semester i - usbotp1 practical i plant … · 3 economic importance 6-7 4 range of thallus in...
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Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College, Ghatkopar(W), Mumbai -86
FYBSc. Botany
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SEMESTER I - USBOTP1
PRACTICAL –I PLANT DIVERSITY I
(Algae, Fungi and Bryophyta)
Topics Sr.No Experiments Pg.No. Date Remarks
A: Algae 1 Nostoc 3
2 Spirogyra 4-5
3 Economic Importance 6-7
4 Range of thallus in Chlorophyta 8
5 Types of Chloroplasts 9
B: Fungi 6 Rhizopus 10
7 Aspergillus 11
8 Economic Importance 12
C: Bryophyta 9 Riccia 13
SEMESTER I - USBOTP1
PRACTICAL –II FORM AND FUNCTIONS
(Physiology and Cyto-genetics)
Topics Sr.No. Experiments Pg.No. Date Remarks
A.
Cytogenetics
10 Mitosis 14
11 Karyotype 15
a) Normal male 16
b) Normal female 16
c) Allium cepa 17
B. Cell
biology
12 Cell Inclusions
Starch grains; Aleurone layer 18
Cystolith , Raphides ;
Sphaeraphides
19
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Topics Sr.No. Experiments Pg.No. Date Remarks
13 Cell organelles
Plastids: Chloroplast and
Amyloplast
20
Endoplasmic reticulum 20
Nucleus 20
C. Ecology 14 Hydrophytes
Floating: Free Floating ;
Rooted floating);
Submerged
21
15 Hygrophytes 22
16 Mesophytes 22
17 Xerophytes (Succulent, Woody) 23
18 Halophytes 24
D. Biometry 19 Mean , Median and Mode 25-26
Frequency distribution
20 Graphical representation of data 27
Frequency polygon, histogram
and Pie chart
21 Standard deviation 28
Skeleton paper for semester I
29
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PRACTICAL-I
A) Algae
1. Nostoc
Division – Cyanophyta
Class – Cyanophyceae
Order – Oscillatoriales
Family – Nostocaceae
Genus – Nostoc
Occurrence – It is a common fresh water or terrestrial alga. Aquatic species are
found in ponds, pools or ditches. The terrestrial species grow on moist or wet soils
like rice fields.
Structure of thallus –
1) Nostoc filaments are unbranched and are found in colonies enveloped by
mucilaginous sheath.
2) The colonies may be small or large. A colony consists of a thick gelatinous
matrix in which are embedded a large number of contorted, beaded filaments
known as trichomes. A mature colony is hollow inside.
3) The colonies are referred to as Nostoc balls.
Trichome –
1) A single filament or trichome is uniseriate, moniliform (beaded) & contorted.
2) Each cell of the trichome is rounded or bead shaped and surrounded by a thin
layer of mucilage.
3) One or more heterocysts are present in the trichome. A heterocyst is larger
than the remaining cells and is thick walled. They are intercalary in position.
Heterocysts are connected to the adjacent cells by cytoplasmic connections
which later on get thickened to form polar nodules. The heterocysts help in
fragmentation and are centres of nitrogen fixation as they contain enzymes for
nitrogen fixation.
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2. Spirogyra
Division – Chlorophyta
Class – Chlorophyceae
Order – Zygnematales
Family - Zygnemataceae
Genus –Spirogyra
Occurrence – It is a fresh water alga found almost all over the world. It is one of the
most common green alga occurring chiefly in ponds, pools ditches and similar
places. It prefers still rather than running waters and is one of the free floating algae
known as pond scum. The filaments form floating masses buoyed up by bubbles of
oxygen.
Structure of thallus –
1) The plant body is filamentous. The filaments are unbranched, uniseriate, made
up of rectangular cells placed end to end. All cells in the filaments are
identical.
2) The filaments are covered with a mucilaginous sheath of pectose. There is no
distinction of base and apex.
Cell structure –
1) The cell is cylindrical in shape.
2) The cytoplasm is peripheral. Within the stratified cell wall of the cylindrical
cells, there is a lining of cytoplasm.
3) There is a large central vacuole which is traversed by cytoplasmic strands.
4) There may be one or more spirally arranged ribbon shaped chloroplasts with
unsmooth edges. Each chloroplast is studded with several pyrenoids.
