinstalled on cooling towers


This is a cut away view of the sand filter. This is a cut away view of the sand filter. The sand only fills up 2/3 of the vessel.The sand only fills up 2/3 of the vessel.


When in service mode, the water in a sand When in service mode, the water in a sand filter flows from the filter flows from the top to the bottomtop to the bottom. The . The space between the sand is only 5 microns. The space between the sand is only 5 microns. The dirt gets trapped between the sand particles. dirt gets trapped between the sand particles. As the sand filter becomes dirty it actually As the sand filter becomes dirty it actually filters better and better but the outlet flow filters better and better but the outlet flow starts to diminish.starts to diminish.

When flow is reduced, the filters’ back pressure When flow is reduced, the filters’ back pressure goes up. The pressure sensor on the filter goes up. The pressure sensor on the filter senses this and automatically puts the filter senses this and automatically puts the filter into the backwash mode for 2 to 3 minutes.into the backwash mode for 2 to 3 minutes.


In backwashIn backwash, the flow is reversed from the , the flow is reversed from the bottom to the top of the filterbottom to the top of the filter. The sand bed is . The sand bed is uplifted. Because the dirt trapped between the uplifted. Because the dirt trapped between the sand is lighter than the sand, the dirt is shaken sand is lighter than the sand, the dirt is shaken loose and flows up and away to the drain.loose and flows up and away to the drain.

The water flow up through filter in the The water flow up through filter in the backwash mode is controlled so that the sand backwash mode is controlled so that the sand media is slightly uplifted but not enough to media is slightly uplifted but not enough to wash the sand up and over to the drain.wash the sand up and over to the drain.

After 2 minutes of backwash, the sand filter is After 2 minutes of backwash, the sand filter is then again put back into the service mode.then again put back into the service mode.


The sweeper piping installation in the tower basin The sweeper piping installation in the tower basin improves operating efficiency of the sand filter. improves operating efficiency of the sand filter. Sweeper jets push the dirt to center of the tower Sweeper jets push the dirt to center of the tower towards suction piping of the filter.towards suction piping of the filter.


Sand filters come in different sizes, from small, medium and large

Safety GuidelinesSafety Guidelines

The next section of our presentation The next section of our presentation is called:is called:



What is a What is a MSDSMSDS ? ? MSDS stands for MSDS stands for Material Saftey Data Sheets.Material Saftey Data Sheets. MSDS give the following types of information:MSDS give the following types of information:

Identifies the chemical and lists hazard ingredientsIdentifies the chemical and lists hazard ingredients Lists the health hazards to personnel who handle any Lists the health hazards to personnel who handle any

specific chemical productspecific chemical product List protective equipment personnel should use while List protective equipment personnel should use while

handling the chemicalhandling the chemical Lists the First Aid measures to give in case of accidentLists the First Aid measures to give in case of accident Gives instructions on preventive measures in case of a Gives instructions on preventive measures in case of a

spill or leakspill or leak


In your handouts are copies of In your handouts are copies of MSDSMSDS on on all chemical products Int’l Chemtex all chemical products Int’l Chemtex supplies to this site.supplies to this site.

While Chemtex employees usually handle While Chemtex employees usually handle and place all chemicals online and refill and place all chemicals online and refill drums, if you handle any of these drums, if you handle any of these chemicals or if there ever is a leak or chemicals or if there ever is a leak or spill,please refer to the appropriate MSDS spill,please refer to the appropriate MSDS and follow the instructions.and follow the instructions.


The next series of slides are called the:The next series of slides are called the:

10 Commandments of Handling 10 Commandments of Handling ChemicalsChemicals

We will discuss each slide as we go We will discuss each slide as we go along.along.

Testing ProceduresTesting Procedures


In this section you will learn how to run tests to check for the chemical residuals in the tower and chill water systems.

Testing ProceduresTesting Procedures You will learn how to use You will learn how to use

the the conductivity meterconductivity meter.. The meter is used to The meter is used to

check level of check level of dissolved dissolved solidssolids in the tower & chill in the tower & chill water.water.

Using the meter double Using the meter double checks the operation of checks the operation of bleed controller & bleed controller & insures the controller is insures the controller is calibrated and working calibrated and working correctly.correctly.

Testing ProceduresTesting Procedures You will learn how to You will learn how to

use the use the pH meterpH meter.. The pH meter is used to The pH meter is used to

check pH level of the check pH level of the tower & chill water.tower & chill water.

At this site you may also At this site you may also need to check the pH of need to check the pH of the tower effluent.the tower effluent.

The pH meter can The pH meter can verify if tower pH verify if tower pH controller is properly controller is properly calibrated.calibrated.

Testing ProcedureTesting Procedure

The next three tests are done using The next three tests are done using reagents. These tests are:reagents. These tests are: Hardness TestHardness Test

Checks for level of hardness in softener Checks for level of hardness in softener effluent and in the tower and chill watereffluent and in the tower and chill water

Organo TestOrgano Test Checks for the residual of the scale Checks for the residual of the scale

inhibitor chemical present in the cooling inhibitor chemical present in the cooling tower watertower water

Nitrite TestNitrite Test Checks for the residual of the corrosion Checks for the residual of the corrosion

inhibitor chemical present in the chill water inhibitor chemical present in the chill water


Please refer to Please refer to your handouts for your handouts for the instructions for the instructions for each test.each test.


This ends our water This ends our water treatment seminar.treatment seminar.

Congratulations !Congratulations ! You are now You are now graduates of a Water graduates of a Water Treatment Seminar.Treatment Seminar.

Now put you new Now put you new knowledge to work.knowledge to work.

Thank you for your Thank you for your attention !attention !


The EndThe End

Presented by International Chemtex PR Presented by International Chemtex PR IncInc

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