5) In every cell there is one nucleus which is suspended in the center by
cytoplasmic strands or is embedded in the peripheral cytoplasm. The nucleus
contains a large nucleolus.
Sexual reproduction- is accomplished by conjugation – an aplanogametic isogamy.
Conjugation may be scalariform or lateral.
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Scalariform conjugation –
1) It involves two cells of two different filaments. The cells lying opposite each
other develop protuberances which grow and unite to form a conjugation tube.
2) When all the cells of two adjacent filaments form conjugation tubes, they give
the appearance of a ladder, hence called scalariform conjugation.
3) The protoplast of each cell contract and moves away from the cell wall to
form an aplanogamete.
4) In some species, both the gametes are active and unite in the conjugation tube,
forming a zygote.
5) In some species, one of the gametes is more active and moves through the
conjugation tube and unites with the inactive gamete. In such a case the
zygote is formed in one of the parent cells. The active gamete is usually
considered as male while the less active one as female.
Lateral conjugation –
1) In lateral conjugation, two adjacent cells of the same filament take part in
conjugation.
2) A conjugation tube is developed between adjacent cells.
3) The protoplast of the cells contract to form two gametes known as
aplanogametes.
4) One of the gametes moves through the conjugation tube into the other cell &
unites to form a zygote. The zygote is sometimes formed in the conjugation
tube.
5) As the conjugation tube is formed in the lateral wall, it is known as lateral
conjugation.
Zygospore – The zygote, which is formed after the union of two gametes, has a
diploid nucleus & oil rich cytoplasm. The zygote is enclosed by a thick wall which is
three layered & is known as the zygospore. It is highly resistant to cold and drought.
It is released by the decaying of the conjugation tube and sinks to the bottom of the
water body. It undergoes a period of rest.
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3. Economic importance of algae
Biofuel – Ulva
1) It is a green, marine algae & found in cool water.
2) It grows attached to loose shells, pebbles, rocks, stones etc. and abundant in
estuaries and coastal areas affected by sewage pollution.
3) It is commonly known as ‘Sea lettuce’ or ‘Green laver’.
4) It has a thin, leaf- like thallus, resembling a salad leaf.
5) Algal biofuel is an alternative to fossil fuel that uses algae as its source of
natural deposits.Algae require nutrients, sunlight & water to grow. Algae
thrive on saline, brackish & waste water. For monoculture, waste water,
human & animal waste, plant waste, along with CO2 emissions from
industry, are transported to arid area Algaculture farms. After oil is extracted
from the algae , the algae residue is then used as an animal feedstock or as a
soil fertilizer.
6) It is one of the macro alga cultured for ‘algal biofuel’ which is highly
favourable to other biofuels. Algal biofuel has the potential to be a
sustainable, environment friendly alternative to diesel.
7) The lipid or oily part of the algal biomass are extracted and converted into
biodiesel.
Neutraceutical – Spirulina
1) Spirullina is fresh water, free floating blue green algae.
2) Its trichomes are multicellular, cylindrical without sheath and loosely or
tightly coiled into more or less regular coils. Cross walls are not distinct.
The terminal cells are rounded. It is mass cultured in Mexico, Taiwan &
India.
3) It is consumed as a dietary supplement (nutraceutical) as well as a whole
food.
4) It is rich in protein content (up to 65%) with all essential amino acids &
unsaturated fatty acids. It is rich in vitamin – K.
5) It is good meat substitute for vegetarian population.
6) It is a low fat, low calorie, cholesterol free source of protein. It does not
contain vitamin – C. It helps combat problems like diabetes, anaemia &
atmospheric pollution. It also has anti-oxidant properties.
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7) The gamma linoleic acid (GLA) present in Spirulina dissolves fat deposits
& reduces cholesterol.
8) In India, it is available as tablet prepared by CFTRI (Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysore).
Food – agar – Gelidium
1) Gelidium is a marine red algae.It is widely distributed small seaweed growing
attached to rocks. It forms an entangled mat of branched anastomosing
polymorphic axes which are sometimes leathery.
2) It is one of the good sources of Agar. Agar is a polysaccharide found in the
cell wall of the algae. It is a galactans and made up of galactose units.
3) Agar is used as bacteriological medium and for cell culturing and
microorganisms in the laboratories.
4) It is also used in food industry for making jellies and pharmaceutical
industries as stabilizing and protective agents.
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4. Range of Thallus
Range of thallus – Green algae show an extraordinary range of forms and shapes of the
plant body. The simplest ones are unicellular while the most complex ones resemble higher
plants. Some of the thallus forms are-
1) Unicellular and motile – It is the simplest form wherein the cell is oval or pear
shaped and is flagellated. Eg- Chlamydomonas
2) Unicellular and motile but colonial – The individual cells form a well organized unit
to form a hollow colony called Coenobium. Eg- Volvox
3) Unicellular non-motile coccoid - The cells are unicellular or colonial and are non-
motile. Eg- Chlorella, Scenedesmus
4) Filamentous unbranched – The cells are arranged in a filament placed end to end
and unbranched. Eg- Ulothrix
5) Filamentous branched – The cells are arranged in a filament placed end to end and
show lateral branches. eg- Cladophora
6) Parenchymatous thalloid – The cells form a parenchymatous thallus as a result of
cell division in more than one plane. Eg- Ulva
7) Heterotrichous forms- This is the most advanced type among Chlorophyta. Plant
thallus is differentiated into a prostrate system and an erect system. Eg- Chaetophora
8) Siphonaceous forms - A number of green algae are considerably enlarged without
any septation. Thallus is multinucleate and coenocytic and hollow in centre.
Eg- Caulerpa
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5. Types of chloroplasts
The most prominent feature of the cell is the chloroplast. Green algae show a variety of
shapes of chloroplasts. Moreover, the number of chloroplasts is also variable. Some of the
shapes of chloroplasts seen in green algae are-
Cup shaped – Chlamydomonas
Stellate – Zygnema
Ribbon shaped spiral – Spirogyra
Discoid – Cladophora
Reticulate – Oedogonium
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(B) FUNGI
Date: ------------
6) RHIZOPUS
Systematic position:
Division : Eunycophyta
Class : Phycomycetae
Sub – class : Alfagellatae
Order : Mucorales
Family : Mucoraceae
Genus : Rhizopus
Vegetative structure:
1) The fungus consists of white, cottony mycelia.
2) Mycelium is aseptae, coenocytic and branched.
3) In older mycelia the hyphae can be distinguished into 3 types –
a) Small branched hyphae penetrating the substratum are known as rhizoids
b) Horizontal branched hyphae are known as stolons and
c) Upright unbranched hyphe bearing sporangia are known as sporangiophores.
Asexual reproduction:
1) It takes place by formation of spores which are formed in sporangia.
2) The sporangia are club shaped on the tip of the sporangiophore.
3) Each sporangium is differentiated into inner columella and outer sporangial
region.
4) A large number of multinucleate thick walled black sporangiospores are
formed in this region.
5) Sporangiospore germinates to form new mycelium of Rhizopus.
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7) ASPERGILLUS
Systematic position:
Division : Eumycophyta
Class : Ascomycetes
Sub - class: Euascomycetae
Series : Plectomycetes
Order : Aspergillales
Family : Aspergillaceae
Genus : Aspergillus
General Characters:
1) Aspergillus forms yellowish patches along with Mucor and Penicillium.
2) The vegetative structure consists of well-developed, profusely branched,
septate and hyaline mycelia. The segments of mycelium are multinucleate.
3) Some hyphae penetrate the substratum and act as rhizoids, i.e. they absorb the
food material.
Asexual Reproduction:
1) Conidia are the asexual reproductive bodies formed on special branches called
conidiophores.
2) Each conidiophore arises from the foot cell of the mycelium.
3) The condiophore is elongated, unbranched, aseptate and terminates into a
bulbous structure called vesicle.
4) A number of bottle-shaped structures called sterigmata develop all over the
surface of the vesicle. Sterigmata is one-layered except in few species where it
is two-layered.
5) From each sterigma develops a chain of conidia which are basipetally
arranged.
6) Each conidium is spherical with spiny wall and a single nucleus.
7) When fully mature, they are carried away by wind and reaching a suitable
substratum germinate to form a new mycelia.
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8) Economic importance of fungi
Yeast Yeast is an important genus used in bakery industry.
It plays an important part in bread making as it causes fluffing of dough thereby
palatability and aroma of bread is increased.
Yeast is also used as food as it is rich in vitamins like Thiamin and Riboflavin etc.
In microbiological technique yeast are used in some media preparation as a source of
vitamins for microbes like bacteria and fungi.
Some species of Yeast cause skin infection in human and animals.
Mushrooms
Edible mushrooms like Agaricus campestris (Button mushroom), Pleurotus
(Oyster mushroom),Volvariella species and Boletus species are used in various
delicacies.
They are a rich source of vitamins and minerals and used in many food items like
Pizza and curries.
The edible species are cultivated commercially and supplied to market and hotels.
Deadly poisonous mushrooms are commonly known as” toad stools” like Amanita
are mistaken as edible mushrooms and have taken toll of life.
Wood rotting fungi – Bracket fungi
Bracket fungi are characterized by production of bracket or shelf shaped fruiting
body i.e. basidoicarp called as Conk.
Polyporus , Ganoderma and Oxysporus are the common examples of bracket fungi
responsible for white rot or brown rots of living or dead wood.
They are either parasitic or saprophytic and grow mostly on living or dead trees, logs
and stumps causing discoloration and disfiguring of texture thereby affecting the
quality of wood.
Some species of Ganoderma can form large thick basidiocarps causing death of tree.
Some other species of Ganoderma are cultivated commercially for human
consumption or medical use.
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C) BRYOPHYTA
9) Riccia
Classification
Division : Bryophyta
Class: Hepaticeae
Order: Marchantiales
Family: Ricciaceae
Genus: Riccia
Gametophyte: the gametophyte is prostrate, ribbon like and dichotomously
branched. The thallus is dorsiventrally flattened with a dorsal groove and a ventral
ridge. Repeated dichotomy forms rosette of Riccia.
Ventral view: there are two types of rhizoids in the median region. There are two
marginal rows of scales, which are violet in colour.
Rhizoids are of two types, smooth walled and tuberculated. In tuberculated rhizoids
inner wall layer develops peg (rod) like ingrowths in the lumen. Scales are one celled
in thickness.
T.S. of thallus: Thallus is differentiated into dorsal photosynthetic and ventral
storage region. Cells of photosynthetic filaments contain chloroplasts. Distal cells of
each filament is enlarged and together forms pseudo epidermis. Ventral storage
tissue consists of thin walled colourless cells containing starch grains. Some cells of
the ventral epidermis form unicellular rhizoids. Marginal scales can be observed.
T.S. of thallus passing through antheridium: Antheridium is embedded in the
antheridial chamber. It consists of multicellular stalk and oval body with single
layered sterile jacket and androgonial cells.
T.S. of thallus passing through archegonium: Archegonium is embedded in the
archegonial chamber. It bears a small stalk. Venter is one layered. Neck contains 4
neck canal cells while venter contains venter canal cell and an egg.
T.S. of thallus passing through sporophyte: The sporophyte is simple made up of
only capsule. Foot and seta are absent. The mature sporophyte shows tetrads of
spores. Outer layer of the spores shows honeycomb like markings.
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PRACTICAL II
Date: ------------
A) CYTOGENETICS
10) STUDY OF MITOSIS IN ONION ROOT TIPS
Aim : To study mitosis in the given planrt material.
Requirement : Root tips, 10 % HCl, Acetocarmine stain, slides, coverslips.
Procedure : Take a root tip and wash in water. Transfer the root tips in a watch –
glass. Treat the root tips with 1 % HCl to hydrolyse the cell wall and to separate the
cells from each other. After 10 minutes drain off HCl and wash the root tips with
water repeatedly for 4 – 5 times. Transfer the root tips on slide and add 2 – 3 drops of
acetocarmine stain. After 5 min. place a coverslip on the root tip and press it gently
so that the cells spread evenly. Blot the excess stain and observe under low power
and then under high power to see the different stages of mitosis.
Principle : Mitosis is an equational division in which each cell divides to form two
genetically identical cells. Mitosis mainly occurs during growth. Mitosis produces
daughter cells with same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Various stages
of chromosomal separation can be observed.
i) Prophase: Spirally coiled thread – like chromosomes appear and nuclear
membrane dissolves.
ii) Metaphase: Chromosomes are arranged on the equatorial plane. Each
chromosome consists of two chromatids.
iii) Anaphase: Chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles.
iv) Telophase: Chromosomes reach at the poles. Two daughter nuclei are
formed by construction of nuclear membrane. Telophase is immediately
followed by the process of cytokinesis in which cytoplasmic division takes
place resulting in formation of two daughter cells.
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11) Karyotype analysis
Aim: To study normal human karyotype.
Theory: Karyotype is the entire chromosome complement of the cell. In human there
are 23 pairs of chromosomes of which 22 chromosomes are autosomes and one pair
is of sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are X and Y. In human beings
autosomal chromosomes are present in two identical copies i.e. diploid (2n). Haploid
(n) cells have a single copy. The chromosomes are arranged and displayed in its
standard format known as idiogram. The arrangement is according to the size of the
chromosomes and position of the centromere. The 22 autosomes are divided into 7
groups as follows,
Group Length Position of centromere
A – Chromosome 1 to 3 Large Metacentric
B - Chromosome 4,5 Large Sub-metacentric
C–Chromosome 6 to 12 Medium Sub-metacentric
D –Chromosome 13 to 15 Medium Acrocentric
E – Chromosome 16 to18 Short Sub-metacentric
F – Chromosome 19, 20 Short Metacentric
G – Chromosome 21,22 Very small Acrocentric
H – Sex Chromosome 23 X-Medium
Y - Small
Submetacentric
Acrocentric
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Procedure:
1. Cut out the individual chromosome from the given karyotype.
2. Sort them out according to their size and position of centromere.
3. Then place the longest three metacentric chromosomes and label it is as group
“A”
4. Arrange the remaining chromosomes as per the respective groups.
a) Normal Male:
Human male shows 46 chromosomes out of which 22 pairs are autosomes while the
sex chromosome are dissimilar – one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.
b) Normal Female:
Human female shows 46 chromosomes out of which 22 pairs are autosomes while
the sex chromosome are similar – two X chromosomes.
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Date: ------------ Aim: To study onion karyotype.
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B) Cell Biology
12) Cell inclusions
These are non-living inclusions of the cell produced during the metabolic
activities of the cell. These non-protoplasmic substances in the cell constitute the
ergastic matters. They may remain in solution in the cell sap of the vacuoles or
dispersed in colloidal condition or as insoluble granules and crystals.
The ergastic matters are put into three groups, viz., 1) reserve materials,
2) secretory materials and 3) excretory material.
Reserve materials - These are food matter synthesized by the living cell and stored in
different parts of the plant. They can be carbohydrates, proteins and fats or oils.
Starch grains- are microscopic and each starch grain has a shiny refractive point
known as the hilum which is the starting point. Starch is deposited around the hilum
in layers which are called lines of stratification. The starch grains of different plants
show variations in the shape of the grain and the position of the hilum.
Potato – The hilum is located at one end and the deposition of layers is unequal.
Potato starch grains hence appear eccentric a grain with one hilum is simple.
Sometimes more than one grain may become adpressed with a few common lines of
stratification, such grains are compound.
Rice - The hilum is in the centre and the lines of stratification are formed around it
making the grain concentric. The grains in rice are angular or polyhedral.
Proteins – They are nitrogenous compounds of complex nature. The nitrogenous
compounds occur as soluble amino acids and insoluble proteid grains. In storage
regions they occur as aleurone grains. In cereals, a layer of cells just beneath the seed
coat (pericarp + testa) is filled with aleurone grains. This layer is referred to as the
aleurone layer. Eg- Maize.
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Excretory materials – These ergastic matters are by-products of metabolic
activities. Many of these materials are waste products and as plants do not have an
excretory system, they accumulate in the leaves, bark and seeds or fruits all of which
ultimately fall down. Excretory matters may be alkaloids, glucosides, tannins, latex,
resins, gums, mineral crystals etc.
Mineral crystals – Inorganic materials in the form of crystals occur as waste
products in many plants. They are mainly salts of calcium – as calcium oxalates and
carbonates.
Cystoliths – eg – Ficus
Crystals of calcium carbonate are found as aggregates in the form of a bunch of
grapes. A few cells of the innermost layer of the multiseriate epidermis enlarge and
the calcium carbonate aggregates on peg like projections of the cellulose wall form
cystoliths.
Raphides – eg – Pistia
Raphides are crystals of calcium oxalate. In Pistia these crystals are needle like or
acicular in the form of bundles and are located in special mucilage containing called
idioblasts.
Sphaeraphides – eg – Opuntia
These are calcium oxalate crystals which remain conglomerated together forming
roundish crystals called sphaeraphides or druses.
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13) Cell organelles
Plastids – are distinct organelles in plant cells and are embedded in the cytoplasm. They are
surrounded by membrane/s with colourless stroma inside. Plastids may be colourless –
leucoplasts or coloured – chromoplast.
Chloroplast – In higher plants, chloroplasts are predominantly present in the mesophyll
cells. They are generally lens shaped, about 2-4µm wide and 5-10µm long. There are about
20-40 chloroplasts per cell. Each chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes with inter-
membrane space. The inner part of the chloroplast is the stroma which is hyaline jelly like
semi-solid. The stroma is traversed by an internal membrane system called thylakoids. The
stacked thylakoids form the grana. The thylakoid membranes contain the photosynthetic
pigments. Light reactions take place in the thylakoid and dark reactions in the stroma.
Amyloplast – are colourless plastids that store starch. They do not contain any pigment.
They are large and irregular or spherical in shape. They are responsible for conversion of
simple sugars to insoluble starch grains for storage.
Endoplasmic reticulum – is a part of the endomembrane system of the cytoplasm. They
usually occur in three forms – cisternae, vesicles and tubules. The cisternae are elongated,
flattened and arranged in parallel lines, the vesicles are circular and the tubules are branched
and ramifying. Some endoplasmic reticulum appears rough on the outer surface due to the
presence of ribosomes (RER) while some ER is smooth (SER). The ER is continuous with
the nuclear envelope. The main functions of the ER are synthesizing, sorting and
transporting proteins as well as lipophilic secondary plant metabolites.
Nucleus – is a characteristic feature of eukaryotic cell. The interphase nucleus is
surrounded by a nuclear envelope which forms a boundary between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. Included within the nucleus are 1) the chromosomes, which are present as highly
extended nucleoprotein fibers termed chromatin. 2) one or more nucleoli which are
irregularly shaped electron dense structures that fuction in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA.
3) the nucleoplasm, the fluid substance, in which the solutes of the nucleus are dissolved,and
4) the nuclear matrix, which is a protein containing fibrillar network.
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C) Ecology
14) Hydrophytes –
These plants grow in water and fresh water swamps. These plants may be completely
submerged in water – Hydrilla, Vallisnaria, Ceratophyllum etc.; free floating –
Pistia, Eichhornia, Lemna, Trapa, etc.; and rooted and floating – Nymphaea,
Sagittaria, etc.
A) Submerged hydrophytes – eg:- Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum, Vallisnaria.
1) These type of hydrophytes may be rooted (Vallisnaria) or free submerged
(Hydrilla). In rooted plants, roots are developed only for anchoring while in free
submerged plants roots are absent or very poorly developed as there is no anchoring
or water absorption. 2) Leaves are usually finely dissected or narrow ribbon shaped
and offer less resistance to water currents. 3) The stem is thin, wiry and green and
has tensile strength so that it can bend and not break. 4) The entire plant is covered
by mucilage to prevent decay.
B) Free floating hydrophytes – eg:- Eichhornia, Pistia, Trapa. 1) They have well
developed adventitious roots not for anchorage but for balancing the rosette of
leaves. Root caps are in the form of root pockets. Root hairs are absent. 2) Stem is
usually modified to an offset which is thick, fleshy and spongy. It also helps in
vegetative propagation. 3) Leaves are well developed but often show adaptations of
the aquatic environment. They have a waxy coating (Eichhornia) or many hairs
(Pistia) to prevent the wetting of leaf surface. They may be spongy or the petioles
may be swollen due to aerenchyma (Eichhornia), which give the plants buoyancy
and help them to float.
C) Rooted and floating hydrophytes – eg:- Nymphaea, Sagittaria. These plants are
rooted in the soil at the base of the pond but the leaves and flowers are floating on the
surface of water. 1) The roots are adventitious, arising from the underground rhizome
and are well developed the roots along with the rhizome anchor the plant in the water
logged soil. 2) The stem is modified to form an underground rhizome but it is spongy
as the soil is water logged.
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3) The petiole is very long and adapt to the depth of water. The lamina is thus always
above the surface of water. 4) The lamina is usually broad at the interface of water
and air. The upper surface is waxy to prevent wetting of the leaf surface. The lower
surface is covered by hairs and mucilage. The lamina is leathery in texture.
15) Hygrophytes - They are also known as amphibious plants as they grow in
shallow water. The underground parts are in water logged soil while the aerial parts
are well above the surface of water. Eg:- Typha, Scirpus.
1) Roots are well developed as they are in water logged soil which may later dry
up. They perform the function of anchorage and absorption of water and
minerals.
2) The stem is usually modified to a rhizome. The rhizome may be spongy in
nature when the soil is water logged.
3) The leaves in Typha are long, linear with a thick and tough exterior and spongy
interior. The tough exterior gives mechanical support to the long leaves while
the spongy interior is due to large air cavities. The air cavities in the lower part
of the leaf that is submerged in water may show diaphragm.
16) Mesophytes
They are ordinary land plants growing in situations which are neither too wet nor too
dry. There are usually no structural adaptations that are commonly seen in
hydrophytes or xerophytes. They can survive short dry spells.
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17) Xerophytes
They are plants growing in water scarce conditions. In order to endure the dry
conditions, xerophytes show adaptation to procure as much water as they can from
the dry soils and prevent excessive water loss from the aerial parts by way of
transpiration. On the basis of structural adaptations, xerophytes can be of two types –
succulents and non-succulents or woody xerophytes.
Succulent xerophytes – They are found in semi-arid regions. The plants are thick
and succulent or fleshy due to storage of water. Eg:- cacti (Opuntia), Aloe.
1) In cacti like Opuntia, the roots penetrate deep in the soil and have root hairs to
absorb water from the soil.
2) The stem is modified to a phylloclade which becomes thick and fleshy due to
storage of water. It also contains mucilage which has high water holding capacity.
Being green, it performs the function of photosynthesis. The phylloclade is covered
by a waxy layer to minimize water loss due to surface transpiration.
3) Leaves are reduced to spines, to reduce the rate of transpiration. Thus water loss is
minimized.
In plants like Aloe, the root system is very well developed for absorption of water.
The stem is stunted but the leaves long, thick and succulent. They are fleshy due to a
water storage tissue with mucilage for increasing the water holding capacity. The
leaves are often covered by a waxy cuticle to reduce transpiration.
Non-succulent xerophytes or Woody xerophytes – they are true xerophytes which
are found in dry soil atmospheric conditions. In extreme conditions of drought, the
plants become stunted. Eg:- Nerium
1) Woody xerophytes have a well developed and deep tap roots.
2) Leaves are the organs which show a very high degree of modification aimed at
reduction of transpiration.
3) In Nerium, the leaves are narrow and linear with a very thick cuticle to reduce
surface transpiration.
4) It shows many anatomical modifications like multiple epidermis for water storage
and restriction of stomata to stomatal pits only on the lower epidermis with a further
protection of hair to reduce the rate of transpiration.
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18) Halophytes
Plants growing in saline soils are known as halophytes. Mangroves are halophytes
growing in salt marshes along the coasts at estuaries. The characteristic adaptive
features of mangroves are:-
1) Formation of respiratory roots known as pneumatophores for efficient aeration as
the soil is water logged. The pneumatophores have small openings on the surface,
called lenticels for exchange of gases.
2) Formation of stilt like prop roots arising from the lower part of the main trunk of
the trees for efficient anchorage in the loose sandy soil.
3) Viviparous method of seed germination in which seeds germinate on the parent
plant before dropping as a seedling in the loose soil.
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Table - 1
Obs. No.
(N)
Length of
leaves (cm)
Length of leaves in ascending order (cm)
(Xi)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Observations:
1) Mean –
2) Median –
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Date: ------------
C) BIOMETRY
19) Determination of mean (arithmetic), median and mode.
Aim : To determine (1) mean (arithmetic), median, mode by using suitable plant
material.
Requirements : Nerium leaves (20 nos.) / Polyalthia branch (20 leaves), thread,
scale, calculator.
Procedure :
Measure the length of individual leaf lamina along the midrib from the base to the tip
and note the observation in the tabular form. Later arrange the data in ascending
order. By using this data calculate mean, median and mode.
Mean : It is defined as the average value of a given sample. It is denoted as X (with
proper unit)
Sum of all values ∑ Xi ∑ f x
Mean ( X ) = _______________________________
= -------- = --------
Total No. of observations N ∑ f
Median : It is defined as the central value or the middle observation. It is the value
of Xi obtained when the data is arranged in ascending of descending order.
For odd data (n+1)
Central Observation M = ---------- th observation
2
(n/2) + ( n/2 +1)
For even data, M = 2 th value
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Table - 2
The class interval with highest frequency is _________.
Mode: The mode is ___________ cm and is Unimodal/ Bimodal/ Multimodal
Class (cm) Class value
(X) (cm)
Tally Frequency (f) ∑fx (cm)
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Frequency distribution table: Steps
1) Arrange the data in ascending order.
2) Distribute the data in few classes. Number of classes should be made
conveniently by considering the range of data i.e. difference between the
largest value and smallest value.
3) Keep class interval same for each class and make classes with continuous
data.
4) For sample of 20 units make 3 or 4 classes.
5) Calculate the mid value i.e. class value of each class.
(Upper class limit – Lower class limit) /2 = Xi
6) By using tally marks count the number of observations falling in each class.
This is the frequency for each class.
7) Find the class with maximum frequency and class value of this class is taken
as mode value.
Mode : The observation or the class value that occurs with maximum frequency is
called mode. The data may be unimodal, bimodal or multimodal.
Result: Mean = ___________________ cm.
Median = ___________________ cm.
Mode = ___________________ cm.
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Date :
20) Determination of frequency distribution
Frequency distribution: The above data is divided into a number of class interval.
The central value of the class is called class value (x). The frequencies for the data is
determined. Frequency distribution can be shown graphically by histogram or
frequency polygon.
A bar graph plotted by taking class interval on x – axis and frequency on y – axis is
known as histogram.
If class value on each bar is joined, it is called as frequency polygon.
Construction of pie chart:
1. Refer to the frequency distribution table for the required data. (Refer Table 2)
2. Note the frequency of each class.
3. Take the sum of frequencies (N) as 360o.
4. Calculate the number of degrees for each class frequency by the following
formula
Class frequency/ N x 360 = ___________
5. Draw a circle and divide it into segments of class frequency according to the
measure of the angle.
6. Label each segment with its characteristic features or colour the sections.
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Observation Table
Class Class
Value Xi
f (Xi – X) = d d2 f d
2
∑ f d2
σ = -------
N
where N = total No. of observations
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21) STANDARD DEVIATION
Standard deviation is a statistical measure of the variability of the sample around the
mean value. It is root mean of total square deviation.
Use the frequency distribution table as data and calculate the SD.
Steps:
(1) Arrange the raw data in ascending order.
(2) Find out the Mean value X. (X bar)
(3) Calculate (X – Xi) = d (deviation from Mean) for each class value.
(4) Calculate the product f*d2
for each class.
(5) Take summation of fd2 ie ∑ f d
2
(6) Use the formula for sd (σ )
∑ f d2
σ (SD) = -------
N
where N = total No. of observations
(7) Estimate the standard deviation value and mention along with
mean value.
X ± sd (with proper unit )
(8) Smaller SD value indicate the uniformity in data while larger SD value
represent greater variability in the data.
Result :
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Skeleton Paper for External Practical Examination in Botany
FYBSc
Semester I Paper I (Skeleton Paper)
Total Marks: 50 Time: 2 hrs15 min
Q.1 Identify, classify and describe specimen A, B and C. Draw labeled sketches
to support your observations. (24)
Q.2 Identify and describe specimen/slide D, E, F and G (20)
Q.3 Journal (06)
A: Nostoc/ Spirogyra – Vegetative/Reproductive
B: Rhizopus/Aspergillus - Vegetative/Asexual
C: Riccia – Vegetative/ Reproductive
D: Range of thallus/ type of chloroplast from Chlorophyta
E: Economic importance of algae
F: Economic importance of fungi
G: Riccia – other than question 1
FYBSc
Semester I Paper II (Skeleton Paper)
Total Marks: 50 Time: 2 hrs15 min
Q.1 Prepare a squash of the given root tip ‘A’ to show various stages of
Mitosis. Draw neat labeled diagrams. (15)
Q.2 Make a preparation so as to show ------------- and -------------- in the given
plant material B and C. Draw neat and labeled sketches. (10)
Q.3 Performa the Biometry experiment D allotted to you. Record your
observations and results. (10)
Q.4 Identify and describe specimen/slide/photomicrograph E, F and G (09)
Q.5 Journal (06)
A: Onion root tip
B: Potato/Rice/Maize
C : Ficus/Pistia/Opuntia
D: Any experiment in Biometry
E: Photomicrograph of cell organelle
F: Hydrophyte/Xerophyte/Mesophyte/Halophyte/Hygrophyte
G: Karyotype